Inorganic Toxicity BARIUM

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Inorganic Toxicity:
Environment & Human Health
Authors
Dr. Gagan Matta
Dr. Laura Gjyli
Associate Editor
Mr. Avinash Kumar
Gurukula Kangri University,
Haridwar, India
Heinrich-Böcking-Straße 6, 66121 Saarbrücken, Germany

Authors
Dr. Gagan Matta

Assistant Professor (Senior)
Department of Zoology and Environmental Science,
Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Dr. Gagan Matta, has done his Masters and Doctorate of Philosophy in Environmental Science from
Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar, India. Since 2006 Dr. Matta is engaged in research work related
to water quality assessment and modeling, hydrological modeling, Toxicological assessment of various
industrial complexes, science and communication etc. In his credit there are more than 60 research papers
and 23 Books published at International level. He is the Fellow awardee and member of number of
International Scientific Bodies including International Association and Royal Society of Chemistry. Dr.
Matta has visited more than 8 countries for various research presentations and assignments including
member of BRICS Youth Summit in China in 2018. He is awarded with number of Awards for his
research work on Water quality in North India. Dr. Matta is a member of editor board of various journals
including Executive Editor of ESSENCE Journal with ISSN 0975 – 6272. Presently he is associated with
some major initiation of country like Conservation of River Ganga and WASH Programmes.
Dr. Laura GJYLI,

Lecturer of Biology and Microbiology,
Department of Natural and Applied Sciences,
University "Aleksander Moisiu", Durres, Albania
Dr. Laura GJYLI obtained her PhD from the University of Tirana in the field of biotechnology,
contributing to the identification of the presence of cyanobacterial species, for the first time in Albanian
marine waters, based on the PCR amplification of 16-23S ribosomal DNA sequences. Since 2006 she is
part of the founding staff of the University "Aleksander Moisiu" Durres, the newest public university in
Albania. She is elected by the academic staff in the position of the Head of Department of Medicine, a
position she held during the period 31.05.2016-12.09.2017. Currently she is a lecturer in the Department
of Applied and Natural Sciences, University “Aleksander Moisiu”, Durres. Since 2007 Dr. Gjyli is
engaged in research work related to water quality assessment. She is the first author and co-author of
more than 15 research articles published in international journals, she has referred in more than 20
international conferences and she is the coordinator and creator of the student conference in biomedical
fields. She is part of the editorial board of the “International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and
Conservation” and a scientific reviewer in the journal “Transylvanian Review of Systematical and
Ecological Research”. Recently she has participated in the summer edition of the ACT4LITTER, an
Interreg Med funded project aiming to facilitate efforts for tackling marine litter in Mediterranean MPAs
through effective and targeted measures towards reaching their conservation targets.

Inorganic toxicity: Environmental & Human Health
TROJA, Anri
Health Care Center, Peze,
Tirana, Albania
DEVOLLI, Ariola
Department of Chemistry,
Faculty of Biotechnology and Food,
Tirana Agricultural University,
Tirana, Albania
VRENOZI, Blerina
Department of Ecology and Vertebrate
Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences,
Research Center of Flora and Fauna,
Tirana, Albania
BHARTI, Manisha
Department of Zoology and Environment
Sciences, Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya,
Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
CHAWLA, Malvika
Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya,
CHAUDHARY, Satyendra
SHAHINASI, Edlira
Tirana, Albania
SPAHIU, Ermal
University “Aleksander Moisiu”, Durres,
Durres, Albania
i

HASA, Evelina
Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Natural Sciences,
Tirana University, Albania
GJYLI, Laura
Deparment of Applied and Natural Sciences,
Durres, Albania
KAMBOJ, Nitin
Department of Zoology and Environmental,
Science, Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya,
KAUSHIK, R. D.
Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidsyalaya,
KHANDELWAL, Nishant
KRASNIQI, Marsida
Deparment of Technical Medical Sciences,
Durres, Albania
KUMAR, Avinash
KODRA, Mariola
Tirana, Albania
ii

MATTA, Gagan
BAKALLI, Milidin
Department of Applied and Natural Sciences,
University of “Aleksandër Moisiu” Durres,
Durrës, Albania
MUÇAJ, Orion
Deparment of Technical Medical Sciences,
University “AleksanderMoisiu”, Durres,
Durres, Albania
MUJA, Nesade
Department of Biology,
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural sciences,
University of Prishtina,
Kosovo
MAURYA, Pradip Kumar

Department of Zoology and Environmental
Sciences, GurukulKangriVishwavidyalaya,
RAWAT, Kavita
SAGGU, Gurpreet
Department of Chemical Engineering,
Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Patiala, Inida
MANÇE, Sidita
iii

GJYLI, Silvana
SINGH, Jaspal
SUSHMA
BAJRAKTARI, Ylber
Faculty of Medicine, AAB College
Kosovo
iv

CONTENT
Chapters Title of Chapter Page Number

Chapter – 1 Inorganic Toxicity: Environment and human health 1
Chapter – 2 Inorganic Toxicity: Aluminium 18
Chapter – 3 Inorganic Toxicity: Asbestos 34
Chapter – 4 Inorganic Toxicity: Arsenic 48
Chapter – 5 Inorganic Toxicity: Barium 65
Chapter – 6 Inorganic Toxicity: Cadmium 88
Chapter – 7 Inorganic Toxicity: Chromium 98
Chapter – 8 Inorganic Toxicity: Cobalt 115
Chapter – 9 Inorganic Toxicity: Iron 131
Chapter – 10 Inorganic Toxicity: Lead 152
Chapter – 11 Inorganic Toxicity: Cyanide 180
Chapter – 12 Inorganic Toxicity: Fluoride 193
Chapter – 13 Inorganic Toxicity: Manganese 206
Chapter – 14 Inorganic Toxicity: Mercury 220
Chapter – 15 Inorganic Toxicity: Nitrates 235
Chapter – 16 Inorganic Toxicity: Selenium 242
Chapter – 17 Inorganic Toxicity: Copper 262
Chapter – 18 Inorganic Toxicity: Nitrite 270
Chapter – 19 Inorganic Toxicity: Zinc 278
Chapter – 20 Inorganic Toxicity: Nickel 290

