UNIVERSITY OF BUEA

HIGHER TECHNICAL TEACHERS’ DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

TRAINING COLLEGE (HTTTC) ENGINEERING AND FORESTRY
KUMBA TECHNIQUES

PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF

ROCKS USED AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL IN THE TOWN
OF KUMBA AND ITS SURROUNDINGS

BY

CHU JERVISE AKWO

HT18P229

DIPET I in Real Estate Management

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering and Forestry

Techniques of the Higher Technical Teachers’ Training College
Kumba of the University Of Buea in Partial Fulfillment
of The Requirements For The Award of DIPET II
In Building Construction

SUPERVISOR CO-SUPERVISOR

MR. ASAH JACOB F. ENG. ROWLAND MUJIH

JUNE 2020

1
 DEDICATION
This piece of work is dedicated to my beloved parents Mr. and Mrs. NDI JOSEPH CHU
for having cooperated with the Divine Will of GOD in making my existence a reality
and for their material, financial, and moral support throughout my life not forgetting
their tireless and earnest work to make sure I come to a successful completion of my
program.

i
 CERTIFICATION
The thesis entitled “Physical and Mechanical Characterization of Rocks Used as
Construction Material in the Town of Kumba and its Surroundings” submitted to
the Department of Civil Engineering and Forestry Techniques of the Higher Technical
Teachers’ Training College Kumba of the University of Buea in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of DIPET II in Building Construction, is the original work of
CHU JERVISE AKWO (HT18P229) under the supervision of:

________________ _______________

Mr. ASAH Jacob F. Date

(Supervisor)

_________________ _________________

Eng. Rowland MUJIH Date

(Co-supervisor)

_________________ _________________

MR. NTABE ERIC Date

(Head of Department)

Department of Civil Engineering

and Forestry Techniques

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As the famous quotation by Lao-tzu goes “A journey of a thousand miles begins beneath
one’s feet”. It has been a truly remarkably and interesting journey which so many people
have been part and parcel of. It is with an unbounded joy of a successful completion that
I acknowledge those who were directly involved in the progress of this work and those I
was a burden to throughout the course of my studies.

I am grateful to my supervisors Mr. ASAH Jacob and Eng. Rowland MUJIH who have
been an embodiment of knowledge, for their encouragement, guidance, constructive
criticism, editorial inputs and the freedom they bequeathed to develop my ideas at every
stage of my work. Accept my sincere gratitude for your immeasurable support,
understanding, patience and kindness and to a great effect, helped me through some very
difficult periods.

To my personal supervisor Mr. KUM accept my sincere gratitude for your assistance
through my academic journey. I humbly appreciate the love, concern and support given
to me by my adorable sisters, who all through my studies became pillars of strength, I
also did realize that you were not just sisters but mothers and people like you make the
world beautiful. I must sincerely acknowledge and thank my junior sister Tilian and my
friends Rev. Sis Floriane and Vanessa the early morning calls to ask how I was fairing
encouraged me to forge ahead even through bleak moments.

To my nieces and nephew, I say a big thank you for your understanding that uncle
needed to study. I will remain grateful to Mr. Ntabe, Dr. Foadieng, Mr. Asah, Mr. Kum,
Mr. Tem, and Mr. Chia, you all were responsible for framing my academic mind-set and
in many ways supported me through the course of my studies and research by providing
intellectual advice which were of great inspiration for this work. To my dear parents
words cannot say how grateful I am to you and how wonderful you have been in all
ramifications. I owe you a lot in life in all I do. You both have been supportive and
making me realize how much you wanted me to achieve this dream of mine and
becoming successful in life. I hope my dream which you also share has come through. I
must say thank you for giving me this rare opportunity others crave for in life.

