Electrical Appliances Course Overview

(SKILL DEVELOPMENT COURSE)
P.V.S.SOBHAN BABU
Electrical Appliances 2021
Note:
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in accidentally. If found any, they may be informed through email (pvsssobhanbabulms@gmail.com) or
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P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 1

ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
(UNDER CBCS FRAMEWORK FROM 2020-21)
B.Sc.
Semester - 1
Study Material
P.V.S.Sobhan Babu,
M.Sc., B.Ed.,
Lecturer in Physics,
Govt. Degree College,
Rajampeta,
YSR Kadapa district,
Andhra Pradesh.

Revised CBCS w.e.f. 2020-21

SKILL DEVELOPMENT COURSES
SCIENCE STREAM
SYLLABUS
Degree First Year
UNIT-I (6 hrs)
Voltage, Current, Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, Electrical conductors and Insulators,

Ohm's law, Series and parallel combinations of resistors, Galvanometer, Ammeter,
Voltmeter, Multimeter, Transformers, Electrical energy, Power, Kilowatt hour (kWh),
consumption of electrical power
UNIT-II (10 hrs)
Direct current and alternating current,RMS and peak values, Power factor, Single phase and
three phase connections , Basics of House wiring , Star and delta connection , Electric shock,
First aid for electric shock, Overloading , Earthing and its necessity, Short circuiting , Fuses ,
MCB , ELCB, Insulation, Inverter, UPS
UNIT-III (10 hrs)
Principles of working, parts and servicing of Electric fan, Electric Iron box, Water heater;
Induction heater, Microwave oven; Refrigerator, Concept of illumination, Electric bulbs,
CFL, LED lights, Energy efficiency in electrical appliances, IS codes & IE codes.
Co-curricular Activities (Hands on Exercises): (04 hrs)

[Any four of the following may be taken up]
1. Studying the electrical performance and power consumption of a given number of

bulbs connected in series and parallel circuits.
2. Measuring parameters in combinational DC circuits by applying Ohm‘s Law for
different resistor values and voltage sources 3. Awareness of electrical safety tools and rescue of
person in contact with live wire.
4. Checking the specific gravity of lead acid batteries in home UPS and topping-up with
distilled water.
5. Identifying Phase, Neutral and Earth on power sockets.
6. Identifying primary and secondary windings and measuring primary and secondary
voltages in various types of transformers.
7. Observing the working of transformer under no-load and full load conditions.
8. Observing the response of inductor and capacitor with DC and AC sources.
9. Observing the connections of elements and identify current flow and voltage drops.
10. Studying electrical circuit protection using MCBs, ELCBs
11. Assignments, Model exam etc.

CONTENTS
Page No.
UNIT I
1.1 Voltage 6
1.2 Electric Current 6
1.3 Resistance 6
1.4 Capacitance 7
1.5 Inductance 7
1.6 Electrical conductors and insulators 7
1.7 Ohm’s law 8
1.8 Series combination of resistors 8
1.9 Parallel combination of resistors 9
1.10 Galvanometer 10
1.11 Ammeter 10
1.12 Voltmeter 11
1.13 Multimeter 11
1.14 Transformers 13
1.15 Electrical energy 15
1.16 Electric power 15
1.17 kilowatt hour (kWh) 15
1.18 Consumption of electrical power 16
Questions 17
UNIT – II
2.1 Direct current and alternating current 18
2.2 RMS and peakvalues 20
2.3 Power factor 21
2.4 Single phase and three phase connections 22
2.5 Basics of house wiring 24

2.6 Star and delta connection 25
2.7 Electric shock 27
2.8 First aid for electric shock 28
2.9 Overloading 29
2.10 Earthing and its necessity 30
2.11 Short circuiting 31
2.12 Fuses 32
2.13 MCB 34
2.14 ELCB 35
2.15 Insulation 36
2.16 Inverter 37
2.17 UPS 38
Questions 39
UNIT – III
3.1 Electric fan 40
3.2 Electric iron box 43
3.3 Water heater 46
3.4 Induction heater 48
3.5 Microwave oven 52
3.6 Refrigerator 55
3.7 Concept of illumination 57
3.8 Electric bulbs 58
3.9 CFL 59
3.10 LED lights 61
3.11 Energy efficiency in electrical appliances 63
3.12 IS codes & IE codes 64
Questions 67
Model papers 1 to 5 68-72

UNIT – I
1.1 Voltage :
Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons
(current) through a conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as illuminating a light.
In brief, voltage = pressure.
The term voltage refers to a potential difference across two points.
The energy used by a charge of 1 coulomb in moving from one point to another point in an electric
field (circuit) is called as voltage.
Voltage = Energy / charge
Unit of voltage in SI system is volt (V).
1.2 Electric current :
The electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges through the conductor.
If a charge q flows through the conductor in time t, then the current i in the conductor is given by
i = q/t
Here i = electric current
q = electric charge
t = time
SI unit of electric current is ampere (A).
1.3 Resistance :
The opposition to the electric current offered by a material is termed as ‘electrical resistance’.
The resistance (R) is a characteristic property of a conductor.

Metallic nature is due to availability of electrons. Because of free electrons, metals become the best
conductors of electricity. They do not oppose flow of electric charges as much as the wood which
does not contain free electrons. Thus, the ‗opposition‘ to flow of charges by wood is more, in fact it is
infinite, compared to the opposition offered by a metal like copper.
Any conductor in a circuit to provide resistance is called ‗resistor‘ represented by letter R or with a
symbol ( ).
SI unit of resistance is ‗ohm‘ and is represented by the symbol Ω (Omega).
1.4 Capacitance :
A conductor can be charged either positively or negatively.
The ability of the conductor to hold the charge is called as ‘the electrical capacity or capacitance’
of that conductor.
The capacitance of a conductor may be defined as the ratio of charge on it to its potential.
C = q/V
Here C = capacitance
q = electric charge
V = Potential
SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).
1.5 Inductance
Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the electric current
flowing through it.
The flow of electric current creates a magnetic field around the conductor.
SI unit of inductance is henry (H).
1.6 Electrical conductors and insulators :
Conductors are the materials or substances which allow electricity to pass through them .
They conduct electricity because they allow electrons to flow easily inside them from atom to atom.
Examples for conductors : All metals, graphite, human body, earth, moist air, impure water etc.

Insulators are the materials or substances which do not allow electricity to pass through them .
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current.
Examples for non-conductors or insulators : Pure water, non-metals(except graphite), nails, hairs,
wood, paper, plastic, rubber, glass etc.
Vaccum is also an insulator, but is not actually a material.
Most of electrical conductors are covered by insulation.
The conductors have free electrons at ordinary temperature and insulators do not have them. These
free electrons are responsible for conduction of electric charge. Under ordinary conditions, these free
electrons have random movement and do not have a net directed motion along the conductor. If the
ends of a conductor are connected to a battery, an electric field is said to have established in the
conductor and free electrons get a resultant motion in the direction opposite to the field established.
1.7 Ohm’s law :
The electric current (i) in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V)
between its ends, at a constant temperature (T). This result was given by G.S.Ohm (1826) as a law
called Ohm’s law.
When a potential difference across a given conductor varies, the current in the c onductor also varies
proportionately. The Ohm‘s law gives the relation between potential difference (V) and current (i) for
a conductor at a constant temperature .
According to Ohm‘s law,
Vαi
V = Ri
Where R is the proportionality constant. This R is the electrical resistance of the conductor.
1.8 Series combination of resistors
Consider three resistors of resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are

connected in series across a battery of voltage V.
According to Ohm‘s law, voltages across the resistances

R1 , R2 and R3 are
V1 = iR1
V2 = iR2
V3 = iR3 Fig. 1.1 Series combination of resistances

If V is the resultant potential and R is the resultant resistance, then
V = iR
In series connection,
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Substituting the values of V1 , V2 and V3 in above equation,
iR = iR1 + iR2 + iR3
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Hence when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to the sum
of the individual resistances.
1.9 Parallel combination of resistors
Consider three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel across a battery of
potential V. The total current in the circuit i is divided into three parts. The current i1 flows through
R1 , i2 flows through R2 and i3 flows through R3. The ends are connected in between the same two
points, the voltage across each resistance is the same as V.
According to Ohm‘s law, current through three

resistances are
i1 = V/R1
i2 = V/R2
i3 = V/R3
If i is the total current, R is the resultant resistance, then
i = V/R
Fig. 1.2 Parallel combination of resistances
But,
i = i1 + i2 + i3
Substituting the values i1 , i2 and i3 in the above equation, then
V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

When resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of their equivalent resistance is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

1.10 Galvanometer :
The galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring instrument used for detecting the presence of
small current or voltage and for measuring their magnitude in an electric circuit.
The galvanometer is mainly used in the bridges
and potentiometer where they indicate the null deflection or zero
current.
Galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting a very
low resistance (shunt resistance) in parallel with the galvanometer.
Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting a

very high resistance in series with the galvanometer.
Fig. 1.3 Galvanometer
1.11 Ammeter :
An ammeter (from ampere meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure either direct or
alternating current in an electric circuit.
Electric currents are measured in amperes (A). The ammeter is usually connected in series with the
circuit in which the current is to be measured.
The internal resistance of this device is ‗0‘ however in practical; it has

some amount of internal resistance. The measuring range of this device
mainly depends on the resistance value.
The DC ammeter is to be used to measure the direct current.
The AC ammeter is to be used to measure the alternating current.
Fig. 1.4 Ammeter (milli-ammeter)

Classification/Types of Ammeters
These are classified into different types based on their applications which include the following.
(i)Moving Coil
(ii)Electrodynamic
(iii)Moving-iron
(iv)Hotwire
(v)Digital
(vi)Integrating

1.12 Voltmeter :
The voltmeter is a measuring instrument used for measuring the voltage or potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit.
Voltage is measured in volts. The voltmeter is always be connected

in parallel in the circuit. It usually has a high resistance so that it
takes negligible current from the circuit.
An indicator on an analog voltmeter moves on a scale. The

numbers appear on digital voltmeter. The voltmeter in the circuit is
denoted by the V symbol in a circle.
Fig. 1.5 Voltmeter
Fig.1.6 classification of voltmeter
1.13 Multimeter
A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument (handheld tester) used to measure electrical

voltage, current, resistance and other values. A multimeter is also known as a VOM (volt-ohm-
milliammeter).