Chapter – 5
Inorganic Toxicity: BARIUM
Gjyli, Laura; Muçaj, Orion; Matta, Gagan and Krasniqi, Marsida
Definition
Barium (Ba), is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the alkaline-earth group. It occurs
only in combination with other elements, especially in barite. Barium compounds are used
in X-raying the digestive system and in making fireworks and white pigments. Barium has
no defined biological role and, while many barium salts are insoluble and relatively
harmless if ingested, there is no safe level for this element in body tissues and fluids. The
water soluble carbonate and chloride salts are highly poisonous, but nevertheless barium
sulphate is regularly administered to humans as the “barium meal” for radiographic
visualization of the gastro-intestinal tract. Barium chloride has been used therapeutically in
the past as a stimulant for the heart, while barium sulphide (BaS) was formerly used as a
depilatory agent. Barium can replace calcium in many physiological processes, giving it a
potent effect on nerve and muscle activity. Existing studies indicate Ba absorbed from the
G.I. tract is primarily deposited in bones and teeth and excreted via feces and urine.
Keywords: Barium, environment, human health, toxicity.
Introduction
Generally, humans are exposed to heavy metals as barium by ingestion (drinking or eating)
or inhalation (breathing). Working in or living near an industrial site which utilizes these
metals and their compounds increases one’s risk of exposure, as does living near a site
where these metals have been improperly disposed. Barium is a very abundant, naturally
occurring metal and is used for a variety of industrial purposes. Barium compounds, such
as barium-nickel alloys are used for spark-plug electrodes and in vacuum tubes as a drying
and oxygen-removing agent; barium sulfide is used in fluorescent lamps; barium sulfate is
used in diagnostic medicine; barium nitrate and chlorate give fireworks a green color.
Barium compounds are also used in drilling muds, paint, bricks, ceramics, glass, and
rubber. Barium is not known to cause cancer. Bioaccumulation is the accumulation of
substances or chemicals in an organism. There are a small number of plants that easily
absorb high levels of metals from the surrounding soil. These are called hyperaccumulators.
Inorganic toxicity: Environmental and Human Health 65

Animals can accumulate metals as well by eating plants, fish, or drinking water with
elevated metal concentrations (Martin and Griswold, 2009; Matta and Gjyli, 2016). Soluble
barium compounds are absorbed to various degrees from the gastrointestinal tract in
animals and man. The absorption depends on several factors such as chemical form,
presence of sulfate in food and age. However, studies in rats have shown that after oral
application of barium selenate there is negligible uptake of barium into the blood and a very
limited increase in urinary excretion with 60% of the administered barium (2.8 mg
barium/animal) recovered in the faeces within 72 hours after treatment (EPMAR, 2015).
Definition
Barium - symbol Ba, is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the alkaline-earth group.
It occurs only in combination with other elements, especially in barite. Barium compounds
are used in X-raying the digestive system and in making fireworks and white pigments.
Atomic number 56; atomic weight 137.33; melting point 725°C; boiling point 1’140°C;
specific gravity 3.50; valence 2. A mixture of barium sulphate and water, opaque to X-rays,
which is swallowed to permit radiological examination of the stomach or intestines, is
called "a barium meal" (Mifflin, 2002).
Occurrence
Barium is the 16th most abundant non-gaseous element of the Earth’s crust, constituting
approximately 0.0425% of it and 13 µg/L in sea water. The two most prevalent naturally
occurring barium ores are barite (barium sulfate) and witherite (barium carbonate). Barite
occurs largely in sedimentary formations, as residual nodules resulting from weathering of
barite-containing sediments, and in beds along with fluorspar, metallic sulfides, and other
minerals. Witherite is found in veins and is often associated with lead sulfide. Barium is
found in coal at concentrations up to 3000 mg/kg, as well as in fuel oils (IPCS, 1990;
ATSDR, 1992; Kresse et al., 2007). Estimates of terrestrial and marine, International
Programme on Chemical Safety (Environmental Health Criteria 107). concentrations of
barium are 250 and 0.006 g/tonne, respectively (Considine, 1976). Barium is a silvery-
white metal that takes on a silver-yellow color when exposed to air. Barium occurs in nature
in many different forms called compounds. These compounds are solids, existing as
powders or crystals, and they do not burn well. Two forms of barium, barium sulfate and
barium carbonate, are often found in nature as underground or deposits. Barium is
sometimes found naturally in drinking water and food. Because certain barium compounds
(barium sulfate and barium carbonate) do not mix well with water, the amount of barium
usually found in drinking water is small. Other barium compounds, such as barium
chloride, barium nitrate, and barium hydroxide, are manufactured from barium sulfate.
Barium compounds such as barium acetate, barium chloride, barium hydroxide, barium
nitrate, and barium sulfide dissolve more easily in water than barium sulfate and barium
carbonate, but because they are not commonly found in nature, they do not typically end

up in drinking water unless the water is contaminated by barium compounds that are
released from waste sites (Public Health Statement Barium CAS#: 7440-39-3. (2007). The
main commercial source of barium is barite (also called barytes or heavy spar), which is a
barium sulfate mineral. Its deposits are spread all over the world. The only other
commercial source is far less important than barite; it is witherite, a barium carbonate
mineral. Its main deposits are located in England, Romania, and the former USSR. The
barite reserves are estimated between 0.7 and 2 billion tonnes. The maximum production
was achieved in 1981, at 8.3 million tonnes, and only 7–8% of it was used to make barium
or its compounds (Kresse et al., 2007). Domestic barite production was about 670,000
metric tons (t) in 2012, equivalent to about 20 percent of the domestic drilling industry’s
barite demand. Mine production for the United States in 2012 was about one-third of what
was produced in 1980. In 2012, barite imported from China was approximately 2.2 million
t and comprised about 77 percent of total barite imports and about 70 percent of the barite
used in domestic drilling. Barite from India (14 percent), Morocco (6 percent) and Mexico
(2 percent) comprised the bulk of the remaining total import balance; drilling applications
consumed nearly all barite imported from these three countries (Bleiwas and Miller, 2015).
Physiological Role
Metabolism and disposition
Existing studies indicate Ba absorbed from the G.I. tract is primarily deposited in bones
and teeth and excreted via feces and urine. The absorption efficiency of various Ba
compounds given orally varies widely (0.7-85%) depending upon the chemical form,
species, age, and fasting status of the animal. In general, more soluble forms of Ba such as
barium chloride (BaCl2) are more readily absorbed. Young rats absorb approximately 10
fold more BaCl2 than adults. Barium disappears from blood and milk with a half-life (t1/2)
measured in days; however, Ba deposited in bone has a t1/2 measured in years, and
disappearance from bone is generally dependent upon bone turnover. These observations,
together with the divalent cationic nature of Ba and the fact Ba is known to bind Ca-
dependent enzyme systems in cells, suggest Ba metabolism utilizes Ca transport systems
in the body. Barium is not metabolized in the body, but it may be transported or
incorporated into complexes or tissues (https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp24-
c3.pdf). About 54% of the barium dose is protein bound. Barium is known to activate the
secretion of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla without prior calcium deprivation. It
may displace calcium from the cell membranes, thereby increasing permeability and
providing stimulation to muscles. Eventual paralysis of the central nervous system can
occur (Beliles, 1994).
Effects of barium on synaptic transmission and catecholamine release
Barium can replace calcium in many physiological processes, giving it a potent effect on
nerve and muscle activity. Barium can mimic the action of calcium in the release of