Finally, my deepest appreciation goes to God for His unending love, blessings and
faithfulness upon me, my family and friends all through these years. May His name be
praised both now and forever Amen.

iii
 ABSTRACT

Since early antiquity, rocks have been used as construction materials due to their natural
beauty, availability, little or no maintenance cost and the diversity of their applications
has increased ever since. As any other construction material, rocks today have to fulfill
the physical and technical requirements demanded by architects and designers. This
research focuses on the physical and mechanical characterization of rocks used as
construction material in the town of Kumba and its surroundings while emphasizing that
rocks are old but remain a modern construction material and various construction
projects are organize around the use of rocks. Thus, this research investigated the
physical and mechanical properties of selected limestone and granite rocks in the town
of Kumba, south west region, Cameroon. The samples were collected for the
determination of the physical and mechanical properties of the rocks in the laboratory.
Among the parameters tested and discussed here are density, porosity, water content,
water absorption, uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength. The results
obtained reveal that the mean densities of selected limestone and granite are 2.95 g/cm3
and 2.92 g / cm3 respectively, while their respective mean porosities are 3.10% and
1.43%, their respective mean water content and water absorption are 0.58%, 0.14%,
0.69% and 0.18%. The respective mean UCS (Uniaxial Compressive Strength) and
tensile strength are 227.36MPa, 271.20MPa, 10.51MPa and 12.48MPa. From the above
analysis of results and discussion, we can deduce that the result of the physical and
mechanical properties of limestone and granite makes the two rocks suitable for any
type of civil engineering project.

iv
 RESUME

Depuis l'antiquité, les roches ont été utilisées comme matériaux de construction en raison de
leur nature la beauté, la disponibilité, peu ou pas de coûts de maintenance et la diversité de
leurs applications a augmenté depuis. Comme tout autre matériau de construction, les roches
doivent aujourd'hui exigences physiques et techniques exigées par les architectes et les
concepteurs. Cette recherche porte sur la caractérisation physique et mécanique des roches
utilisées comme construction dans la ville de Kumba et ses environs tout en soulignant que
les roches sont anciennes mais restent un matériau de construction moderne et divers projets
de construction sont organisés autour de l'utilisation des roches. Ainsi, cette recherche a
étudié les propriétés physiques et mécanique des roches calcaires et granitiques sélectionnées
dans la ville de Kumba, région sud- ouest, Cameroun. Les échantillons ont été prélevés pour
la détermination des caractéristiques physiques et propriétés mécaniques des roches en
laboratoire. Parmi les tests nous avons : la densité, la porosité, la teneur en eau, l'absorption
d'eau, la compression uniaxiale résistance et la résistance à la traction. Les résultats obtenus
révèlent que les densités moyennes de certains le calcaire et le granite sont 2. 95𝑔 / 𝑐𝑚3 et 2.
92𝑔 / 𝑐𝑚3 respectivement, tandis que leurs les porosités moyennes sont de 3, 10% et 1, 43%,
leur teneur moyenne en eau et leur eau l'absorption est de 0,58%, 0,14%, 0,69% et 0,18%. Le
URC (Uniaxial Résistance à la compression) et la résistance à la traction sont 227. 36MPa,
271. 20MPa, 10. 51MPa et 12. 48MPa. De l'analyse des résultats et de la discussion ci-
dessus, nous pouvons déduire que le résultat des propriétés physiques et mécaniques du
calcaire et du granite rend les deux roches adaptées à tout type de projet de génie civil.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Dedication...................................................................................................................................i

Certification...............................................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgement....................................................................................................................iii

Abstract.....................................................................................................................................iv

Resume.......................................................................................................................................v

Table of Content........................................................................................................................vi

List of Tables............................................................................................................................ix

List of Figures............................................................................................................................x

List of Abbreviation/Notation...................................................................................................xi

CHAPTER ONE.......................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background of the Study.....................................................................................................1

1.2. Problem Statement..............................................................................................................2

1.3. Objective of the Study.........................................................................................................3

1.3.1. Main objective..................................................................................................................3

1.3.2. Specific objectives...........................................................................................................3

1.4. Significance of the Study....................................................................................................3

1.5. Scope of the Study..............................................................................................................4

1.6. Research Questions.............................................................................................................4

1.7. Definition Of Terms............................................................................................................4

1.8. Structure and Organisation of Work...................................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO.....................................................................................................................6

LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................6

2.1. Development of Engineering Geology................................................................................6

2.2. Classification of Rocks.......................................................................................................8

vi
2.2.1. Igneous Rocks..................................................................................................................9

2.2.1.1. Geological significance of igneous rocks.....................................................................9

2.2.1.2. Geological setting........................................................................................................10

2.2.1.3. Classification of Igneous rocks...................................................................................11

2.2.1.3.1. Texture.....................................................................................................................11