Multimeters come in analog and digital versions and are useful for everything from simple tests, like
measuring battery voltage, to detect faults and complex diagnostics. They are one of the tools
preferred by electricians for troubleshooting electrical problems on motors, appliances, circuits, power
supplies and wiring systems.
Fig. 1.7 Digital multimeter Fig. 1.8 Analog multimeter Fig. 1.9 Multimeter test leads
Analog Multimeters
An analog multimeter is based on a microammeter (a device that measures current) and has a needle
that moves over a graduated scale. Analog multimeters are less expensive than their digital
counterparts but can be difficult for some users to read accurately. Also, they must be handled
carefully and can be damaged if they are dropped.
Analog multimeters typically are not as accurate as digital meters when used as a voltmeter. However,
analog multimeters are great for detecting slow voltage changes because user can watch the needle
moving over the scale. Analog testers are exceptional when set as ammeters, due to their low
resistance and high sensitivity, with scales down to 50µA (50 microamperes).
Digital Multimeters
Digital multimeters are the most commonly available type and include simple versions as well as
advanced designs for electronics engineers. In place of the moving needle and scale found on analog
meters, digital meters provide readings on an LCD screen. They tend to cost more than analog
multimeters, but the price difference is minimal among basic versions. Advanced testers are much
more expensive.
Digital multimeters typically are better than analog in the voltmeter function, due to the higher
resistance of digital. But for most users, the primary advantage of digital testers is the easy-to-read
and highly accurate digital readout.
Using a Multimeter
The basic functions and operations of a multimeter are similar for both digital and analog testers. The
tester has two leads—red and black—and three ports. The black lead plugs into the "common" port.
The red lead plugs into either of the other ports, depending on the desired function.
After plugging in the leads, user has to turn the knob in the centre of the tester to select the function
and appropriate range for the specific test. For example, when the knob is set to "20V DC," the tester
will detect DC (direct current) voltage up to 20 volts. To measure smaller voltages, user must set the
knob to the 2V or 200mV range.

To take a reading, user has to touch the bare metal pointed end of each lead to one of the terminals or
wires to be tested. The voltage (or other value) will read out on the tester. Multimeters are safe to use
on energized circuits and equipment, provided the voltage or current does not exceed the maximum
rating of the tester. Also, user must be careful never to touch the bare metal ends of the tester leads
during an energized test because user can receive an electrical shock.
Multimeter Functions
Multimeters are capable of many different readings, depending on the model. Basic testers measure
voltage, current and resistance and can be used to check continuity, a simple test to verify a complete
circuit. More advanced multimeters may test for all of the following values:
 AC (alternating current) voltage and current(ampere)

 DC (direct current) voltage and current(ampere)
 Resistance (ohm)
 Capacity (farad)
 Conductance (siemen)
 Decibels
 Duty cycle
 Frequency (Hz)
 Inductance (henry)
 Temperature Celsius or Fahrenheit
Accessories or special sensors can be attached to some multimeters for additional readings, such as:
 Light level
 Acidity
 Alkalinity
 Wind speed
 Relative humidity
1.14 Transformers
A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit
to another through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most commonly used to increase
(step up) or decrease(step down) voltage levels between circuits.
Mutual induction between two or more windings (also known as coils) allows for electrical energy to
be transferred between circuits.

Vs = Secondary Volage
Vp = Primary Voltage
Ns = Number of windings in secondary coil
Np = Number of windings in Primary coil
If Ns > Np, the transformer is known as step-up

transformer.
If Ns< Np, the transformer is known as step-down

transformer.
Fig. 1.10 Transformer
Electrical transformers are machines that

transfer electricity from one circuit to another
with changing voltage level but no frequency
change. Today, they are designed to use AC
supply, which means that fluctuation in supply
voltage is impacted by the fluctuation in the
current. So, an increase in current will bring
about an increase in the voltage and vice versa.
Transformers help improve safety and

efficiency of power systems by raising and
lowering voltage levels as and when needed.
They are used in a wide range of residential and
industrial applications, primarily and perhaps
most importantly in the distribution and
regulation of power across long distances.
Home and office outlets are almost always AC.

This is because generating and transporting AC
across long distances is relatively easy. At high
voltages (over 110kV), less energy is lost in
electrical power transmission. Higher voltages
mean lower currents and lower currents mean
less heat generated in the power line due to
resistance. AC can be converted to and from
high voltages easily using transformers.
Fig. 1.11 Transformer

1.15 Electrical energy
Electrical energy may be defined as power(capacity) of the system to do work for a given time.
Electrical energy W= Pt
Here W= electric work done/ electric energy
P= electric power
t= time
The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour
1.16 Electric power :
The electric power of an appliance is defined as the rate of consumption of electric energy or as its
rate of doing work.
P= W/t
Here P= electric power
W= electric work done
t= time
The S.I unit of power is watt.
The bigger units of electric power are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW).
1.17 kilowatt hour (kWh)
If 1 kilowatt power is used in 1hour, energy consumed will be 1 kilowatt hour.
1 kWh = 1kW x 1 hr
= 1000 J/s x 3600 sec
=3600000 joule

1.18 Consumption of electrical power :
Electric energy consumption is the form of energy consumption that uses electric energy. Electric
energy consumption is the actual energy demand made on existing electricity supply.
To calculate the consumption of an electrical appliance in kWh, the following three factors are
to be taken into account:
(i)the capacity of electrical appliance, expressed in watt.
(ii)the number of hours that the appliance is in use in one day.
(iii)the number of days per year when the appliance is in use.
The calculation is as follows:
[number of hours’ use] X [number of days’ use] X ([capacity of appliance expressed in watt] /
1,000) = number of kWh
The capacity should be divided by 1,000 to convert the number of watts into the number of kilowatts.
This finally gives us the number of kWh (kilowatt hours).
Calculation for the energy consumption of a radio alarm
A radio alarm is on all the time and therefore uses energy continuously.
hours / day 24 hours

days / year 365
Capacity of radio alarm 10 watts
Annual energy consumption of radio alarm: 24 x 365 x (10 watts / 1,000) = 87.6 kWh

Essay Answer type Questions
1. Define resistance. Derive the equation for total resistance when the resistances are connected
in series.
2. Define resistance. Derive the equation for total resistance when the resistances are connected
in parallel.
3. Explain about multimeter.
4. Explain about transformers.
5. Define electric power. Explain about the consumption of electrical power with an example.
Short Answer type questions
1. Define voltage. Write a short note on voltmeter.

2. Define current. Write about an ammeter.
3. Explain about electrical conductors and insulators.
4. Define resistance. Explain ohm‘s law.
5. Write a short note on galvanometer.
6. Write a brief note on multimeter.
7. Write a short note on transformers.
8. Define electrical energy. Explain kilowatt hour.
9. Explain about capacitance and inductance.

Unit II
2.1 Direct current and alternating current
Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating current describes the flow of charge that changes direction periodically. As a result, the
voltage level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to deliver power to houses, office
buildings, etc.
AC can come in a number of forms, as long as the voltage and current are alternating. The most
common type of AC is the sine wave. The AC in most homes and offices have an oscillating voltage
that produces a sine wave. Other common forms of AC include the square wave and the triangle
wave. Square waves are often used in digital and switching electronics to test their operation.
Triangle waves are found in sound synthesis and are useful for testing linear electronics like
amplifiers.
Fig. 2.1 sine wave Fig. 2.2 square wave Fig. 2.3 Triangle wave
Applications
1. Home and office outlets are almost always AC.
2. AC is also capable of powering electric motors. This is useful for many large appliances like
dishwashers, refrigerators and so on, which run on AC.
Direct Current (DC)

DC provides a constant voltage or current.
DC is defined as the "unidirectional" flow of current; current only flows in one direction. Voltage
and current can vary over time so long as the direction of flow does not change. To simplify things, it
will be assumed that the voltage is a constant. For example, a AA battery provides 1.5V, which can
be described in mathematical terms as:
V(t) = 1.5 V
If this is plotted over time, a constant voltage is observed.
Fig. 2.4 Plot of D.C voltage

DC sources provide a constant voltage over time. In reality, a battery will slowly lose its charge,
meaning that the voltage will drop as the battery is used.
Applications
The appliances which use DC supply are
 Cell phones
 Flat-screen TVs (AC goes into the TV, which is converted to DC)
 Flashlights
 Hybrid and electric vehicles
Differences between AC and DC
Basis Alternating current Direct current

1. Definition The direction of the current reverse The direction of the current
periodically. remain same.
2. Frequency 50 or 60 Hertz Zero
3. Direction of flow of Bidirectional Unidirectional
electrons.
4. Power Factor Lies between 0 and 1 Always 1
5. Polarity It has polarity (+, -) Do not have polarity
6. Obtained From Alternators Generators, battery, solar cell,
etc.
7. Graphical It is represented by waves like It is represented by the
Representation triangular wave, square wave, square straight line.
tooth wave, sine wave.
8. Substation Few substation is required for More substations are required
generation and transmission for generation and
transmission
9. Application Factories, Industries and for the Electroplating, Electrolysis,
domestic purposes. Electronic Equipment etc.

2.2 RMS and peakvalues
Peak Value
The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is called its Peak value. It
is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value. The sinusoidal alternating quantity
obtains its peak value at 90 degrees as shown in the figure below.
The peak values of alternating voltage and current is represented by e m and im respectively.
Fig. 2.5 AC wave one cycle
R.M.S Value
The R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of instantaneous values.
Let i be the alternating current flowing through a resistor R for time t seconds, which produces the
same amount of heat as produced by the direct current. The base of one alteration is divided into n
equal parts so that each interval is of t/n seconds as shown in the figure below.
Let i1 , i2 , i3 ,………..in be the mid ordinates
irms = square root of mean of squares of instantaneous values
= R.M.S value
Root Mean Square value is the actual value of an alternating quantity

which tells us an energy transfer capability of an AC source.
Fig. 2.6 AC wave one cycle

The ammeter records the RMS value of alternating current. The voltmeter records the root mean
square (R.M.S) value of alternating voltage. The domestic single-phase AC supply is 230 V, 50 hertz,
where 230 V is the R.M.S value of alternating voltage.
2.3 Power factor
Power factor (PF) is the ratio of working(real) power, measured in kilowatts (kW), to
apparent power, measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA). Apparent power, also known as demand, is the
measure of the amount of power used to run machinery and equipment during a certain period.
Fig. 2.7 Power factor
In D.C., the voltage and current are in same phase and the total electrical power is given by:
Electrical power = Voltage across the element X Current through the element
Its unit is Watt (or) Joule/Sec
The term power factor comes into the picture in AC circuits only.
In AC circuit, when the entire circuit consisting of a resistor, inductor and capacitor is considered,
there exists some phase difference between the source voltage and current.
The cosine of this phase difference is called electrical power factor. If the phase difference is θ, then
the power factor
Cos θ = Active power/ Apparent power
This factor (-1 < cos θ < 1 ) represents the fraction of the total power that is used to do the useful
work. The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form of magnetic energy or electrostatic
energy in the inductor and capacitor respectively.
The total power in this case is:
Total electrical power = Voltage across the element X Current through the element = VI
This is also called as apparent power. It is denoted by ‗S‘. Its unit is VA (Volt Amp).