neurotransmitters, evoking the release of acetylcholine from the neuromuscular junction,
noradrenaline from the sympathetic nerve terminals and catecholamines from the adrenal
medulla. The barium-evoked release of these substances is persistent, while release by
calcium is transitory and terminated by membrane repolarization. This action results in the
potent muscular and cardiac toxicity of barium (Barium, 2013; WHO-ICPS,1990).
Absorption
The soluble forms of barium salts are rapidly absorbed into the blood from the intestinal
tract. The rates of absorption of a number of barium salts have been measured in rats
following oral exposure to small quantities (30 mg/kg body weight). The relative absorption
rates were found to be: barium chloride barium sulfate barium carbonate. Large doses of
barium sulfate do not increase the uptake of this salt because of its low solubility
(McCauley and Washington, 1983; EPA, 1984). Systemic toxic effects have been observed
following both oral and inhalation exposure. No absorption kinetics are available following
inhalation exposure, although it is obvious that absorption does occur (EPA, 1984).
Distribution
Barium absorbed into the bloodstream disappears in about 24 hours; however, it is
deposited in the muscles, lungs, and bone. Very little is stored in the kidneys, liver, spleen,
brain, heart, or hair. It remains in the muscles about 30 hours after which the concentration
decreases slowly. The deposition of barium into bone is similar to calcium but occurs at a
faster rate (Beliles, 1994). The half-life of barium in bone is estimated to be about 50 days
(Machata, 1988).
Excretion
A tracer study in rats using 140Ba demonstrated that 7% and 20% of the barium dose was
excreted in 24 hours in the urine and feces, respectively. In contrast, calcium is primarily
excreted in the urine. The clearance of barium is enhanced with saline infusion (Beliles,
1994). Following intravenous injection of barium into six healthy men, excretion was
mainly fecal with the total relative fecal: urinary clearance for 14 days ranging from 6 to
15 (Newton et al., 1991).
Historitical and current use
Barium is a very abundant, naturally occurring metal and is used for a variety of industrial
purposes. Barium compounds, such as barium-nickel alloys are used for spark-plug
electrodes and in vacuum tubes as a drying and oxygen-removing agent; barium sulfide is
used in fluorescent lamps; barium sulfate is used in diagnostic medicine; barium nitrate and
chlorate give fireworks a green color. Barium compounds are also used in drilling muds,
paint, bricks, ceramics, glass, and rubber (Martin and Griswold, 2009).

Image explanation
The image is based on x-ray radiographs of the human stomach and intestines in patients
who have been given a ‘barium meal’.
Appearance
Barium is a soft, silvery metal that rapidly tarnishes in air and reacts with water.
Uses
Barium is not an extensively used element. Most is used in drilling fluids for oil and gas
wells. It is also used in paint and in glass making. All barium compounds are toxic;
however, barium sulfate is insoluble and so can be safely swallowed. A suspension of
barium sulfate is sometimes given to patients suffering from digestive disorders. This is a
‘barium meal’ or ‘barium enema’. Barium is a heavy element and scatters X-rays, so as it
passes through the body the stomach and intestines can be distinguished on an X-ray.
Barium carbonate has been used in the past as a rat poison. Barium nitrate gives fireworks
a green color (Emsley, 2011; Jefferson, 2014). Barium and barium compounds are used for
many important purposes. Barium sulfate ore is mined and used in several industries. It is
used mostly by the oil and gas industries to make drilling muds. Drilling muds make it
easier to drill through rock by keeping the drill bit lubricated. Barium sulfate is also used
to make paints, bricks, tiles, glass, rubber, and other barium compounds. Some barium
compounds, such as barium carbonate, barium chloride, and barium hydroxide, are used to
make ceramics, insect and rat poisons, and additives for oils and fuels; in the treatment of
boiler water; in the production of barium greases; as a component in sealants, paper
manufacturing, and sugar refining; in animal and vegetable oil refining; and in the
protection of objects made of limestone from deterioration. Barium sulfate is sometimes
used by doctors to perform medical tests and take x-ray photographs of the stomach and
intestines (Public Health Statement Barium CAS#: 7440-39-3, 2007). Because of its high
specific gravity, low abrasiveness, chemical stability, and lack of magnetic effects, barite
is used as a weighting agent for oil and gas well drilling muds, which counteracts high
pressures encountered in the substrata. It is also used as a filler in a range of industrial
coatings, as a dense filler in some plastics and rubber products, in brake linings, and in
some sealants and adhesives. The use dictates the source of barite used. Some sources
produce very pure white barite, which is used in coatings, while barite from other sources
is off-white and is used in applications where the color is unimportant. The use will also
dictate the particle size to which barite is milled. For example, drilling muds are ground to
an average particle diameter of 44 µm, with a maximum of 30% of particles less than 6 µm
in diameter. Barium and its compounds are used in diverse industrial products ranging from
ceramics to lubricants. Barium is used in the manufacture of alloys, soap, rubber, and
linoleum; in the manufacture of valves; as a loader for paper; and as an extinguisher for
radium, uranium, and plutonium fires. Barium compounds are used in cement, specialty arc

welding, glass industries, electronics, roentgenography, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, inks,
and paints. They have also been used as insecticides and rodenticides (e.g., barium
metaborate, barium polysulfide, and barium fluorosilicate) (Choudhury and Cary, 2001).
Use: Cosmetic and Non-Cosmetic
Cosmetic
Barium Sulfate functions as an opacifying agent in cosmetic products (Gottschalck and
Breslawec, 2012).According to information supplied to the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) by industry as part of the Voluntary Cosmetic Registration Program (VCRP) in
2014, barium sulfate is being used mostly in leave-on products (FDA, 2014).Results from
a survey of ingredient use concentrations provided by the Personal Care Products Council
in 2013 indicate that this ingredient is being used at concentrations up to 0.99% and 37%
in rinse-off and leave-on products, respectively (Personal Care Products Council, 2013).
Table 1. Frequency and Concentration of Use According to Duration and Type of Exposure
for Barium Sulfate (FDA, 2014; Personal Care Products Council, 2013).
NR = Not Reported; NS = Not Surveyed; Totals = Rinse-off + Leave-on Product Uses.