2.2.1.3.2. Colour.......................................................................................................................12

2.2.1.3.3. Composition.............................................................................................................13

2.2.2. Sedimentary Rock..........................................................................................................13

2.2.2.1. Geological setting........................................................................................................14

2.2.2.2. Classification of sedimentary rocks............................................................................14

2.2.2.4. Sedimentary environments and rock geomechanical behaviors.................................15

2.2.3. Metamorphic Rocks.......................................................................................................17

2.2.3.1. Classification of Metamorphic rocks..........................................................................19

2.2.3. Types of Metamorphism................................................................................................20

2.2.4. Metamorphic Facies.......................................................................................................22

2.3. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks..................................................................23

2.3.1. Physical Properties of Rocks..........................................................................................24

2.3.2. Mechanical Properties of Rock Material........................................................................35

2.3.2.1. Rock Strength Experiments and Failure Criteria........................................................35

2.3.2.3. Elastic Modulus...........................................................................................................42

CHAPTER THREE...............................................................................................................45

MATERIALS AND METHODS..........................................................................................45

3.1. Description of The Area of Study.....................................................................................45

3.1.1. Historical Presentation of Kumba..................................................................................45

3.1.2. Economy........................................................................................................................45

3.1.3. Geographical Location of Kumba..................................................................................46

3.2. Sample Collection And Preparation..................................................................................48

3.3. Methods And Materials of Various Laboratory Test Carried Out....................................49

3.3.1. Determination of Density of Limestone and Granite.....................................................49

vii
3.3.2. Determination of the water content of Limestone and Granite......................................51

3.3.3. Determination of the water absorption capacity of Limestone and Granite..................52

3.3.4. Determination of the Uniaxial Compressive strength of Limestone and Granite..........53

3.3.5. Determination of the Tensile strength of Limestone and Granite..................................54

CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................................................................56

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................................56

4.1. Test Results of Density and Porosity for Limestone and Granite.....................................56

4.1.1. Test results of Density....................................................................................................56

4.1.2. Test results of Porosity...................................................................................................57

4.2. Test Results of Water Content For Limestone And Granite.............................................59

4.3. Test Results of Water Absorption For Limestone And Granite........................................61

4.4. Test Results of Uniaxial Compressive Strength For Limestone And Granite..................62

4.5. Test Results of Tensile Strength For Limestone And Granite..........................................64

CHAPTER FIVE....................................................................................................................66

CONCLUSTION AND RECOMMENDATION.................................................................66

5.1. Conclusion.........................................................................................................................66

5.2. Recommendation...............................................................................................................67

5.3. Suggestion for Further Study............................................................................................67

5.4. Difficulties Encountered...................................................................................................67

REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................69

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF ABBREVIATION/NOTATION
AEG: Association of Engineering Geologists

IAEG: International Association of Engineering Geologists

ISRM: International Society of Rock Mechanics

ASTM: American Standard for Testing Materials

ix
HTTTC: Higher Technical Teachers’ Training College

UCS: Uniaxial compressive strength

US: United State

BTS: Brazilian Tensile Strength

To: Tensile Strength

P: Failure Load

Pmax: Maximum Load

MPa: Mega Pascal

g; Gram

Kg: Kilogram

M 3: Cubic meter

%: Percentage

V: Volume

Vv: Pores Volume

n: Porosity

P: Density

Wc: Water content

A: Cross sectional area

H: Height

D: Diameter

t: Thickness

x
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Rocks being one of the oldest building materials have been used by the construction
industry from time immemorial. Rocks show a variety of physical and mechanical
properties that may affect its use as a construction material, they are widely used in
structural and other constructional works, and the physical and mechanical properties are
functions of mineralogical and textural characteristics (Katz et al 2000). Those
properties may also affect quarrying operation, tunneling, mining slope stability and the
use of rocks as constructional materials.

In addition, experimental analysis such as test for tensile and compressive strength of the
rock can dictate load or energy that can be absorbed before failure. Kahraman et al
(2003) observed that the physical and mechanical properties influencing fragmentation
of rocks include young modulus, compressive and tensile strength. Ersoy and Waller
(1995) were of the view that, textures are the major factors determining the behavior of
rocks prediction of performance. However, the strength of rocks does not only vary from
rock to rock but also vary within the same rocks and various local geological conditions
(Rahaman, 1998). It also varies with seasons because moisture effect on the mineral
grains. The strength of a rock decreases with increase in water content due to reduction
in the coefficient of internal friction of the rock particles. The presence of water in rocks
also increases its deformability.