A fraction of this total electrical power which does useful work is called active power or real power. It
is denoted by ‗P‘.
P = Active power = Total electrical power . cos θ = VI cos θ
Its unit is watt.
The other fraction of power is called reactive power. Reactive power does no useful work, but it is
required for the active work to be done. It is denoted by ‗Q‘.
Q = Reactive power = Total electrical power . sin θ
Its unit is VAR (Volt Amp Reactive).
2.4 Single phase and three phase connections
SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM
A s ingle-phas e setup requires two wires. One should be a power wire or phase wire and the other
should be neutral wire. The power wire carries the current. The neutral wire returns it.
A single-phase setup:
 It has a voltage of 230V.

 Needs two wires to complete a circuit.
 It has a variable power supply that can drop to zero.
 It is less efficient than a three-phase system.
 Can power lights, small appliances and most electronics.
THE THREE-PHASE SYSTEM
The three-phase system has four wires. Three are phase wires and one is neutral wire. A three-
phase system can be set up as a single-phase, but reverse cannot be done.
The three-phase system:
 It has a voltage of 415V.

 Needs four wires to complete a circuit.
 It is ideal for heavy commercial use.
 It has a continuous power supply.
 It is more economical than a single-phase setup.

IS THERE A TWO-PHASE SYSTEM?
No, there isn‘t. Only one or three phase systems.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE CONNECTIONS :
Basis For Comparison Single Phase Three Phase

1. Definition The power supply through one The power supply through three
conductor. conductors.
2. Wave Shape
3. Number of wire. Require two wires for Requires four wires for completing
completing the circuit. the circuit.
4. Voltage Carry 230V Carry 415V
5. Phase Name Split phase No other name
6. Power Transfer Minimum Maximum
Capability
7. Network Simple Complicated
8. Power Failure Occurs Do not occur
9. Loss Maximum Minimum
10. Efficiency Less High
11. Economical Less More
12. Uses For home appliances. In large industries and for running
heavy loads.

2.5 Basics of house wiring
Basics of House wiring
While setting up the wiring in a new home, some basics are to be followed to keep the house hazard-
free.
(i) The Mains Electric Supply to House: The main electric supply to any house comprises a three-
core wiring system – the live, neutral and earth. ...
(ii) The Right Wire for the Right Use: ...
(iii) Insulated wires, a must:
(i) The Mains Electric Supply to House:
• The main electric supply to any house comprises a three-core wiring system – the live, neutral and
earth.
• The brown or red active (live) wire brings in the current, blue neutral wire takes current back and the
green or yellow, earth wire is joined to a metal plate installed deep within the earth.
• Electricity is supplied to circuits of 15amp for appliances of high power rating and 5amp for those
with low power rating.
(ii) The Right Wire for the Right Use:
• The selection of wires must be compatible with the power usage of an appliance.
• Wires are made of copper or aluminium and are a single conductor of electricity.
• A wire can be solid or stranded.
• A solid wire is appropriate for higher frequencies.
• Stranded wires are used for flexibility.
(iii) Insulated wires, a must:
• Insulating wires is an important preventive hence using insulating wires like Heat Resistant Wire
(HR), Fire Resistant Wire (FR) & Low Smoke Wires (FRLS) help to withstand fires and prevent other
electric hazards.
All wiring in a new house should conform to the latest safety standards. Using ISI-certified wires and
cables is the most sensible decision for a safe and happy home.
Electrical wiring mistakes to avoid
 Never connect wires outside of electrical junction boxes. If there is no box, add one and
connect the wires inside it.
 Remember the three-inch minimum on wire length. Don‘t cut the wires to short. If it is done,
six-inch extension is to be added.
 Never leave sheathing unprotected between frames, as in a ceiling installation. Staple it to a
2×2 or use metal conduit if the wire runs along the wall.
 Avoid loose switches or loosely connected outlets.
 Never install a three-slot receptacle without a ground wire.
 Don‘t recess an electrical box behind a wall surface. Instead, add a wall extension.
 Secure cable with a clamp so wire insulation doesn‘t cut or fray.

2.6 Star and delta connection
The three phase system will have better and higher efficiency compared to the single phase system.
In three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:
1. Star connection
2. Delta connection
Star Connection
A star connection has a common or a star point to which

all the three terminals are connected forming a star shape
as shown below. In star connection, out of four wires,
three wires are phase wires and fourth wire is neutral
wire which is taken from the star point. Star connection
is preferred for long distance power transmission because
it is having the neutral point.
Fig. 2.8 Star connection
Delta Connection
In Delta connection, all the three terminals are connected

together forming a closed loop. In this, there is no
common or neutral point, and it is used for power
transmission for short distances. The connection diagram
is shown below.
Fig. 2.9 Delta connection

The difference between the Star and Delta Connection are given below in the tabulated form.
BASIS STAR CONNECTION DELTA CONNECTION
1. Basic Definition The terminals of the three The three branches of the network
branches are connected to a are connected in such a way that it
common point. The network forms a closed loop known as Delta
formed is known as Star Connection
Connection
2. Connection of The starting and the finishing The end of each coil is connected to
terminals point that is the similar ends of the starting point of the other coil
the three coils are connected that means the opposite terminals of
together the coils are connected together.
3. Neutral point Neutral or the star point exists in Neutral point does not exist in the
the star connection. delta connection.
4. Relation between Line current is equal to the Phase Line current is equal to root three
line and phase current. times of the Phase Current.
current
5. Relation between Line voltage is equal to root three Line voltage is equal to the Phase
line and phase times of the Phase Voltage voltage.
voltage
6. Speed The Speed of the star connected The Speed of the delta connected
motors is slow as they receive motors is high because each phase
1/√3 of the voltage. gets the total of the line voltage.
7. Phase voltage Phase voltage is low as 1/√3 times Phase voltage is equal to the line
of the line voltage. voltage.
8. Number of turns Requires less number of turns Requires large number of turns.
9. Insulation level Insulation required is low. High insulation is required.
10. Network Type Mainly used in the Power Used in the Power Distribution
Transmission networks. networks.
11. Received voltage In Star Connection each winding In delta connection each winding
receive 230 volts receives 414 volts.
12. Type of system Both Three phase four wire and Three phase four wire system can be
three phase three wire system can derived in Delta connection.
be derived in star connection.

2.7 Electric shock
When an electrical current touches or flows through the body, it is known as an electric shock. It can
happen wherever there is live electricity. The effects of electric shock range from none at all to severe
injury and death.
An electric shock occurs when an electrical current passes from a live outlet to a part of the body.
Electric shock can result from contact with:
 faulty electrical appliances or machinery

 household wiring
 electrical power lines
 lightning
 electricity outlets
There are four main types of injuries that result from electrical contact:
 Flash: A flash injury typically causes superficial burns. They occur as a result of an arc flash,
which is a type of electrical explosion. The current does not penetrate the skin.
 Flame: These injuries occur when an arc flash causes a person‘s clothes to ignite. The current
may or may not pass the skin.
 Lightning: These involve short but high voltage electrical energy. The current flows through
a person‘s body.
 True: The person becomes a part of the circuit and the electricity enters and exits the body.
Shocks from touching electrical outlets or from small appliances in the home rarely cause serious
injury. However, prolonged contact may cause harm.
The let-go threshold
The let-go threshold is the level where a person‘s muscles contract meaning that they are unable to let
go of the electrical source until someone safely removes it. This table shows the body‘s response to
different intensities of current, measured in milliamps (mA):
Current (mA) Response

0.2–2 An electrical sensation occurs
1–2+ A painful shock occurs
3–5 The let-go threshold for children
6–10 The minimum let-go threshold for adults
10–20 A seizure can occur at the contact point
22 99% of adults are unable to let go
20–50 Seizures can occur
50–100 Life-threatening heart rhythm can occur

Things to remember
 The human body conducts electricity.

 Disconnect the power supply before trying to help someone suffering from an electric shock.
 Be especially careful in wet areas and around downed powerlines.
 Always hire a licensed electrician for all wiring jobs around the home.
Several factors can affect how serious injury from electric shock is, including:
 the intensity of the current

 the type of current— alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC)
 which part of the body the current reaches
 how long a person has exposure to the current
 resistance to the current
Prevention
The best way to prevent electrical injuries is to cover all outlets, make sure all wires are properly
insulated, tuck wires away from child's reach and provide adult supervision whenever children are
in an area with potential electrical hazards. Small appliances are a special hazard around bathtubs
or pools.
2.8 First aid for electric shock
First Aid for Electric Shock Victims
1. Don‘t touch them.

2. Unplug the appliance or turn off the power at the control panel.
3. If unable to turn off the power, use a piece of wood, like a broom handle, dry rope or dry
clothing, to separate the victim from the power source.
4. Do not try to move a victim touching a high voltage wire. Call for emergency help.
5. Keep the victim lying down. Unconscious victims should be placed on their side to allow
drainage of fluids. Do not move the victim if there is a suspicion of neck or spine injuries
unless absolutely necessary.
6. If the victim is not breathing, apply mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If the victim has no pulse,
begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Then cover the victim with a blanket to maintain
body heat, keep the victim‘s head low and get medical attention.

To perform CPR, a person should:
1. Place hands on one on top of the other in the middle of the chest. Using the body weight, push
down hard and fast and administer compressions 2 inches deep. The aim is to deliver 100
compressions per 60 seconds.
2. Deliver rescue breaths. To do this, make sure the person‘s mouth is clear, tilt their head back,
lift the chin, pinch their nose closed and blow into the person‘s mouth to make the chest rise.
Perform two rescue breaths and continue compressions.
3. Repeat the process until help arrives, or the person begins breathing.
Fig. 2.10 separate the victim from the power source Fig.2.11 cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
2.9 Overloading
Overloading of an electric circuit means when current flows in a circuit it becomes more than the
capacity of components in the circuit to resist the current. When too much current passes through
electric wires, an electric overload occurs. This results heat in the wire and the wire gets melted
moreover it increases the risk of fire.
Precautions should be taken for overloading are given below:
 Avoid using too many appliances at the same time.