Note: Because each ingredient may be used in cosmetics with multiple exposure types, the sum of
all exposure type uses may not equal the sum total uses. Cosmetic products containing barium
sulfate may be applied to the skin and nails, or, incidentally, may come in contact with the
eyes and mucous membranes. Products containing these ingredients may be applied as
frequently as several times per day and may come in contact with the skin or hair for
variable periods following application. Daily or occasional use may extend over many
years. Barium sulfate is being used at concentrations up to 15% in cosmetic products that
are sprayed (perfumes) and at concentrations up to 15.8 % in powders (face and dusting
powders). Because this ingredient is used in aerosol/pump hair sprays and in powders, it
could possibly be inhaled. In practice, 95% to 99% of the droplets/particles released from
cosmetic sprays have aerodynamic equivalent diameters >10 µm, with propellant sprays

yielding a greater fraction of droplets/particles below 10 µm, compared with pump spray
(Rothe et al., 2011; Bremmer et al., 2006; Rothe, 2011; Johnsen, 2004).Therefore, most
droplets/particles incidentally inhaled from cosmetic sprays would be deposited in the
nasopharyngeal and bronchial regions and would not be respirable (i.e., they would not
enter the lungs) to any appreciable amount (Rothe et al., 2011; Bremmer et al., 2006).
Non-Cosmetic
Barium sulfate has been used as a gastrointestinal contrast agent in roentgen graphic
procedures (McKee and Jurgens, 1986). Barytes (the naturally occurring rock form of
BaSO4) has been referred to as the standard densification agent used in drilling fluids
worldwide (Ansari, et al., 2001).
Scientific Facts
History
In the early 1600s, Vincenzo Casciarolo, of Bologna, Italy, found some unusual pebbles. If
they were heated to redness during the day, they would shine during the night. This was the
mineral barite (barium sulfate, BaSO4). When Bologna stone, as it became known, was
investigated by Carl Scheele in 1760s he realised it was the sulfate of an unknown element.
Meanwhile a mineralogist, Dr. William Withering, had found another curiously heavy
mineral in a lead mine in Cumberland which clearly was not a lead ore. He named it
witherite; it was later shown to be barium carbonate, BaCO3. Neither the sulfate nor the
carbonate yielded up the metal itself using the conventional process of smelting with
carbon. However, Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution in London produced it by the
electrolysis of barium hydroxide in 1808, coined in Modern Latin by its discoverer, English
chemist Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829), because it was present in the mineral barites
"heavy spar" (barium sulphate), so named by Lavoisier from Greek barys "heavy". The
metal is actually relatively light (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2010).
Scientific Facts
Atomic Number: 56
Symbol: Ba
Atomic Weight: 137.327
Discovery: Sir Humphrey Davy 1808 (England)
Electron Configuration: [Xe] 6s2
Word Origin: Greek barys, heavy or dense
Isotopes:Natural barium is a mixture of sevenstable isotopes. Thirteen radioactive isotopes
are known to exist.
Properties:Barium has a melting point of 725°C, boiling point of 1640°C, specific gravity
of 3.5 (20°C),with a valence of 2. Barium is a soft metallic element. In its pure form, it is

silvery white. The metal oxidizes readily and should be stored under petroleum or other
oxygen-free liquids. Barium decomposes in water or alcohol. Impure barium sulfide
phosphoresces following exposure to light. All barium compounds that are soluble in water
or acid are poisonous.
Uses: Barium is used as a 'getter' in vacuum tubes. Its compounds are used in pigments,
paints, glassmaking, as weighting compounds, in the manufacture of rubber, in rat poison,
and in pyrotechnics.
Sources: Barium is only found combined with other elements, primarily in barite or heavy
spar (sulfate) and witherite (carbonate).
The element is prepared by the electrolysis of its chloride.
Element Classification: Alkaline-earth Metal
Density (g/cc):3.5
Melting Point(K):1002
Boiling Point(K):1910
Appearance: soft, slightly malleable, silver-white metal
Atomic Radius(pm):222
Atomic Volume(cc/mol):39.0
Covalent Radius(pm):198
Ionic Radius:134 (+2e)
Specific Heat(@20°C J/g mol):0.192
Fusion Heat(kJ/mol): 7.66
Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 142.0
Pauling Negativity Number: 0.89
First Ionizing Energy (kJ/mol):502.5
Oxidation States:2
Structure: Body‐Centered
Lattice Constant (Å):5.020
(Los Alamos National Laboratory, 2001).
Biological role
Barium has no known biological role, although barium sulfate has been found in one
particular type of algae. Barium is toxic, as are its water- or acid-soluble compounds
(Emsley, 2011).
Natural abundance
Barium occurs only in combination with other elements. The major ores are barite (barium
sulfate) and witherite (barium carbonate). Barium metal can be prepared by electrolysis of