Faisal et al (2007) holds that, many studies had been carried out to correlate the
engineering properties of rocks with its physical index properties. He further explained
that (Griffith, 1937) established the relationship between unconfined compressive
strength of different rock types (sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic) with their
respective shore scleroscope hardness. Wuerker (1953) also did similar work of
correlating the uniaxial compressive strength with shore scleroscope hardness using
simple linear equation. Deere and Miller (1966) carried out an extensive study on large
number of rock samples representing different types of rocks to develop an engineering
classification system for the intact rock and discovered that classification is strongly
affected by rock mineralogy, texture and anisotropy other researchers that have
established relationships between rock properties are (Aufmuth, 1973; Singh et al,
1983; O’Rourke, 1990; Sachpazis, 1990; Katz et al, 2000) among others. It should be
worth noting that the optimization of properties of rocks for various construction

1
purposes requires knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties which is
essential as concerning designing of structures. This research work has examined some
physical and mechanical properties of rocks which are mostly used as a construction
material in the town of Kumba through laboratory investigation.

1.2. Problem Statement

In the history of the earth, there have been many tumultuous events involving the
deformation and fracture of rocks (Aderson, 1942). Once a rock or rock mass has been
used for a particular purpose, it can deteriorate significantly such that its engineering
purpose is prejudiced (Hobbes et al 1975).

Today, the technological innovation and advancement in the construction industry, and
the use of natural (sustainable) materials for construction has been attended with failure
of one type or another including the spectacular collapse of structures and others (Lewis
2004). The most extreme cases generally arise from dam failures or major landslides
which cause significant damage to property, infrastructure and loss of life. Particular
difficulties arise from the inherent special variability of rock masses and their
engineering properties (Wearne, 1999).

Rocks are probably one of the most widely used construction materials in the world
largely due to the availability, easily used, its multipurpose function in all sorts of
construction works, its environmental friendly nature and its minimal maintenance
requirements. The massive use of rocks for various construction works without verifying
its physical and mechanical properties have, however, been observed to have a very
negative impact on structures due to their variation in geotechnical properties (Terzaghi,
1929). One of the biggest issues of growing concern at the moment faced by the
construction industry is the failure of structures whose foundation, slope, dams and
tunnels was constructed with rocks (dimension stones) (Leonards, 1982; Muller,
1968). More recently, financial losses, the loss reputation have increased, personal
injury and the loss of life have come to be regretted more seriously than they sometime
were in the past and society has become generally more litigious (Petroski, 1985).
Therefore, the significance that incessant structural failure would bring several effects
on the aesthetics of the environment, real properties and its values and economy cannot
be overemphasized since some of the structures provide the basic service that should
meet the needs of the people. The determination of the physical and mechanical
properties of construction material is a very important aspect in designing as with the
type of structure, loading characteristics and the characteristics of rocks in the bearing

2
strata. The shearing failure possibilities are to be checked before any superstructure or
heavy temporal load is allowed on the bearing strata so as to avoid sudden failures or
collapse of the structure. In other to address these problems, this study seeks to evaluate
through laboratory investigation the physical and mechanical properties of some rocks
used as construction material in the town of Kumba so as to create awareness on the use
of rocks for various construction purpose.

1.3. Objective of the Study.

1.3.1. Main objective

The main objective of this research work therefore is to critically evaluate the physical
and mechanical characteristics of rocks used as construction material in the town of
Kumba and its surrounding.

1.3.2. Specific objectives

i) To identify the classes and mostly used rocks as a construction material in the town of
Kumba and its surrounding.

ii) To identify and examine some physical and mechanical properties of rocks in Kumba
and it is surrounding and compare with other results.

1.4. Significance of the Study.

It has been observed that rocks are being used for various construction works without
prior knowledge on their physical and mechanical characteristics which may endanger
the structure in one way or the other thereby causing the loss of life, unwanted and
unnecessary failure of structures not forgetting the economic factor.