 Make sure the appliances that are using must be within the safe limit of the electric circuit.
 Avoid connecting too many appliances in one socket.
 Electric fuse should be connected in series, it will protect the circuit from overloading and
short circuiting.
 Proper earthing of all electric circuits must be done.
There is a key difference between short circuit and overloading that is;
When the neutral and the live wire come in contact with each other the short circuit takes
place where as when the number of equipment connected to one socket the overloading takes
place

Overloading signs:
 Flickering, blinking of lights

 Burning odor
 Warm or discoloured wall plates
 Mild shock or tingle from switches
Continued overload can result from defective motors, overloaded equipment or too many loads on
one circuit. Such overloads are destructive and must be cut off by protective devices as soon as
possible before they damage the circuit.
2.10 Earthing and its necessity
Earthing
Earthing is one of the main factor in electrical systems to protect the humans from getting electric
shock. Earthing is used in almost every equipment.
Earthing is system in which the part of the equipment is connected to the earth with the help of
the wires or cables. Earthing is also known as the grounding system.
Earthing is defined as the disharge of electric current in the earth with

the help of the wires or cables having low resistance.
Mostly Galvanised iron (G.I) strips are used for the earthing. Earthing
protects the humans from getting electric shock from the leakage current
and when a live wire or cable comes in the contact of the body of the
equipment or from the short circuit current.
Fig.2.12 Earthing
Why earthing is important in electrical systems
 Earthing keeps the humans safe from getting electric shock.

 Earthing protects the equipment form getting damage from the excessive flow of the current in the
circuit.
 Earthing prevents the risk of the damage of the equipment from leakage current.
 In case of the electrical faults, high voltage can pass through the circuit which can damage the
electrical installation. If earthing is installed in the circuit, the excessive voltage passes through
the cables to the earth.
 The earthing provides the easiest path to the flow of the shortcircuit current even after the failure
of the insulation.
Earthing can be done by electrically connecting the respective parts in the installation to some system
of electrical conductors or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level. The earthing mat
or electrode under the ground level have flat iron riser through which all the non-current-carrying
metallic parts of the equipment are connected.

Fig.2.13 Electrical system without earthing
When the fault occurs, the fault current from the equipment flows through the earthing system to the
earth and thereby protect the equipment from the fault current. At the time of the fault, the earth mat
conductors rise to the voltage which is equal to the resistance of the earth mat multiplied by a ground
fault.
Fig. 2.14 Electrical system with earthing
2.11 Short circuiting
A short circuit is a low resistance path for an electric current to flow between two conductors
supplying electrical power.
Since the volume of current flow is huge this may cause the electrical power source to get damaged,
sometimes permanently. If ever a fuse in the circuit, it will act as a protection device and blow out
thus opening the circuit and preventing any further damage.

Why is Short Circuiting Dangerous?
Short circuiting can occur either in a DC or AC circuit and is equally dangerous in both the cases.
Short circuit can produce very high temperatures that is mainly due to the fact that a large amount of
current flows through the circuit generating the heat.
Let us take a small example, if a 9v battery is shorted then the battery will be discharged very quickly
and will heat up due to the large current flow. Similarly, if a charged capacitor is short circuited the
resulting high current flow and the huge power dissipation will cause the wire to explode.
Fig. 2.15 Short circuiting
How to Prevent a Short Circuit?
A short circuit is usually caused by broken insulation in wire which gets in contact with other wire
where it shouldn‘t happen or sometime it can also occur due to improper wiring or overloading. So,
the short circuit can be avoided all together.
Some simple practical ways to avoid short circuit are :
 Unplug any electrical appliance which is not in use. This is probably the easiest method to
prevent short circuit especially at home.
 Install protection devices like fuses which blow out when the current exceeds the safe limit for
which it was designed for thus preventing any damage which could come along.
 Install magneto-thermal switches. These magneto-thermal switches are special type of
switches which will act in case there is a power surge in the circuit by monitoring the current
load continuously.
 Have grounded outlets for the all the appliances at home. This will help to prevent short
circuit especially when a person is connecting them to devices that develop an internal short
circuit.
2.12 Fuses
A fuse is an electrical device, which is used to protect circuits from over current, overload and
make sure the protection of the circuit. There are many types of fuses, but the function of all these
fuses is the same.

Working of Electrical Fuse
The primary use of an electric fuse is to protect electrical equipment from excessive current and to
prevent short circuits or mismatched loads. Electrical fuses play the role of miniature circuit breakers.
Apart from protecting equipment, they are also used as safety measures to prevent any safety hazards
to humans.
The fuse wire in an electrical fuse is selected in such a way

that it does not face any damage when the normally stipulated
amount of current flows through the circuit. Under normal
conditions, the fuse wire is a part of the circuitry, contributing
to a complete loop for charges to flow through it. However,
when an excessive amount of current flows through the fuse
wire, the heating effect of current causes the fuse wire to melt.
This is because the fuse wire is chosen such that it has a low
melting point. This causes the loop to break thereby stopping
the flow of charges in the circuit.
It is important to select a fuse that is properly specified for the

circuit in consideration. If the fuse that is used is underrated,
then it will fail even under normal current conditions,
unnecessarily breaking the circuit loop. If it is overrated, then
it will not break the circuit when required and cause equipment
damage and failure and may even present itself as a safety
hazard.
Fig. 2.16 Working of a fuse
Function of Fuse
In the field of electrical engineering, a fuse is a device that provides over-current protection to the
functional electrical circuit. Here, a few major functions of the fuse are listed below :
 Acts as a barrier between the electric circuit and the human body
 Prevents device failure due to faulty circuit operation
 Prevents short-circuits
 Prevents overload and blackouts
 Prevents damage that is caused due to mismatched loads
The markings on the fuse carry information such as the Ampere rating,
voltage rating and interruption rating.
Fig. 2.17 Different symbols of fuse

Types of Fuses
Different types of fuses are available in the market and they are classified on the basis of different
aspects. But mainly, fuses can be divided into two categories based on the input supply as follows:
 AC fuses
 DC fuses
Fig. 2.18 Different types of fuses
2.13 MCB
MCB stands for Miniature Circuit Breaker.
It automatically switches OFF electrical circuit during any abnormal condition in the electrical
network such as overload and short circuit conditions.
The MCB is an electromechanical device which

guards the electric wires and electrical load from
overcurrent so as to avoid any kind of fire or
electrical hazards.
Handling MCB is quite safer and it quickly

restores the supply. When it comes to house
applications, MCB is the most preferred choice for
overload and short circuit protection. MCB can be
reset very fast and don‘t have any maintenance
cost. MCB works on bi-metal respective principle
which provides protection against overload current
and solenoid short circuit current. Fig. 2.19 MCB Fig. 2.20 4 Pole MCB
Advantages:
MCB has several advantages over the Fuse:
1. MCB is more sensitive to current than Fuse.
It detects any abnormality in the current flow and automatically switches off the electrical circuit.
2. In case of MCB, the faulty zone of electrical circuit can be easily identified.
Faulty circuit trips to the off position. On the other hand, in case of a Fuse, the complete fuse wire
needs to be checked by opening the fuse grip for confirming the faulty zone.
3. With MCB, it is very simple to resume the supply.
Just need to push the knob of MCB back to the ON position. But in case of a fuse, the entire fuse wire
needs to be replaced.

4. Handling MCB is electrically safer than handling a Fuse.

In case of an MCB, the user is not exposed to live electrical parts; but while replacing the Fuse, there
is a fair chance that the person may come in contact with a live wire / current carrying conductor.
5. MCB is reusable and hence has less maintenance and replacement cost.
Whereas a fuse needs to be replaced whenever it goes faulty.
2.14 ELCB
ELCB stands for Earth leakage circuit breaker, It is one kind of safety device used in electrical
installations to prevent shock. The main advantage of the Earth leakage circuit breaker is to stop
damage to humans and animals due to the electric shock.
Types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
There are two types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
 Voltage Operated ELCB

 Current Operated ELCB
Fig. 2.21 ELCB
Advantages of ELCB:
 This device is not sensitive to faults.

 It is cheap and efficient.
 It protects animals and humans from electrical shock.
 In this process, when the installation has two connections to the earth, a nearby high current
lightning strike will cause a voltage gradient in the soil, presenting the ELCB sense coil with
enough voltage to cause it to trip.
Disadvantages of ELCB:
 Failure to respond at certain conditions.

 ELCB needs a sound earth connection, for load protection.
 Nuisance trips.
 Electrical leaky appliances like water heater, washing machine and coolers may cause circuit
leakage to trip to trip.
 They may be tripped by the external voltage from something connected to the earthing system
such as a metal pipe.
 They do not allow a single building system to easily split into multiple sections with
independent fault protection because the earthing system is bonded to the pipework.

 If the electrical installation earth rod is placed close to another earth of a building, then a high
earth leakage current from other buildings can raise the local ground potential and cause a
voltage difference across the two earth, again tripping the ELCB.
 ELCBs introduce additional resistance and an additional point of failure into enough voltage
to cause it to trip.
2.15 Insulation
Insulation is an important non-conductive material that surrounds and protects the individual
wires or cables that make up a cable assembly.
Some types of wire insulation are used to resist electric current in electrical applications. Other types
of insulation are used in dielectric applications for radio frequency cables. Insulation further prevents
current from contact with other conductors, resists electrical leakage and offers protection from all
environmental conditions. Depending on the application, insulation generally is from plastic,
fluoropolymers or rubber materials.
Popular Insulation Types
THERMOPLASTIC: A material which will soften, flow, or distort when subjected to sufficient heat
and pressure. These compounds are heated and extruded over conductor. Likewise, the insulation on
the finished product can be re-melted or soften if exposed to heat.
 Easy to manufacture
 Normally less expensive
 No cure required
 Will melt when subjected to heat
 Can be extruded in very thin walls
THERMOSETTI NG: A material which will not soften, flow, or distort when subjected to heat and
pressure. Once extruded over conductor, these compounds will not re-melt, however, they can be
burnt or deteriorate due to heat.
 Will harden when overheated

 Forgiving when exposed to overloads
 Better low temperature properties
 Higher temperature potential
 Usually more expensive
 Requires a cure process when extruded

2.16 Inverter
An inverter is a device used to convert DC power into AC power.
The inverter is not a power generator, because it does not produce electrical energy. The inverter
converts one form of electrical energy into another form of electrical energy. Therefore, it is a power
converter, not a power generator.
The device that has the opposite function of inverter is the Rectifier. The rectifier is used to convert
the AC power into DC power.
The input of the inverter is a stable DC power source like a battery. The input voltage depends on the
design and the applications.
 For smaller consumer and commercial inverters, which work on the rechargeable lead-acid
battery, it works on 12V DC.
 For the home energy system, common voltages are 24V, 36V or 48V.
 For solar PV panels, the input voltage is in between 200V and 400V.
 For an electrical vehicle, the input voltage is in between 300V and 450V.
 For the HVDC transmission line, the input voltage is hundreds or thousands of volts.
Types of Inverters
The inverters are classified according to the output waveform, according to the source of supply and
according to type of source.
According to Output Waveform
According to the output waveform, the inverters are classified into three types;
 Square Wave Inverters