molten barium chloride, or by heating barium oxide with aluminium powder (Emsley,
2011).
Production
The mined ore is washed, crushed, classified, and separated from quartz. If the quartz
penetrates too deep into the ore, or the iron, zinc, or lead content is abnormally high, then
flotation methods are applied. The product is a 98% pure barite (by mass); the purity should
be no less than 95%, with a minimal content of iron and silicon dioxide. [4]It is then reduced
by carbon to barium sulfide (Kresse et al., 2007):
BaSO4+ 2 C → BaS + 2 CO2↑
The water-soluble barium sulfide is the starting point for other compounds: dissolved BaS
upon reaction with oxygen gives the sulfate, with nitric acid the nitrate, with carbon dioxide
the carbonate, and so on (Kresse et al., 2007). The nitrate can be thermally decomposed to
yield the oxide (Kresse et al., 2007). Barium metal is produced by reduction with
aluminium at 1,100 C (2,010 F). The intermetallic compound BaAl4 is produced first
(Kresse et al., 2007):
3 BaO + 14 Al → 3 BaAl4+ Al2O3
It is an intermediate, which reacts with barium oxide to give the metal. Note that not all
barium is reduced (Kresse et al., 2007).
8 BaO + BaAl4→ Ba↑ + 7 BaAl2O4
The remaining barium oxide reacts with the formed aluminium oxide (Kresse et al.,
2007):
BaO + Al2O3→ BaAl2O4
and the overall reaction is (Kresse et al., 2007):
4 BaO + 2 Al → 3 Ba↑ + BaAl2O4
The thus produced barium vapor is collected at the cooler part of the apparatus and then
packed into molds under argon atmosphere (Kresse et al., 2007). This method is used
commercially and can yield ultrapure barium (Kresse et al., 2007). Commonly sold barium
is about 99% pure, with main impurities being strontium and calcium (up to 0.8% and
0.25%) and other contaminants contributing less than 0.1% (Kresse et al., 2007).
A similar reaction with silicon at 1,200 C (2,190°F) yields barium and barium metasilicate
(Kresse et al., 2007). Electrolysis is not used because barium readily dissolves in molten
halides and is rather impure when isolated with this method (Kresse et al., 2007).
Exposure
Environmental exposure to barium
Barium compounds are used:
1. in paints (permanent white or “blanc fixe” is BaSO4) including car paints,

2. in X-ray diagnostic work and for body imaging (the “barium meal” is also the
sulphate, which is insoluble),
3. in glass-making,
4. in the manufacture of rubber,
5. as a rat poison (the carbonate).
Barium compounds are added to fireworks to impart a green color. Barium is used in the
manufacture of a wide variety of electronic components, in metal alloys, bleaches, dyes,
ceramics and glass. Barium oxide is used to coat the electrodes of fluorescent lamps to
improve electron release. Un-monitored drinking water may contain excess barium,
particularly where there is a run-off from mining operations. Subjects drinking such water
over a period of years may experience an increase in their blood pressure (Barium, 2013).
Background levels of barium in the environment are very low. The air that most people
breathe contains about 0.0015 parts of barium per billion parts of air (ppb). The air around
factories that release barium compounds into the air has about 0.33 ppb or less of barium.
Most surface water and public water supplies contain on average 0.030 parts of barium per
million parts of water (ppm) or less, but can average as high as 0.30 ppm in some regions
of the United States. In some areas that have underground water wells, drinking water may
contain more barium than the 2 ppm limit set by EPA. The highest amount measured from
these water wells has been 10 ppm. The amount of barium found in soil ranges from about
15 to 3,500 ppm. Some foods, such as Brazil nuts, seaweed, fish, and certain plants, may
contain high amounts of barium. The amount of barium found in food and water usually is
not high enough to be a health concern. However, information is still being collected to
determine if long-term exposure to low levels of barium causes any health problems (Public
Health Statement Barium CAS#: 7440-39-3, 2007).
People with the greatest known risk of exposure to high levels of barium are those working
in industries that make or use barium compounds. Most of these exposed persons breathe
air that contains barium sulfate or barium carbonate. Sometimes they are exposed to one of
the more harmful barium compounds (for example, barium chloride or barium hydroxide)
by breathing the dust from these compounds or by getting them on their skin. Barium
carbonate can be harmful if accidentally eaten because it will dissolve in the acids within
the stomach unlike barium sulfate, which will not dissolve in the stomach. Many hazardous
waste sites contain barium compounds, and these sites may be a source of exposure for
people living and working near them. Exposure near hazardous waste sites may occur by
breathing dust, eating soil or plants, or drinking water that is polluted with barium. People
near these sites may also get soil or water that contains barium on their skin (Public Health
Statement Barium CAS#: 7440-39-3, 2007).
Anthropogenic sources of barium are primarily industrial. Emissions may result from
mining, refining, or processing of barium minerals and manufacture of barium products.

Barium is released to the atmosphere during the burning of coal, fossil fuels, and waste.
Barium is also discharged in wastewater from metallurgical and industrial processes.
Deposition on soil may result from human activities, including the disposal of fly ash and
primary and secondary sludge in landfills (IPCS, 1990). Estimated releases of barium and
barium compounds to the air, water, and soil from manufacturing and processing facilities
in the USA during 1998 were 900, 45, and 9300 tonnes, respectively (TRI, 1998).
Source of Contamination
Sources of contaminant are mineral deposits, disposal of drilling wastes, smelting of
copper, motor vehicle parts manufacturing (WQA Technical Fact Sheet: Barium, 2013).
Humans are exposed to barium from a variety of sources: via the environment where it
naturally occurs, via drinking water and the diet, via consumer products, including toys and
also occupationally, being used in many industrial applications (i.e. in the production of
drilling muds, paints, bricks, glass, rubber, ceramics). Barium toxicity is produced by the
free cation; therefore, the crucial factor affecting the onset of adverse health effects in
humans is the solubility of the barium compound to which the individual is exposed.
Indeed, the kinetic behavior of barium in the organisms is compound-dependent: water
soluble barium compounds, such as barium chloride, nitrate, or hydroxide, which quickly
dissolved in water and body fluids, have a greater potential for absorption, distribution via
the bloodstream and toxicity to humans. The only exception to this rule is carbonate, which
although relatively insoluble in water, is toxic to humans because it is soluble in the acid
milieu of the stomach. The insoluble barium sulfate due to the absence of any systemic
toxicity is commonly used in medical applications as a contrast medium. For the general
population, including children, oral exposure would be the predominant of exposure (US
EPA, 2005). In the specific case of toys, it is expected that the major additional source of
barium exposure is due to the potential of oral intake through the licking or ingestion of
crayons, water colors or toys colored with Ba-containing pigments (Rastogi and Pritzl,
1996). The dermal and inhalation route are not considered significant for this specific
scenario. Although the dermal contact with the toys occurs, barium is not expected to cross
the intact skin because of the high polarity of the forms in which it is most commonly
encountered. However, there is little quantitative information regarding the extent of
barium absorption following dermal exposure (SCHER, 2012).
Environmental Effects
Barium compounds, such as barium sulfate and barium carbonate, which do not dissolve
well in water, remain stable in the environment for extended periods of time (Elemental
Metals and Toxic Effects, 2014).
Environmental Levels
Air
The concentration of barium in ambient air is estimated to be <0.05 μg/m3(ATSDR, 2007).