1-This research work is significant in the sense that it has given the researcher
challenges and opportunity to conduct an in-depth study on the physical and mechanical
characteristics of rocks which will educate the general public and experts in the
construction industry on the need of having first hand information on the physical and
mechanical characteristics of rocks with a view of proffering solution to structural
problem. .

2- Furthermore, the experimented results of the physical and mechanical characteristics

of rocks in Kumba will help:

i. To create awareness on the need to study the characteristics of rocks before using
them.

3
 ii. To understand the physical and mechanical properties of rocks in the town of
Kumba which will reduce the problem that geotechnical engineers face in
designing foundations for required infrastructures in Kumba.
iii. It will contribute to knowledge to other researchers and the construction industry
in general.

1.5. Scope of the Study.

The scope of this research work is limited to the physical and mechanical characteristics
of rocks used as construction material in the town of Kumba and its surroundings. This
is with the view of creating awareness and making constructive proposals to
construction engineers for future efficient project execution on the use of rocks for
varied construction purpose.

1.6. Research Questions.

In order to accomplish the purpose of this study, the following research questions were
put forward.

Question 1: How many classes of rocks exist?

Question 2: Under which criteria are rocks classified?

Question 3: Which types of rocks are mostly used for construction in the town of
Kumba and its surroundings?

Question 4: Are the rocks in Kumba suitable for construction?

Question 5: What are the implications of not taking into consideration the physical and
mechanical characteristics of rocks?

1.7. Definition Of Terms.

i. Engineering Geology: it is defined as the discipline of applying geologic data,

techniques, and principles to the study of both naturally occurring rock and soil
materials, and surface and sub-surface fluids and the interaction of introduced
materials and processes with the geologic environment, so that geologic factors
affecting the planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
engineering structures and the development, protection and remediation of ground-
water resources are adequately recognized, interpreted and presented for use in
engineering and related practice.(AEG, 2000)
ii. Rock: rocks are naturally occurring substance generally compose of one or more
minerals or mineral material (Rich Farmbrough, 1972; T.M Smith, 2011).
According to (Ehlers et al, 1997), rocks are stuff which the earth is made of.
4
iii. Rock mechanics: it is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical
behavior of rock; it is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response of
rock to the force fields of its physical environment (Judd, 1964).
iv. Weathering: it is the natural process of in-situ mechanical disintegration and or
chemical decomposition of rocks by physical and chemical agents of the
atmosphere. (Kehew, 1995)

1.8. Structure and Organisation of Work.

This thesis work is comprised of five chapters. A brief review of each of the chapters is
given as follows:

Chapter 1 comprises an introductory session which gives a background of the study and
statement of the problem for the development of this research in line with research
objectives. It includes the necessity for this study and its importance to the
construction industry. This chapter thus includes some research questions and definition
of some key words.

Chapter 2 presents a literature review on engineering geology and its associated

problem of delivery in the construction industry. A further look into rock classification
with major focus on rock physical and mechanical properties.

Chapter 3 gives a comprehensive detail of the materials used to evaluate the physical
and mechanical properties of rocks, presents the preparation stages of the test specimens
in line with the various test carried out and the various test methods performed.

Chapter 4 presents the results obtain from chapter 3 and discussions on the physical and
mechanical properties of rocks as a construction material. It presents results of density,
porosity, water absorption, water content compressive strength test and tensile strength
test of limestone and granite rock. Results across all stages are analyzed and compared
with existing results of other authors.

Chapter 5 summarizes the research thus far and presents research conclusions and
recommendations for future research are given.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Development of Engineering Geology

While ancient man must have had some intuitive knowledge of geology, as evidenced by
the feats of mining and civil engineering performed in the distant past, the present
science of geology owes much of its origin to the civil engineers working in the
eighteenth century. These engineers, while constructing the major engineering works
associated with the industrial revolution, had the opportunity to view and explore
excavations in rocks and soils. Some, intrigued by what they saw, began to speculate on
the origin and nature of rocks, and the relationships between similar rocks found in
different places. Their ideas and theories, based on the practical application of their
subject, formed the groundwork for the development of geology as a science. Engineers
such as Lewis Evans (1700–1756) in America, William Smith (1769–1839) in England,
Pierre Cordier (1777–1862) in France and many others are the ‘fathers’ of Geology.
Their interest in geology often stemmed from a ‘need to know’. They were confronted
with real engineering problems which could only be solved with the help of both
knowledge and understanding of the ground conditions and rock characteristics with
which they were confronted.