 Pure Sine Wave Inverters
 Modified Sine Wave Inverters (quasi-sine wave inverters)
When the cost is considered, the modified sine wave inverter is a best choice among all other types of
inverters.
According to Source of Input
According to a source of input, the inverters are classified into two types;
 Current Source Inverter (CSI)

 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
According to Type of Supply
The output of the inverter is AC power and there are two types of AC power; single-phase and three-
phase. According to output power, inverters can be classified into two types;
 Single-phase Inverters
 Three-phase Inverters

Applications
 An uninterrupted power supply(UPS) supplies AC power with the help of an inverter and
battery combination.
 Speed Control of Electric Motor: An inverter is designed to produce a variable output voltage.
By controlling the output voltage of the inverters, the speed of an electric motor can be
controlled.
 In the compressor of refrigerator and air-conditioner: In the simple inverters, the single-speed
compressor switches on and off periodically. But, in inverters of compressor, VFD (variable
frequency drive) is used to control the speed of compressor motor and according to this
control of cooling is done.
 Solar: Output of solar PV panels is DC. So, this is to be converted it to AC, for that inverters
are used.
 HVDC transmission line: For bulk power transmission, the HVDC transmission line has more
advantages than the HVAC transmission line. In this transmission network, power generated
in AC and convert in DC with the help of a rectifier and transmit this DC power for long-
distance. The inverters used to convert the power into AC at the receiving end of the
transmission line.
Fig. 2.22 Inverter Fig. 2.23 Battery
2.17 UPS
An uninterruptible power supply or uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an electrical apparatus

that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains power fails.
A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby
generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from input
power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in
batteries, supercapacitors or flywheels. The on-battery run-time of most
uninterruptible power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but
sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the
protected equipment. It is a type of continual power system.
Fig. 2.24 UPS

Applications of UPS
A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as computers, data centres, telecommunication
equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries,
fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss.
UPS units range in size from units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor
(around 200 volt-ampere rating) to large units powering entire data centers or buildings.

Essay answer type questions
1. Explain the basics of house wiring.

2. Explain about an electric shock. Mention any five methods of first aid.
3. Explain about overloading of an electrical circuit.
4. Explain the concept of earthing and its necessity.
5. Explain the working of fuses in electrical circuits.
6. Explain in detail about MCB.
7. Explain in detail about ELCB.
8. Explain about inverter.
Short answer type questions
1. Explain about Direct Current(DC) and Alternating Current(AC).

2. Write any five differences between Direct Current(DC) and Alternating Current(AC).
3. Write a short notes on peak value and RMS value.
4. Explain about single phase and three phase connections.
5. Write any five differences between single phase connection and three phase connection.
6. Write a short note on power factor in AC circuit.
7. Explain about star and delta connections.
8. Write any five differences between star connection and delta connection.
9. Describe about electric shock.
10. Write any five first aid methods for electric shock.
11. Write a short note on short circuiting.
12. Describe about insulation.
13. Write a short note on UPS.

UNIT – III
3.1 Electric fan
An electric ceiling fan is a rotatory electrical device mounted vertically on the ceiling that provides
continuous air that our skin can feel when it is in operation. This electric ceiling fan rotates and
distributes the air downward in all directions of the room.
The normal local ceiling fan uses a high amount of power from 45 watts to 70 watts.
Working principle of electric fan
The working principle of the electric fan is based on the law of electromagnetic induction.
The electric fan has a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Working of electric fan
First, the capacitor of the ceiling fan torques up the electric motor, thereby causing it to start and run.
As the electrical current reaches the motor, it enters coils of wire that are wrapped around a metal
base. When this current passes through the wire, it creates a magnetic field which further exerts force
in a clockwise motion. In this way, the electric energy is converted into mechanical energy and causes
the motor coils to spin. The blades attached to the motor also start gaining motion with the spinning of
the coils.
Fig.3.1 Parts of electric ceiling fan

Parts of electric fan
1. Capacitor
2. Stator and its winding
3. Axle or Shaft
4. Rotor
5. Bearings
6. Fan blades
7. Housing
8. Conducting wire
Fig.3.2 Ceiling fan internal wiring diagram
1. Capacitor
Start capacitor is used in electric fans. Capacitors store energy and this
stored energy is used to rotate the fan from rest state. This capacitor
increases electric fan motor torque and allows motor to rotate rapidly.
This capacitor remains into circuit until only the electric fan reaches
predetermined speed, This predetermined speed is usually the 75% of
the full speed of fan and when fan reaches the predetermined speed this
capacitor is taken out of the circuit and will again be incorporated into
circuit when fan comes at rest state.
Fig.3.3 Capacitor
2. Stator and winding of the ceiling fan
Stator winding is simply the stationary winding in the electric fan motor winding. Stator winding
means thousands of turns of conducting wire on any non conducting structure like a coil. This
winding has very low resistance. Main purpose of stator winding is to convert electric current into
magnetic field.
Two types of winding are wounded on stator one is auxiliary winding and the other main winding. It
also has another name, starting winding and running winding. The auxiliary winding is wounded on
the slots and the main winding is wound on teeth.
3. Axle or shaft
Axle or Shaft is the metallic rod mostly made up of mild steel. Axle is connected from ceiling to fan
housing. It stays at rest motion while bearings supporting the housing over it rotates. It also has
arrangement for transfer of current to the stator windings.

Half of the vertical rod is an exterior part and the remaining parts are
considered interior part. The shaft will come to the centre of the stator. It is a
non-rotatable part of the ceiling fan because it holds the stator.
Fig.3.4 Stator and Axle or shaft
4. Rotor
Rotor in the electric motor is the permanent magnetic in the shape of half circles. Usually 2 pcs of
Magnets are used in Electric fan but this can change to 3 pcs or to single pc depending upon size and
capacity of electric fan. There is a small air gap between the stator and the rotor helpful for free
rotation or running.
5. Bearings
Ball bearings are used in the electric fan. As shown in the picture, 2 bearings which are link between
housing and axle gives the rotary motion to the housing.
6. Fan blades
The blades of the ceiling fan are designed to the

standards of aerodynamic law because it creates airflow
when the ceiling fan is in motion. Blades or wings are
the hanging part bolted on the outer area of housing.
Three blades are mostly used and their length and the
angle of air throw depends upon the size and capacity
of electric motor.
Fig.3.5 Fan blades
7. Housing
Housing is the outer part of the electric fan which carries stator, rotor and drive shaft bearing
assembly on inside and blades on outer sides.
8. Conducing wire
A conducting wire is made of copper. A ceiling fan has two conducting wires- phase wire and
neutral wire. A 240V AC supply flow through theses conducting wires. Phase wire is connected with
running winding and the neutral winding is connected to the auxiliary winding.

3.2 Electric iron box
An electric iron is a household appliance used to remove creases or wrinkles of the clothes by the
combination of heat and pressure. After turning it on, a flat triangular soleplate is pressed on the clothes
to make them smooth and flat.
Working principle of electric iron box
Electric iron box works on the principle of conversion of electric energy into heat energy.
Working of electric iron box
When a current is passed through the heating element which is placed between the sole plate and
pressure plate, the element gets heated up and transfers its heat to the sole plate through conduction and
in-turn the sole plate also gets heated up. Now to remove the wrinkles in clothing, heat and pressure are
to be applied. Heat is formed due to the coil and when the clothes are pressed with iron, the wrinkles
are removed. For maintaining the optimum temperature, a thermostat is used along with pilot lamp
which serves as an indicator.
Parts of an electric iron box
1. Handle
2. Sole plate
3. Cover Plate
4. Pressure Plate
5. Pilot Lamp
6. Heating Element
7. Thermostat
8. Capacitor
Fig.3.6 Electric iron box
1. Handle
The handle of an electric iron is made with plastic or wood. The reason is that
these materials are insulators, current doesn‘t pass through them, so person
who touch the handle while ironing would be saved to get shocked. It is
attached to the cover plate with the aid of screws.
Fig.3.7 Handle

2. Sole plate
Soleplate, also called the hot plate, is the thick and flat triangular shaped surface
made of aluminum that forms the base over which the electric iron is built up.
Aluminium allows corrosion not to occur. It is polished, layered with a non-stick
material making it stainless. It is the part of an electric iron which comes in contact
with clothes while ironing. The base plate holds the pressure plate and cover plate
in position.
Fig.3.8 Sole plate
3. Cover Plate
The cover plate is made of thin sheet of iron. It is placed on top of the base plate
and it covers all the internal parts of the iron. The handle and connector are only
attached to the cover plate.
Fig.3.9 Cover plate

4. Pressure Plate
This plate is generally called the top plate as it follows the

shape of sole plate. The pressure plate has some holes
through which the studs form the base plate passes through.
Fig.3.10 Pressure plate and heater coil

5. Pilot Lamp
The pilot lamp is housed on the cover plate of the electric iron. One end of the pilot lamp is connected
to supply, while the other end is connected to the heating element. A shunt resistance is provided
across the pilot lamp which assists in providing a voltage drop. The shunt is designed to provide a
voltage drop of 2-5 volts.
6. Heating Element
In an electric iron, the heating element is present between the sole plate
and pressure plate. It is pressed hard between the two plates. The heating
element consists of nichrome wire wound around a sheet of mica. The
two ends of the nichrome wire are connected to the contact strips. The
contact strips are connected to the terminals of the iron box.
Fig.3.11 Heating elements

7. Thermostat
The thermostat in iron box makes use of bimetallic strip. This bimetallic strip is made up of two
different types of metals (Brass and iron) with different coefficient of
expansion bonded together. Therefore, in the presence of heat, the
bimetallic strip expands differently. The metallic strip is connected to
a contact spring through small pins.
The bimetallic strip remains in physical contact with the contact

point at moderate temperature. However, at a temperature of the iron
box above a certain limit, the strip tends to bend towards the metal
with lower coefficient of expansion. At this point, the strip stops to
be physically connected to the contact point and current stops
flowing because of opening of the circuit.
Fig.3.12 Bimetallic Strip
Fig.3.13 (a) when the iron is at normal temperature (b) When the iron becomes too hot
8. Capacitor
The thermostat helps in maintaining the temperature within limits. But frequent making and breaking
of circuit damages the contact points and it may also result in interference with radio reception. To
avoid this, a capacitor of certain range is connected across the two contact points.
Types of Electric iron box
Basically, the electric iron boxes are two types.
1. Automatic iron box
2. Non-Automatic iron box

Automatic iron box:
(1) It has a thermostat switch to regulate the heat to a predetermined value.