Sediment and Soil
Barium is found in most soils at concentrations ranging from about 15 to 3,500 ppm and
mean values ranging between 265 and 835 ppm, depending on soil type (ATSDR, 2007).
Water
Barium concentrations in drinking water typically average 30 μg/L, but can average as high
as 302 μg/L (ATSDR, 2007).
Barium enters the environment naturally through the weathering of rocks and minerals.
Anthropogenic releases are primarily associated with industrial processes. In the
atmosphere, barium is likely to present in particulate form and is primarily removed by wet
and dry deposition. In aquatic media, barium is likely to precipitate out of solution as an
insoluble salt. Barium is not very mobile in most soil systems due to the formation of water
insoluble salts and the inability of barium to form soluble complexes with fulvic and humic
acids. Barium has the potential to bioconcentrate in marine animals and plants and in some
terrestrial plants such as legumes, forage plants, Brazil nuts, and mushrooms (ATSDR,
2007). The length of time that barium will last in air, land, water, or sediments following
release of barium into these media depends on the form of barium released. Barium
compounds that do not dissolve well in water, such as barium sulfate and barium carbonate,
can persist for a long time in the environment. Barium compounds, such as barium chloride,
barium nitrate, or barium hydroxide, that dissolve easily in water usually do not last in these
forms for a long time in the environment. The barium in these compounds that is dissolved
in water quickly combines with sulfate or carbonate that are naturally found in water and
become the longer lasting forms (barium sulfate and barium carbonate). Barium sulfate and
barium carbonate are the barium compounds most commonly found in the soil and water.
If barium sulfate and barium carbonate are released onto land, they will combine with
particles of soil (Public Health Statement Barium CAS#: 7440-39-3, 2007).
Environmental fate
Barium in water comes primarily from natural sources. The acetate, nitrate and halides are
soluble in water, but the carbonate, chromate, fluoride, oxalate, phosphate and sulfate are
quite insoluble. The solubility of barium compounds increases as the pH level decreases
(US EPA, 1985a). The highest levels to be found in drinking-water are likely to be
associated with groundwater of low pH from granite-like igneous rocks, alkaline igneous
and volcanic rocks and manganese-rich sedimentary rocks. Concentrations are, therefore,
expected to be relatively stable. Organic barium compounds are ionic and are hydrolysed
in water (Cotton and Wilkinson, 1980). The concentration of barium ions in natural aquatic
systems is limited by the presence of naturally occurring anions and possibly also by the
adsorption of these ions onto metal oxides and hydroxides (Hem, 1959; Barium in
Drinking-water, 2004).

Mobility of barium chloride dihydrate increases when levels of organic matter and pH are
low. Barium compounds mobility decreases in soil when reacted with metal oxides,
hydroxides, sulfate and carbonates forming insoluble compounds.
(https://www.chemsupply.com.au/documents/BL0271CH19)
Potential Health Effects
Barium has no defined biological role and, while many barium salts are insoluble and
relatively harmless if ingested, there is no safe level for this element in body tissues and
fluids. The water soluble carbonate and chloride salts are highly poisonous, but
nevertheless barium sulphate is regularly administered to humans as the “barium meal” for
radiographic visualization of the gastro-intestinal tract. Barium chloride has been used
therapeutically in the past as a stimulant for the heart, while barium sulphide (BaS) was
formerly used as a depilatory agent (Schramel, 1988; Stokinger, 1981; EPMAR, 2015). It
has been suggested that barium plays a role in the choroid of the eyeball and is essential for
vision, but this has not been confirmed (WHO-ICPS, 1990; EPMAR, 2015).
The health effects of the different barium compounds depend on how well the compound
dissolves in water. Barium compounds that do not dissolve well in water are not generally
harmful and are often used by doctors for medical purposes. If the sulfate concentration in
the water is high, then the precipitation of barium as a sulfate salt reduces its potential for
adverse health effects. Those barium compounds that dissolve well in water may cause
harmful health effects in people (WQA Technical Fact Sheet: Barium, 2013).
Ingesting high levels of soluble barium compounds over the short term has resulted in
difficulties in breathing, increased blood pressure, changes in heart rhythm, stomach
irritation, brain swelling, muscle weakness, and damage to the liver, kidney, heart, and
spleen.
Animal studies have found increased blood pressure and changes in the heart from ingesting
barium over a long time. Based on such studies, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (US EPA) has set a Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) at 2.0 mg/L (or
ppm) in water. The federal Safe Drinking Water Act Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)
also has been set at the same (2.0 ppm) level by EPA (WQA Technical Fact Sheet: Barium,
2013). Barium has been found to potentially cause gastrointestinal disturbances and
muscular weakness when people are exposed to it at levels above the EPA drinking water
standards for relatively short periods of time. We do not know whether children are more
or less sensitive than adults to barium toxicity (Elemental Metals and Toxic Effects, 2014).
Based on limited human and animal data, the respiratory tract is the most sensitive target
following inhalation exposure. The solubility of the barium compound in the
gastrointestinal tract is an important factor affecting the development of adverse health
effects. Compounds such as barium chloride and barium carbonate are generally expected
to be of greater health concern than insoluble barium compounds (notable barium sulfate)