In the later nineteenth century both geology and engineering advanced, geology
becoming a more-or-less respectable natural philosophy forming part of the education
considered suitable for well brought up young ladies.(M.H. de Freitas, 1995)
Engineering, characterized by the canal and railway construction carried out by the
‘navy’, on the other hand, remained as an eminent practical subject. The theoretical
understanding of engineering was driven by practical engineering problems. The
geological knowledge of the engineer, confronted by increasingly difficult engineering
challenges, did not progress as rapidly as geology, advanced as a science under the
leadership of geologists such as James Dana (1813–1895) in America, Albert Heim
(1849–1937) in Switzerland and Sir Archibald Geikie (1835–1924) in Britain. Thus, by
the end of the nineteenth century the majority of civil engineers knew relatively little
about geology, and very few geologists were concerned about, or interested in its
engineering applications. This widening division between geology and engineering was
partly bridged in the nineteenth and early twentieth century by the development of rock
and soil mechanics by engineers such as Charles Coulomb and Macquorn Rankine, who
developed methods of calculating the deformations of earth and rock masses under the

6
stresses imposed by engineering works. The great leap forward may be considered to
have taken place with the publication of “Erdbaumechanik” by Karl Terzaghi in 1925,
which brought together old knowledge, and added new theory and experience to
establish soil mechanics in its own right as a discipline within the field of civil
engineering. Subsequent publications by Terzaghi and others have continued to
recognize a clear understanding of the fundamental importance of geological conditions
in civil engineering design and construction. However, this appreciation has not proved
to be universal and many engineers continued to rely on inadequate geological
knowledge, or over-simplified ground models.

Failures of engineering works in particular, such as that of the Austin Dam in Texas
in 1900 and the St. Francis Dam in California in 1928, showed that there was often a
lack of appreciation of the importance of geological conditions in engineering design.
Such failures emphasized the need for expert assessment of geological conditions
on civil engineering sites and there was, by the 1940s, a trend for civil engineers to
employ geologists in an advisory capacity. However, while certain gifted individuals,
such as Charles Berkey in the United States (Paige 1950) and Quido Zaruba in
Czechoslovakia (Zaruba et al, 1976), performed this function very well it was not
always a successful liaison. Few geologists had sufficient engineering knowledge to
understand the requirements of the engineer and few engineers had more than the most
superficial knowledge of geology.

Despite these problems the recognition that liaison was required slowly brought to
the fore a new breed of earth scientist, the ‘engineering geologist’. Most of the early
engineering geologists were geologists who had gravitated into engineering
employment, educating themselves by study and experience. Certain notable engineers,
such as Robert Leggett in Canada (Legget 1939), developed their geological knowledge
to achieve the complementary aim. Eventually engineering geology became sufficiently
developed for the subject to form part of university curricula. Thus, in Imperial College,
London, engineering geology was taught at postgraduate level to both geologists and
engineers as early as 1957 under the guidance of John Knill. Courses progressively
developed elsewhere in England, Europe, America and Canada during the subsequent
decades. Now there are few countries in the world where engineering geology, in some
form or other, is not taught as an academic discipline. (M.H. de Freitas, 1995)

While educational opportunities developed, the number of practicing engineering

geologists increased until in California in the United States they were sufficient to come

7
 together and form a professional association. This expanded in 1963 to
become the Association of Engineering Geologists (AEG), covering all the United States
and now with an international membership. In 1967, the International Association of
Engineering Geologists (IAEG) was formed. This provides, for engineering geology, the
international association equivalent to the International Society for Soil Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering for soils engineers and the International Society for
Rock Mechanics and rock mechanicians. Reputable journals for engineering geology
have also developed, such as “Engineering Geology”, published by Elsevier. Both the
AEG and the IAEG have their own publications. National groups also began to publish
journals of high reputation, such as the “Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and
Hydrogeology” published by the Engineering Group of the Geological Society of
London.