(2) It has pilot lamp to indicate. It will glow if the temperature is under predetermined value, otherwise
not glow.
(3) Cost is high.
(4) As the temperature is controlled automatically through thermostatic switch, the risk of burning the
cloth is minimized.
Non-Automatic iron box:
1) It does not contain thermostat switch. Thus temperature is not regulated.

2) User has to switch ON or OFF the supply to iron according to the heat requirement.
3) There is no pilot lamp to point out the temperature condition whether it is within the limit or not.
4) Cost is low.
5) Overheat might burn the cloth. Thus more care is needed.
Automatic electric irons are more common as compared to non-automatic due to their safety benefits.
3.3 Water heater
The electric heaters used to heat up water are called electric water heater.
Working Principle of electric water heater
The very basic principle in an electric water heater is simply the conversion of electrical energy into
heat through the use of heating element(s) to raise the temperature of water to a certain degree.
Electric water heaters are of three (3) types. They are
1. Normal Plate Heater

2. Immersion Heater
3. Geyser Heater
Normal Plate Heater

Normal plate heater is used for heating a small amount of water, such as water for shaving etc. Its
construction is very simple. It consists of two round shaped nickel plates separated by a gap of 2 mm
with an insulator.
Precautions about Normal Plate Heater

1. This type of heater is very dangerous. While using this heater one should always keep on
watching that it does not come into contact with any metallic substance.
2. Do never try to immerse finger(s) in the water to check the warmness of the water.

Immersion Water Heater

The electric heater which is immersed in water for heating the
water is called Immersion Heater. In market, from 250 watt to
2.0 kilo watt immersion heaters are available. The body is made
of metallic substance and the heating element is made of copper
which is installed inside a capillary tube. The tube is found in ‗U‘
or Coil shape. The capillary tube is filled with magnesium oxide
which works as insulator. Both the end of the tube is sealed. The
supply connection is given through 3 pin socket and plug.
Fig.3.14 Immersion water heater
Precautions about Immersion Heater

1. Without immersing the water heater in water, supply cannot be given.
2. One should not touch the immersion rod when supply is ON.
3. Before removing the immersion rod from water it should be disconnect from the plug socket.
4. The water filled bucket should not be touched while the supply is ON.
5. Except water no other liquid substance should be heated by immersion heater.
Geyser Heater
Parts of Geyser water heater
1. Dip tube (inlet)

2. Electric heating elements
3. Heat-out pipe
4. Thermostat
5. Temperature and Pressure relief valve
6. Drain valve (Outlet)
7. Insulation
8. Anode rod
9. Power supply
Fig.3.15 Parts of Geyser water heater
1. Dip tube (inlet)
Cold water enters through the dip tube or inlet pipe.
2. Electric heating elements
The water tank is fitted with heating element(s) to raise the temperature of water to a certain degree
inside the tank.
3. Heat-out pipe
The hot water rises in the tank and is moved throughout the tank through the heat-out pipe.

4.Thermostat
The heating elements are controlled by thermostat. The function of the thermostat is to set the
temperature to a certain value so that water is not heated above that value.
5. Temperature and Pressure relief valve
This valve is arranged for relief of pressure and temperature inside the tank.
6. Drain valve (Outlet)
The hot water comes out from drain valve or outlet pipe.
7. Insulation
The tank is normally covered with some insulating material and entire assembly is enclosed inside a
metal casing which can be hanged on the wall or wherever required.
8. Anode rod
The sacrificial anode is used to protect the tank from corrosion by sacrificing itself and helps to
prolong the life of the tank.
9. Power supply
The water is heated by heating elements when the power supply is ON.
3.4 Induction heater
An induction heater is an electrical home appliance used in

cooking.
Working Principle of induction heater
The working principle of the induction heating process is a

combined recipe of Electromagnetic induction and Joule heating.
Induction heating process is the non-contact process of heating
an electrically conductive metal by generating eddy currents
within the metal, using electromagnetic induction principle. As
the generated eddy current flows against the resistivity of the
metal, by the principle of Joule heating, heat is generated in the
metal.
Fig.3.16 Induction cooktop

Fig.3.17 Induction Heating Fig.3.18 Inductive Heating of Metal
Parts of induction heater
To open up the induction cooktop, eight self-tapping head screws had to be removed. Once these
were out, the plastic shell separated into two pieces. The first piece, the top, includes the user
interface and associated electronics. The bottom piece is the glass cook top.
Fig.3.19 The cooktop with the top off
This main parts of induction heater are

1. Two circuit boards
2. An induction coil
3. A pair of temperature sensors
1. Two circuit boards
Circuit board 1
These UI (user interface) electronics allow the user to control the cooktop. The UI electronics are
comprised of a circuit board with all of the UI elements on it. The board is populated with seven
5mm red LED lights, six tactile buttons and a seven segment display. The board does have footprints
for two additional tactile buttons and two more LEDs.

Fig.3.20 The user interface PCB Fig.3.21 The 1628 LED driver
On the back of the board is there a 1628 LED driver. The 1628
LED driver is manufactured by multiple companies and does a lot
more than just control LEDs. The 1628 driver converts serial data
into individual LED controls and allows for the scanning of
buttons. This driver is in a SOP 28 package and is soldered to the
rear of the one-layer PCB.
The PCB has a few other passive components located on the top.
These components perform a logic level conversion using a voltage
divider network and help filter the signals.
Fig.3.22 The component side of the UI PCB
Circuit board 2
Located in the lower half of the opened enclosure, a second circuit

board handles the voltage regulation and device control. This is a
single-sided board with a handful of jumper wires and components
on both sides. The solder side of the board is coated with a
conformal coating to protect the small surface-mount components.
Fig.3.23 The bottom circuit board
The AC power coming into this circuit board is split into two paths.
There is a higher-power path that powers the induction coil and a lower-
power path that powers control electronics.
Fig.3.24 Small surface-mount components

Fig.3.25 The low-power switching power supply
Fig.3.26 The high-power switching power supply IGBT
A microcontroller is designed for use in induction

cooktops and is the heart of this device.
Fig.3.27 The speciality microcontroller
2. Induction coil
The key part of the induction cooktop is the coil. The coil in this induction cooktop measures is
comprised of 21 turns of Litz wire. The multi-conductior Litz wire is used to reduce the skin effect.
Fig.3.28 Induction coil Fig.3.29 The Litz wire Fig.3.30 A close look at the coil

3. A pair of temperature sensors

Located in the middle of the induction coil is a temperature
sensor. The sensor has two temperature sensor components in it.
The first is a thermal fuse. This fuse is designed to open at 184
degrees Celsius or 363 degrees Fahrenheit.
The second component is a Zener diode. Due to the temperature

coefficients of some Zener diodes, they can be used to measure
temperature by looking at their reverse breakdown voltage.
Fig.3.31 The temperature sensors
Key Benefits of Induction heater
 Efficient and quick heating

 Accurate, repeatable heating
 Safe heating as there is no flame
 Prolonged life of fixturing due to accurate heating
3.5 Microwave oven
The microwave oven is a household appliance that has revolutionized modern home kitchens. It is
designed to cook food quickly by using special electromagnetic radiation that heats objects from
within.
Working Principle of Microwave Oven
When the task is initiated, current enters the magnetron assembly and heats a filament inside it. This
acts as a cathode and once heated, it releases electrons.
These are accumulated and used to generate the

microwaves which are then guided to the cavity
where the food is placed.
The waves themselves do not carry thermal

energy. Unlike in non-microwave ovens where a
heating element is used, microwave ovens cook
food by generating the heat from within the food
itself. This happens due to vibrations.
The waves are absorbed by certain molecules

within the food which in turn causes them to
vibrate. This vibration produces kinetic
energy which is then converted to heat energy
and the food gets heated or cooked.
Fig.3.32 Microwave‘s Working Principle

Working of Microwave oven
1. Inside the strong metal box, there is a microwave generator called a magnetron. When user
start cooking, the magnetron takes electricity from the power outlet and converts it into high-
powered electromagnetic waves at a frequency of 2.24 gigahertz and a wavelength of 12.2
centimeters
2. The magnetron blasts these waves into the food compartment through a channel called a wave
guide.
3. The food sits on a turntable, spinning slowly round so the microwaves cook it evenly.
4. The microwaves bounce back and forth off the reflective metal walls of the food
compartment, just like light bounces off a mirror. When the microwaves reach the food itself,
they don't simply bounce off. Just as radio waves can pass straight through the walls of oven
compartment, so microwaves penetrate inside the food. As they travel through it, they make
the molecules inside it vibrate more quickly.
5. Vibrating molecules have heat so, the faster the molecules vibrate, the hotter the food
becomes. Thus the microwaves pass their energy onto the molecules in the food, rapidly
heating it up.
Parts of Microwave Oven
1. Magnetron Assembly
2. Waveguide
3. Transformer
4. Cooling Fan (Stirrer)
5. Control Panel
6. Door
7. Case
8. Turn table
Fig.3.33 Microwave Oven Components
1. Magnetron Assembly
The Magnetron Assembly is the critical component of generating

microwave energy. This is the component that generates the
microwave energy which is in turn used to heat the food.
The magnetron generates electromagnetic waves using very high

voltages. The typical electric voltage from a household wall
socket is usually quite low to fulfill this need. Therefore
a transformer is used.
Fig.3.34 Magnetron Assembly

2. Waveguide
Connected to the microwave‘s magnetron is a

waveguide. Waveguide is a hollow metallic tube that
helps to transmit microwaves along a certain path by
making use of successive reflections within the surface of
its inner walls.
A microwave oven would typically use this to transmit

the waves produced by the magnetron to the internal
cavity where the food is placed.
Fig.3.35 Waveguide Cover
3. Transformer
A step-up transformer is used to transform this relatively low voltage to

a high enough value for use within a microwave oven.
The device needs about 4000 volts or more to generate the microwaves
and it is the job of the transformer to supply this voltage to the
magnetron assembly which will, in turn, produce the waves when it is
operational.
Fig.3.36 Transformer
4. Cooling Fan (Stirrer)
As heating occurs in the microwave, it is necessary to have a system in place that ensures
the components do not overheat.For that reason, microwave ovens come with a cooling fan.
Cooling fan is used to dissipate the heat generated by the microwave‘s components as do most
electronics do.
5. Control Panel
This is the main component that users interact with. From here, one can set the duration, the level of
intensity with which user want to cook the food and even the operation user want to do, whether it is
grilling, defrosting or microwaving a meal.
6. Door
Most microwave ovens will have a glass door to see the food inside. The function of the door is to
keep the microwaves inside the cavity of the device where the food is. Also, the door is used to put
food inside the device.
7. Case
This makes up the body of the device. The case‘s purpose is to protect the microwave‘s components
from damage and the elements like dust and excessive moisture. Additionally, it helps protect the user
from harmful escaping microwaves during operation.
8. Turn table
Turn table is used for keeping the food on it.