which are generally nontoxic to humans. The predominant effect following ingestion of
high doses of barium is hypokalemia which can result in ventricular tachycardia,
hypertension and/or hypotension, muscle weakness, and paralysis. Animal studies suggest
that the kidney is a sensitive target following long-term exposure to low levels of soluble
barium compounds (ATSDR, 2007).
Barium is not known to cause cancer. Short term exposure can cause vomiting, abdominal
cramps, diarrhea, difficulties in breathing, increased or decreased blood pressure, numbness
around the face, and muscle weakness. Large amounts of barium intake can cause, high
blood pressure, changes in heart rhythm or paralysis and possibly death.
Regulatory limits
● EPA - 2.0 parts per million (ppm) in drinking water.
● OSHA - 0.5 milligrams of soluble barium compounds per cubic meter of workplace air
for 8 hour shifts and 40-hour work week (Martin and Griswold, 2009).
Bioaccumulation risk of barium
Rarely accumulated in plants, but accumulates in certain plants, seaweed, and fish. Readily
accumulated in brazil nuts (Martin and Griswold, 2009).
Inhaled
Inhalation of dusts, generated by the material, during the course of normal handling, may
be harmful. There is some evidence to suggest that the material can cause respiratory
irritation in some persons. The body's response to such irritation can cause further lung
damage. Persons with impaired respiratory function, airway diseases and conditions such
as emphysema or chronic bronchitis, may incur further disability if excessive
concentrations of particulate are inhaled. Barium fumes are respiratory irritants. Over-
exposure to barium dusts and fume may result in rhinitis, frontal headache, wheezing,
laryngeal spasm, salivation and anorexia. Long term effects include nervous disorders and
adverse effects on the heart, circulatory system and musculature. Heavy exposures may
result in a benign pneumoconiosis (Barium chloride dehydrate sc-202970, 2009).
Chronic health effects
Limited evidence suggests that repeated or long-term occupational exposure may produce
cumulative health effects involving organs or biochemical systems. Long term exposure to
high dust concentrations may cause changes in lung function i.e. pneumoconiosis; caused
by particles less than 0.5 micron penetrating and remaining in the lung. Prime symptom is
breathlessness; lung shadows show on X-ray. Barium compounds may cause high blood
pressure, airway irritation and damage the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Prolonged
exposure may cause a lung inflammation and scarring. Symptoms of this include a
worsening dry cough, shortness of breath on exertion, increased chest expansion and
weakness. Stringy phlegm in the cough appears later, with more difficulty in breathing and

a further loss of lung capacity. Barium sulfate does not cause permanent scarring of the
lungs (Barium chloride dehydrate sc-202970, 2009).
Symptoms of Barium Exposure
Classic signs of barium toxicity include low blood potassium, cardiac arrhythmias,
respiratory failure, gastrointestinal dysfunction, paralysis, muscle twitching, and elevated
blood pressure (Acobs et al., 2002). Severe barium toxicity can lead to kidney damage,
respiratory failure, and death (Johnson and VanTassell, 1991). Regular barium exposure
has even been fingered as a potential contributor in the development of neurodegenerative
diseases, including multiple sclerosis (Purdey, 2004).
Children’s Health
The available data are insufficient to determine whether children may be more susceptible
to barium toxicity than adults. There are some data suggesting that children may absorb
more barium than adults (ATSDR, 2007).
Normal Human Levels
In the United States, the geometric mean of barium in the urine is approximately 1.5 µg/L
(ATSDR, 2007).
Barium selenate is used for therapeutic and prophylactic treatment
Barium selenate is used for therapeutic and prophylactic treatment of diseases and disorders
related to selenium deficiencies. The substance was previously evaluated by the Committee
for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use in 1999, leading to the establishment of a “No
MRL required” classification in bovine and ovine species with no restrictions on the route
of administration (EU, 2010). Barium selenate has been used as slow-release injectable
preparations (oil suspension) for therapeutic and prophylactic use against diseases and
disorders related to selenium deficiencies in sheep and cattle. The preparations are given as
a single subcutaneous injection at a dose of 1 mg selenium/kg bw.
Data on the absorption of selenium were also provided from a study using an in vitro
gastrointestinal model simulating the successive processes in the stomach and the small
intestine of humans after intake of food. Two different doses of barium selenate were used,
equating to 35 mg and 140 mg selenium. Data from the model demonstrate that 5.0% and
10.4%, respectively, of the selenium (administered as barium selenate) was bioavailable.
A number of weaknesses were identified in the model (for example, it does not take account
of the fact that, in vivo, there would be a constant release of selenate ions from barium
selenate as bioavailable selenium is absorbed) and consequently the data generated are
considered to represent an estimate of the lower range of bioavailable selenium that would
result from ingestion of barium selenate.
Furthermore, barium selenate can be dissolved in hydrochloric acid (HCl), from which
chlorine may be released, leading to the formation of barium chloride and selenious acid.

Overall, theoretical considerations based on physico-chemical properties of barium
selenate as well as recent in vitro and in vivo studies all consistently indicate that relevant
amounts of selenate are bioavailable from orally ingested barium selenate. Data from the
in vitro study simulating conditions in the human gastrointestinal tract indicate that a
minimum of 5% to 10.4% of ingested selenium from barium selenate is bioavailable when
present in a normal food matrix (EPMAR, 2015).
Remedial measure
Barium Chloride
In all cases of exposure, victim should get medical attention as soon as is possible. Specific
Measures:
Eyes: Flush eyes thoroughly with gently running water, holding eyelids open while
flushing, for at least ten to fifteen (10-15) minutes, or until no evidence of chemical
remains. Take care not to flush contaminated water into unaffected eye. Get medical
attention.
Skin: Remove contaminated clothing (including watches, rings, belts and shoes). Flush
skin with soap and plenty of running water until no evidence of chemical remains (at least
fifteen minutes). Get medical attention.
Inhalation: Remove to fresh air. Give oxygen and get medical attention for any breathing
difficulty. If breathing has stopped, begin artificial respiration immediately. Keep person
warm and at rest. Treat symptomatically and supportively. Get medical attention
immediately.
Ingestion: If victim is alert and not convulsing, rinse mouth thoroughly with water and
give a glass of water with 1 tablespoon of epsom salts in it, or 2 to 4 glasses of water to
drink to dilute. Induce vomiting immediately, under medical supervision, by sticking a
finger down the throat. Get medical attention immediately. When vomiting occurs, rinse
mouth thoroughly and give more water to drink. Note to physician: Precipitate ingested
soluble barium compounds as benign insoluble barium sulphate using Epsom or Glauber’s
salt solution. Dilute with large amounts of water or milk. Evacuate via nasogastric
aspiration or induction of emesis. Monitor electrolytes, especially potassium,
electrocardiogram and rhythm, and acid/base status. Induce brisk diuresis. Calcium
gluconate may be helpful for muscle spasms. Also, studies directed at finding a more
efficient way to remove barium from the body would be useful. It is unclear whether
mechanisms other than hypokalemia contribute to the toxic effects produced in acute high-
level exposure situations. Additional information on the mechanisms responsible for the
toxic effects of barium could aid in the development of effective treatments. Magnesium
has been reported to antagonize the neuromuscular effects (Dreisbach and Robertson,
1987). Additional studies examining the efficacy of administering soluble magnesium salts
to antagonize the effects of barium would also be helpful.

