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4.1 Introduction
𝑑𝑦
+𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
∞
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑥 2 + ⋯
0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2𝑥 + 3𝑎3𝑥 2 + ⋯
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2𝑥 + 3𝑎3𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 + 2𝑎2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 3𝑎3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 = 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2𝑥 + 3𝑎3𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎2𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 + 2𝑎2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 3𝑎3 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑎1 = −𝑎0
1 2 1
y (x) = 𝑎0( 1− x + 𝑥 − 𝑥3 + ⋯ )
2 6 3
questions
𝑑 𝑑
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = (𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 )
𝑛
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑛 + 𝐵𝑛 = (𝐴𝑛 + 𝐵𝑛 )
𝐴𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐵𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
4
4.2 Power Series Solutions
∞
𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑁
𝑘=1
∞
𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯
𝑘=1
∞
(−1)𝑘−1 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯
1
(−1)𝑘−1 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯ = 0 + 0 + ⋯ = 0?
1
(−1)𝑘−1 = 1 − 1 − 1 − 1 − 1 − ⋯ = 1 − 0 − 0 … = 1?
5
1
∞
𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯
𝑘=1
𝑠1 = 𝑎1
𝑠2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
𝑠3 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎𝑘
𝑘=1
∞ 𝑛
If 𝑎𝑘 ≡ lim 𝑎𝑘 = lim 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑠
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ then, series is convergent and
𝑘=1 𝑘=1
converges to s; otherwise, it is
Ordinary convergence divergent 6
Theorem 4.2.1 Cauchy Convergence Theorem
An infinite series is convergent if and only if its sequence of partial sums 𝑠𝑛 is a
Cauchy sequence – that is, if to each 𝜀 > 0 (no matter how small) there
corresponds an integer N(𝜀) such that |𝑠𝑚 − 𝑠𝑛 | < ε for all m and n greater than
N.
8
diverge converge diverge
𝑥0 − 𝑅 𝑥0 𝑥0 + 𝑅
R R
𝑛! 𝑥 𝑛
0
𝑎𝑛 = n!
𝑥0 = 0
𝑛+1 !
𝑅 = 1/ lim = 1/ lim 𝑛 + 1 = 1/∞ = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛! 𝑛→∞
converges only at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 = 0
If the limits are ∞, then R = 0 and (6) converges only 12at 𝒙𝒐
Example 2
∞
𝑥−1 𝑛
𝑛
𝑛+1
1
𝑎𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)−𝑛
𝑥0 = 1
𝑛 1
R = 1 / lim (𝑛 + 1)−𝑛 = 1/ lim = 1/0 = ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
the series converges for all 𝑥; that is, the interval of convergence is 𝑥 −1 <∞
If those limits are zero, then (6) converges for all 𝒙, and R = ∞
13
Check examples 3 & 4 in the book
Theorem 4.2.3 Manipulation of Power Series
a) Termwise differentiation or integration is permissible
b) Termwise addition, subtraction, or multiplication is permissible
c) If two power series are equal, then their corresponding coefficients must be equal
∞ ∞
𝑛 𝑛 (9)
𝑎 𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥0
0 0
to hold in some common interval of convergence, it must be true that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 for each n.
In particular, if
∞
𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 = 0 (10)
0
∞
This means means that if 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 within I, then
0 (11)
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0) = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0)𝑛 = 𝑛𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0)𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0 1
𝑏 𝑏 ∞ ∞ 𝑏
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑛 𝑛
Given and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥0 on I,
0 0
∞
𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑛 13
0
∞ ∞
𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 𝑏𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0
0 0