3.6 Refrigerator
A refrigerator is a home appliance consisting of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat

pump that transfers heat from its inside to its external environment so that its inside is cooled to a
temperature below the room temperature
Working Principle of refrigerator
1. Cool refrigerant is passed around food items kept inside the fridge.
2. Refrigerant absorbs heat from the food items.
3. Refrigerant transfers the absorbed heat to the relatively cooler surroundings outside.
Fig.3.37 Refrigerator
Working of Refrigerator
The refrigeration cycle starts and ends with the compressor. The refrigerant flows into
the Compressor where it is compressed and pressurised. At this point, the refrigerant is a hot gas. The
refrigerant is then pushed to the Condenser which turns the vapour into liquid and absorbs some of the
heat. The refrigerant then proceeds to the Expansion Valve where it expands, losing pressure and heat.
The refrigerant coming out of the expansion valve is cold and slow due to the loss of pressure. It
enters the Evaporator in a liquid state where the exchange of heat takes place thus cooling the load
inside the refrigerator. As the gas cools down the load, it absorbs the heat which turns it into a gas.
The gas is then pushed back into the Compressor where it can start the cycle again.
During the refrigeration cycle, a build-up of ice around the evaporator may occur. Both commercial
fridges and freezers will combat this build-up with some form of defrost system.
Fig.3.38 Process cycle in Refrigerator

Main parts of Refrigerator
1. Compressor
2. Refrigerant
3. Condenser
4. Expansion valve
(or capillary tube)
5. Evaporator
6. Thermostat
(or temperature control device)
1. Compressor
The compressor consists of a motor that

‗sucks in‘ the refrigerant from the
evaporator and compresses it in a
cylinder to make a hot, high-pressure
gas. It is located back of the refrigerator.
Fig.3.39 Parts of refrigerator and Process in refrigerator
Fig.3.40 Compressor
2. Refrigerant
Refrigerant is actually a specially designed chemical that is capable of

alternating between being a hot gas and a cool liquid. It is truly the
lifeblood of a refrigerator. It starts in the form of a gas, then a liquid,
and back to a gas as it cycles through the refrigerator‘s parts.
3. Condenser
The condenser consists of a coiled set of tubes with external fins and is
located at the rear of the refrigerator. It helps in the liquefaction of the
gaseous refrigerant by absorbing its heat and subsequently expelling it
to the surroundings. As the heat of the refrigerant is removed, the
temperature of refrigerant drops to condensation temperature. So, the
state of refrigerant changes from vapour to liquid. Fig.3.41 Condenser coils
with external fins

4. Expansion valve (or Capillary tube)
This cooling process then shifts to the expansion valve, which is a thin set of copper tubes. The
expansion valve lowers the liquid refrigerant‘s temperature and pressure dramatically, caus ing about
half of it to evaporate. This refrigerant repeatedly evaporating at extremely low temperatures is that
creates the cool temperatures inside the refrigerator.
5. Evaporator
The evaporator absorbs heat from the stuff kept inside and as result of this heat, the liquid refrigerant
turns to vapour. The cooling process ends at the evaporator. The compressor takes vapour to start
process of the next cycle.
6. Thermostat or temperature control device
To control the temperature inside the refrigerator there is the thermostat, whose sensor is connected to
the evaporator. The thermostat setting can be done by the round knob inside the refrigerator
compartment. When the set temperature is reached inside the refrigerator the thermostat stops the
electric supply to the compressor and compressor stops and when the temperature falls below certain
level it restarts the supply to the compressor.
3.7 Concept of illumination
Illumination
Illumination is the distribution of light on any surface. The purpose of all lighting is to produce
illumination.
Lumen
Lumen is the measurement of light emitted by a lamp. As reference, a 100-watt incandescent lamp
emits about 1600 lumens.
Footcandle
Footcandle is the measurement of the intensity of illumination. A footcandle is the illumination

produced by one lumen distributed over a 1-square-foot area. For most home and office work, 30–50
footcandles of illumination is sufficient. For detailed work, 200 footcandles of illumination or more
allows more accuracy and less eyestrain. For simply finding one's way around at night, 5–20
footcandles may be sufficient.

3.8 Electric bulbs
The most common type of ―lamp‖ or bulb is the incandescent bulb.
The incandescent bulb or lamp is a source of electric light that works by incandescence, which is the
emission of light caused by heating the filament. They are made in an extremely wide range of sizes,
wattages and voltages.
Principle of electric bulb
An incandescent bulb works on the principle of incandescence, a general term meaning light
produced by heat. In an incandescent type of bulb, an electric current is passed through a thin metal
filament, heating the filament until it glows and produces light.
Types of the bases of an electric bulb:
1. Spiral base that has a piece of lead

to connect the lamp to the electric
circuit.
2. Two side nails base that has two
pieces of lead to connect the lamp
with the electric circuit and it has
two side nails.
Fig.3.42 Electric bulb Fig.3.43 Electric bulb with

with a spiral base two side nails base
Parts of an electric bulb.
1. Glass bulb
2. Inert gas (gas filling)
3. Tungsten filament
4. Contact wire (goes to foot)
5. Contact wire (goes to base)
6. Support wires
7. Glass mount/support
8. Base contact wire
9. Screw threads
10. Insulation
11. Electrical foot contact
Fig.3.44 Parts of electric bulb

Working of electric bulb

An incandescent bulb typically consists of a glass
enclosure containing a tungsten filament. An electric
current passes through the filament, heating it to a
temperature that produces light.
Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass

mount attached to the bulb's base which allows the
electrical contacts to run through the envelope without
gas/air leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem support
the filament and/or its lead wires.
The enclosing glass enclosure contains either a vacuum

or an inert gas to preserve and protect the filament from
evaporating.
Fig.3.45 Parts of electric bulb
3.9 CFL
The term ‗CFL‘ stands for Compact Fluorescent Lamp. It is also known as compact fluorescent light,
energy-saving light and compact fluorescent tube.
Compact Fluorescent Lamp Working Principle
The principle of CFL is the conversion of electrical energy into light energy.
The electrons that are bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where they will radiate ultraviolet
light as they return to a lower energy level. This emitted ultraviolet light is converted into visible light
as it strikes the fluorescent coating as well as into heat when absorbed by other materials.
CFL COMPONENTS
1. Cover
2. Coil glass tube
3. Phosphor coating
4. Mercury vapour,
5. Electrodes
6. Ballast
7. Ballast cover
8. Base
Fig.3.46 CFL

1. Cover - Compact fluorescent bulbs sometimes have a cover to hide the glass tubes and give
the bulb a more traditional shape.
2. Coil glass tube - is the medium through which light producing gases and mercury travel.
3. Phosphor coating - is found inside the coiled glass tube and help convert the energy to
visible light.
4. Mercury and other gasses - inside the lamp reach in excited state and produce energy.
5. Electrodes - direct the current through the lamp
6. The ballast - regulates the electric current and voltage into the lamp and powers the lamp.
7. Ballast cover – covers the ballast.
8. The base - serves as a conductor of electricity.
Fig.3.47 Parts of CFL Fig.3.48 Parts of CFL
Working of CFL
In a CFL, an electric current is driven through a tube containing argon and a small amount
of mercury vapour. This generates invisible ultraviolet light that excites a fluorescent coating
(called phosphor) on the inside of the tube, which then emits visible light.

Advantages of Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)
 It has energy efficiency.

 It has a higher life span ( nearly five to fifteen times) compared to the old filament bulbs.
 It has lesser power rating (almost 80 percent) compared to the old filament bulbs.
 It is low life cycle cost. Though, it has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, it can
save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp‘s lifetime.
Disadvantages of Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)
 It takes more time to start

 The initial Purchase cost is high.
 It does not come in dark shades too.
 Like all other fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain mercury, which complicates their disposal.
3.10 LED lights
LED stands for light emitting diode – A solid-state lighting (SSL) device. It is called as solid-
state lighting becaus e unlike incandescent and fluorescent lighting technologies, there are no
gases involved in LEDs. Instead, energy is passed through a semic onductor (usually a solid
chemical element or compound that can conduct electric ity), lighting up the LED light
bulb. A LED light is formed when bringing P-Type (+) and N-T ype (-) semic onductors
together that form a PN J unction.
LED BULB COMPONENTS
There are six main components in a LED lamp;
1. LED Chip
2. Driver (or) Circuit
3. Heat sink
4. Optic Lens
5. Housing
6. Base
Fig.3.49 Parts of LED lamp(bulb)

1. The LED Chip
The LED chip emits light in the bulb.
LED chips are the components that create the

light. They are small yellow LED pieces
attached to a piece of metal, referred to as
the PCB (printed c ircuit board). There are
tw o main types of c hip c onfigurations:
 Chip on Board (COB): is a s ingle LED
chip on PCB, creating a c lean, uniform
beam pattern
 Discrete: multiple LED chips placed on
PCB
Fig. 3.50 LED c hip
2. Driver
The driver then regulates the input current. The c ircuit board, als o referred to as the driver,
takes energy from the socket and tells the LEDs to turn on and off, dim and sometimes even
change colour. LED drivers are s imilar to ballasts in fluorescent lamps. LED drivers also
protect LEDs from voltage or current fluctuations. A change in voltage could caus e a change
in the c urrent being s upplied to the LEDs.
LEDs are des igned to run on low voltage (12-24V), but many c an run on higher voltages
(120-277V).
3. Heat Sink
The Heat Sink draws the heat away from the LED Chip.
The heat s ink is the piece of metal the LED chips s it on. Heat needs to be conducted away
from the LED and then cooled somehow – this is where the heat s ink comes in. They provide
the path for heat to travel from the LED light s ource to outside elements.
4. Optic lens
The optic lens controls the characteristics of the light output.
The Optic is also a big component of an LED lamp, which has multi-level optics.
Due to the brightness of LEDs, an optic lens is used to distribute the light evenly. This helps
the LED have the look and feel of traditional light bulbs. This piece is also us ually made of
plas tic to reduce the risk of s hattering.
The Primary Optic - is built directly on top of the LED chip.

The Secondary Optic - collects and redistributes the light in the LED lamp.

5. Hous ing
The c ircuit board heats up when energy passes through it, making it necessary for heat -
conductive hous ing. This hous ing component is usually made with aluminum. The hous ing
w ill s till be w arm to the touch, but not as hot as halogen, incandescent or fluorescent lighting.
6. Bas e
LEDs are des igned as a direct replacement for existing light bulbs. They can als o be found
w ith any base that traditional bulbs are available in. T he re are many types of lamp bases:
Fig.3.51 lamps of different types of bases
3.11 Energy efficiency in electrical appliances
Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal to reduce the amount of
energy required to provide products and services and can also reduce effects of air pollution. For
example, installing light-emitting diode bulbs, fluorescent lighting, or natural skylight
windows reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared to
using traditional incandescent light bulbs. Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved
by adopting a more efficient technology or production processor by application of commonly
accepted methods to reduce energy losses.