The Department of Emergency Medicine at the University of Massachusetts Medical
School reported a case of a man who had ingested fireworks (health tip: do not eat
fireworks) and developed barium poisoning as a result. He exhibited reduced mental
function, heart problems, and respiratory failure. Following an intervention with a
ventilator and potassium supplementation, he improved (Rhyee and Heard, 2009).
Potassium supplementation to counteract barium toxicity has been recognized since at least
the early 1930s (Bowen et al., 2010).
Applications
Barium is an alkaline earth metal found in ores principally as sulphates and carbonates
(barite and witherite respectively). The commercial use ranges from getters in electrical
tubes, rodenticides, colorants in paint and as a contrast medium in medical imaging. It is
also found in oil and gas drilling muds, stabilizers for plastics, case hardening steels, bricks,
tiles and lubricating oils and jet fuel (George et al., 2009).
Barium sulfate is the major barium compound used medicinally. Often called a barium
“meal,” this very poorly soluble compound is employed as an opaque contrast medium for
X-ray studies of the gastrointestinal tract (Barium in Drinking-water, 2004). Barium
carbonate has been used as an active ingredient in rodenticides (CDC, 2014). Barium
sulphide has been used in ceramic glazes to color or finish clay pieces (Thomas et al.,
1998). Barium chlorate has been used in fireworks to produce green color (Riley and Heard,
2009).
Toxicity
The absorption of barium from the gastrointestinal tract is largely dependent on the
solubility of the barium salt and the age of the subject. Less than 10% of ingested barium
is believed to be absorbed in adults, but absorption may be significantly higher in children.
Absorbed barium enters the blood and various tissues before being sequestered into the
bone. Adverse health effects have been observed in sensitive individuals (e.g. renal
patients) following exposure to barium as a medical X-ray preparation medium. Symptoms
of acute poisoning include abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea and cardiac distress. Loss
of deep reflexes with the onset of muscular paralysis may then ensue (Oskarsson and
Reeves, 2007). Barium occurs naturally in food and drinking water. Most exposure occurs
through oral ingestion or inhalation of barium containing dust. Foods such as Brazil nuts,
seaweed, fish and certain plants may contain high levels of barium. The toxicity of barium
is related to the solubility and hence availability of the salt. Barium sulphate (medical
contrast) being very insoluble is non-toxic as very little is absorbed. Barium carbonate
which dissolves in the stomach acids is readily absorbed, as are barium hydroxide and
nitrate, and these compounds are more toxic. Barium has the potential to bio-concentrate.
Occupational exposure is generally in the barium mining or processing industries. Barium
exerts its toxicity through its effects on potassium channels; it is a competitive potassium

channel antagonist, blocking the passive efflux of potassium from the intracellular
compartment, resulting in hypokalemia. This in turn leads to ventricular tachycardia,
unstable blood pressure, muscle weakness and paralysis. Local gastrointestinal effects
include abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea. Nephropathy is considered the most
sensitive measure of toxicity with a clear dose response curve in animal studies.
Approximately 90% of the body burden of barium is contained in the bones and teeth; the
primary route for excretion is through the faeces. There are no data correlating exposure
levels with blood or urine barium levels fuel (George et al., 2009).
Potential symptoms of over exposure are gastroenteritis, muscle spasm, slow pulse,
extrasystoles and hypokalemia. Prolonged or over exposure to this material can cause liver
and kidney damage. Barium compounds are neurotoxicants causing adverse effects on the
nervous system and these include of loss of coordination, irritability and weakness.
Ingestion of barium chloride dihydrate may cause severe gastroenteritis, including
abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, increased salivation and abdominal pain. May cause
tremors, faintness, paralysis of arms and legs, and slow or irregular heartbeat. Severe cases
may produce collapse and death on respiratory failure. Estimated lethal dose in humans: 1
gram.
Harmful if inhaled. Irritating to upper respiratory system and mucous membranes. May
produce sore throat, coughing and labored breathing. Other symptoms may parallel
ingestion. Harmful in contact with skin. Barium chloride dihydrate causes irritation with
redness and pain. May cause skin burns. May cause necrosis if skin is moist or wet. Barium
chloride dihydrate causes irritation to the eyes. May cause redness, tearing, pain or blurred
vision.
Barium has not been shown to cause cancer in humans or in experimental animals drinking
barium in water. The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have not classified barium as to its
carcinogenicity (NTP, 2005; IARC, 2004). EPA has determined barium is not likely to be
carcinogenic to humans following ingestion (EPA 2014a).
Precautions
Regulations and recommendations can be expressed as “not-to-exceed” levels, that is,
levels of a toxic substance in air, water, soil, or food that do not exceed a critical value that
is usually based on levels that affect animals; they are then adjusted to levels that will help
protect humans. Sometimes these not-to-exceed levels differ among federal organizations
because they used different exposure times (an 8-hour workday or a 24-hour day), different
animal studies, or other factors. The Food and Drug Administration (EPA) has determined
that drinking water should not contain more than 2.0 milligrams (mg) barium per liter (L)
of water (2.0 mg/L).

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has a legally enforceable
occupational exposure limit of 0.5 mg of soluble barium compounds per cubic meter (m3)
of air averaged over an 8-hour work day. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) 8-hour exposure limit for barium sulfate dust in air is 15 mg/m3
for total dust. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) considers
exposure to barium chloride levels of 50 mg/m3 and higher as immediately dangerous to
life or health (Public Health Statement Barium CAS#: 7440-39-3. (2007).
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Inorganic Toxicity: BARIUM

Chapter · December 2018

Laura Gjyli Orion Mucaj

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Gagan Matta Marsida Krasniqi

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Chapters Title of Chapter Page Number

Inorganic Toxicity: BARIUM

Gjyli, Laura; Muçaj, Orion; Matta, Gagan and Krasniqi, Marsida

Keywords: Barium, environment, human health, toxicity.

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NR = Not Reported; NS = Not Surveyed; Totals = Rinse-off + Leave-on Product Uses.

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