3.12 IS codes & IEcodes
IS codes
In the field of electrical engineering, engineers and other professionals get exposed to electricity
indirectly during generation, transportation, installation and usage. Such conditions might cause
hazards if accurate safety measures are not taken.
To promote the safety and the right usage of equipment, there are certain rules and regulations
formulated by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). BIS follows the following five principles −
 Safety
 Ease of use and adaptability
 Simple technology
 Value for money products
 Energy efficiency and environment
BIS has published the following code of practice for public safety standards in order to promote the
right to information, transparency and accountability in a proper manner to the public.
Code of Practice for Electrical Wiring Installation
 IS − 732 (1989)
 Section − Electrical Installation
 Application − Design of installation, selection and erection of equipment, inspection and
testing of wiring system
Code of practice for Earthing
 IS − 3043 (1987)
 Section − Electrical Installation
 Application − Design, installation and calculation of Earthing system
Lightning arrester for Alternating Current System
 IS − 3070 (1993)
 Section − Electro technical: Surge Arresters
 Application − Identification, ratings, classification and testing procedure of Arrester
Let us now consider other important codes of practice established by BIS for the purpose of
electrification. The codes are listed in the table below –

List of some General requirements
Sl.No. IS Code Application
1 IS:900 Installation and maintenance of Induction motors
2 IS:1271 Classification of insulating materials for electrical machinery
3 IS:1646 Fire safety of buildings (general) electrical installation
4 IS:1882 Outdoor installation of Public Address System (PAS)
5 IS:1886 Installation and maintenance of Transformers
6 IS:1913 General and safety requirements of electric lighting fittings
7 IS:2032 Graphical symbols related to electrical technology
8 IS:2274 Electrical wiring installations where system voltage is more than

658 volts
9 IS:3034 Fire safety of industrial buildings (Electrical generation and

distribution stations)
10 IS:3106 Selection, installation and maintenance of fuse where system

voltage is less than 650 volts
IE Codes
The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) is the world's leading organization that prepares
and publishes globally relevant International Standards for the whole energy chain, including all
electrical, electronic and related technologies, devices and systems. The IEC also supports all forms of
conformity assessment and administers four Conformity Assessment Systems that certify that
components, equipment and systems used in homes, offices, healthcare facilities, public spaces,
transportation, manufacturing, explosive environments and energy generation conform to them.
IEC work covers a vast range of technologies: power generation (including all renewable energy
sources), transmission, distribution, Smart Grid, batteries, home appliances, office and medical
equipment, all public and private transportation, semiconductors, fibre optics, nanotechnology,
multimedia, information technology and more. It also addresses safety, EMC, performance and the
environment.

List of some standards published by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

The numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000; for example IEC 27
became IEC 60027. IEC standards often have multiple sub-part documents; only the main title for the
standard is listed here.
 IEC 60059 IEC standard current ratings

 IEC 60060 High-voltage test techniques
 IEC 60061 Lamp caps and holders together with gauges for the control of interchangeability
and safety
 IEC 60062 Marking codes for resistors and capacitors
 IEC 60063 Preferred number series for resistors and capacitors
 IEC 60064 Tungsten filament lamps for domestic and similar general lighting purposes –
Performance requirements
 IEC 60065 Audio, video and similar electronic apparatus – Safety requirements
 IEC 60067 Dimensions of electronic tubes and valves
 IEC 60068 Environmental testing

Essay answer type questions
1. Explain the parts and working of an electric fan.

2. Explain the parts and working of an electric iron box.
3. Explain the parts and working of an electric water heater.
4. Explain the parts and working of an induction heater.
5. Explain the parts and working of a microwave oven.
6. Explain the parts and working of Refrigerator.
7. Explain about an electric bulb.
8. Explain about CFL.
9. Explain about LED lights.
10. Explain about IS codes and IE codes.
Short answer type questions
1. Mention any five parts of an electric fan and explain.

2. Write a short note on the working of an electric fan.
3. Mention any five parts of an electric iron box and explain.
4. Write a short note on the working of an electric iron box.
5. Mention any five parts of an electric water heater(Geyser heater) and explain.
6. Write a short note on the working of an electric water heater (Geyser heater).
7. Write a short note on the working of an immersion water heater.
8. Mention any five parts of an induction heater and explain.
9. Write a short note on the working of an induction heater.
10. Mention any five parts of microwave oven and explain.
11. Write a short note on the working of microwave oven.
12. Mention any five parts of Refrigerator and explain.
13. Write a short note on the working of a Refrigerator.
14. Write a short note on electric bulb.
15. Write a short note on CFL.
16. Write the advantages and disadvantages of CFL.
17. Write a short note on LED lights.
18. Write about the energy efficiency in electrical appliances.
19. Write a short note on IS codes.
20. Write a short note on IE codes.

MODEL PAPER – 1
SEMESTER – 1
Max. marks : 50 Time : 1: 30 hrs (90 minutes)
Section - A (4 X 5 M = 20 Marks)
Answer any four questions. Each answer carries 5 marks.

2. Write a short note on transformers.
3. Explain about Direct Current(DC) and Alternating Current(AC).
4. Describe about electric shock.
6. Mention any five parts of an electric fan and explain.
7. Write a short note on the working of microwave oven.
8. Write a short note on CFL.
Section - B (3 X 10 M = 30 Marks)
Answer any three questions. Each answer carries 10 marks.
9. Define resistance. Derive the equation for resultant resistance when the resistances are
connected in series.
10. Explain the basics of house wiring.
11. Explain in detail about ELCB.
12. Explain the parts and working of an electric water heater.
13. Explain about an electric bulb.

MODEL PAPER – 2
SEMESTER – 1
1. Define current. Write about an ammeter.

2. Define resistance. Explain ohm’s law.
3. Write any five differences between Direct Current(DC) and Alternating Current(AC).
4. Explain about single phase and three phase connections.
7. Write a short note on the working of a Refrigerator.
8. Write a short note on LED lights.
9. Define resistance. Derive the equation for resultant resistance when the resistances are
connected in parallel.
11. Explain the working of fuses in electrical circuits.
13. Explain about LED lights.

MODEL PAPER – 3
SEMESTER – 1
1. Write a short note on galvanometer.

2. Define electrical energy. Explain kilowatt hour.
3. Write a short notes on peak value and RMS value.
4. Write any five differences between star connection and delta connection.
5. Describe about insulation.
6. Mention any five parts of an electric water heater(Geyser heater) and explain.
7. Write a short note on the working of an induction heater.
8. Write a short note on electric bulb.
9. Explain about multimeter.

10. Explain about overloading of an electrical circuit.
12. Explain the parts and working of a microwave oven.
13. Explain about IS codes and IE codes.

MODEL PAPER – 4
SEMESTER – 1
1. Explain about electrical conductors and insulators.

2. Write a brief note on multimeter.
3. Write any five differences between single phase connection and three phase connection.
4. Write any five first aid methods for electric shock.
6. Write a short note on the working of an immersion water heater.
7. Mention any five parts of Refrigerator and explain.
8. Write about the energy efficiency in electrical appliances.
9. Explain about transformers.

10. Explain the concept of earthing and its necessity.
11. Explain in detail about MCB.
12. Explain the parts and working of an electric iron box.
13. Explain about CFL.

MODEL PAPER – 5
SEMESTER – 1

2. Explain about capacitance and inductance.
3. Write a short note on power factor in AC circuit.
4. Explain about star and delta connections.
7. Mention any five parts of an induction heater and explain.
8. Write the advantages and disadvantages of CFL.
9. Define electric power. Explain about the consumption of electrical power with an example.
13. Explain the parts and working of Refrigerator.

(UNDER CBCS FRAMEWORK FROM 2020-21)
AP B.Sc.
CBCS Semester - 1
Study Material
P.V.S.Sobhan Babu,
M.Sc., B.Ed.,
Lecturer in Physics,
Govt. Degree College,
Rajampeta, YSR Kadapa district.
Email : pvssobhanbabulms@gmail.com
Mobile No. 09492514696

Electrical Appliances Course Overview

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Electrical Appliances Course Overview

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(SKILL DEVELOPMENT COURSE)

P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 1

(UNDER CBCS FRAMEWORK FROM 2020-21)

P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 2

Revised CBCS w.e.f. 2020-21

Voltage, Current, Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, Electrical conductors and Insulators,

UNIT-II (10 hrs)

UNIT-III (10 hrs)

Co-curricular Activities (Hands on Exercises): (04 hrs)

1. Studying the electrical performance and power consumption of a given number of

P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 3

1.2 Electric Current 6

1.6 Electrical conductors and insulators 7

1.7 Ohm’s law 8

1.8 Series combination of resistors 8

1.9 Parallel combination of resistors 9

1.15 Electrical energy 15

1.16 Electric power 15

1.17 kilowatt hour (kWh) 15

1.18 Consumption of electrical power 16

2.1 Direct current and alternating current 18

2.2 RMS and peakvalues 20

2.3 Power factor 21

2.4 Single phase and three phase connections 22

2.5 Basics of house wiring 24

P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 4

2.6 Star and delta connection 25

2.7 Electric shock 27

2.8 First aid for electric shock 28

2.10 Earthing and its necessity 30

2.11 Short circuiting 31

3.1 Electric fan 40

3.2 Electric iron box 43

3.3 Water heater 46

3.4 Induction heater 48

3.5 Microwave oven 52

3.7 Concept of illumination 57

3.8 Electric bulbs 58

3.10 LED lights 61

3.11 Energy efficiency in electrical appliances 63

3.12 IS codes & IE codes 64

Model papers 1 to 5 68-72

P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 5

In brief, voltage = pressure.

The term voltage refers to a potential difference across two points.

Voltage = Energy / charge

Unit of voltage in SI system is volt (V).

1.2 Electric current :

Here i = electric current

SI unit of electric current is ampere (A).

The resistance (R) is a characteristic property of a conductor.

P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 6

SI unit of resistance is ‗ohm‘ and is represented by the symbol Ω (Omega).

A conductor can be charged either positively or negatively.

SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).

SI unit of inductance is henry (H).

1.6 Electrical conductors and insulators :

P.V.S.Sobhan Babu Page 7

An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current.

Vaccum is also an insulator, but is not actually a material.

Most of electrical conductors are covered by insulation.

1.7 Ohm’s law :

According to Ohm‘s law,