2.2. Classification of Rocks

Generally, Rocks are broadly classified into three groups based on their process of
formation. The three major rock types are igneous rock, sedimentary rock, and
metamorphic rock (Miller, 1966). They are all identified by their texture, streak, and
location, among other factors. Sedimentary rocks makes up to 66% of the earth’s crust,
with 34 % being the igneous and the metamorphic. Igneous rocks however, form the
majority of 34 % (Ehlers et al, 1997). The reason why sedimentary rocks accounts for
most of the rocks on the earth’s surface is because they are mainly found on ocean floor
basins which accounts for 70% of total area of the earth. The three rock types are further
classified based on chemistry, environment of formation and how they are formed

(b) (c)

FIGURE2.1 (a-Igneous, b-Sedimentary, and c-metamorphic rocks). (Satya Prakash et

al, 2015)

Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are easily defined by rock cycle
8
FIGURE 2.2: Rock cycle (Satya Prakash et al, 2015)

2.2.1. Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed from solidification and cooling of magma. This magma can be
derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust.
Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes namely; an
increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. The word
Igneous comes from a Latin word “ignis” meaning fire, it is therefore not surprising that
igneous rocks are associated with volcanic activity and their distribution is controlled by
plate tectonics. One of the appealing aspects of the plate tectonics is that it accounts
reasonably for many varieties of igneous rocks and their distribution (Carlson et al,
2008). Divergent plates are usually associated with creation of basalts and gabbros
especially in the oceanic crust an example is in the mid-Atlantic ridges. While in the
intra-continental areas you can have wide aray of rocks from basic, intermediate to the
acidic rocks. In the convergent plates usually granites and andesites magmas are
produced in countries such as South America, Indonesia just to name a few.

2.2.1.1. Geological significance of igneous rocks

Igneous and metamorphic rocks make up 90–95% of the top 16 km of the Earth's crust
by volume. Igneous rocks from about 15% of the Earth's current land surface. Most of
the Earth's oceanic crust is made of igneous rock. (Ehlers et al, 1997)

9
2.2.1.2. Geological setting

Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories in terms of modes of occurrence and
formation they can be either intrusive (plutonic) or extrusive (volcanic). (Ehlers et al,
1997).

a) Plutonic (Intrusive)

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed or result when magma cool and crystallizes slowly
within the Earth's crust. The magma cools slowly and, as a result, these rocks are coarse-
grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye.
Intrusive rocks can also be classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive
body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. When the magma
solidifies within the earth's crust, it cools slowly forming coarse textured rocks, such as
granite.

Volcanic (Extrusive)

Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or
fragmental ejecta, forming rocks such as pumice or basalt.. Extrusive igneous rocks, also
known as volcanic rocks, are formed at the crust's surface as a result of the partial
melting of rocks within the mantle and crust. Extrusive igneous rocks cool and solidify
quicker than intrusive igneous rocks. They are formed by the cooling of molten magma
on the earth's surface. The magma, which is brought to the surface through fissures or
volcanic eruptions, solidifies at a faster rate. Hence such rocks are smooth, crystalline
and fine-grained.

The chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically form a sequence
known as Bowen's reaction series (Figure 3), is name after the Canadian petrologist
Norman L. Bowen. The Bowens reaction series explain sequences of crustal formation.
The Bowens series is important because it forms basis for explaining igneous mineral
and textures.

10
FIGURE 2.3: Bowen’s reaction series (Ehlers et al, 1997).

2.2.1.3. Classification of Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks can be classified or differentiated according to their texture, colour, and
composition. The difference in these three parameters depends on the environment of
deposition and chemistry of magmas (Ehlers and Blatt, 1997). Below is an explanation
of each parameter as mentioned above.

2.2.1.3.1. Texture

When magma cools slowly, large crystals form and rock forms phaneritic texture on the
other hand if magma cools fast then small crystals form sometime a glassy texture where
no minerals form can be achieved this way. It is based on the textural difference that
igneous rocks can be divided into either extrusive or intrusive rocks. Examples of both
extrusive and extrusive rocks are given in Figure 4 below. Intrusive are rocks that form
by magma solidifying before reaching the surface hence forming coarse grained texture
while extrusive are those that magma solidify on surface forming fine grained rocks.

a. Phaneritic Texture

Phaneritic textured rocks are comprised of large crystals that are clearly visible to the
eye with or without a hand lens or binocular microscope. The entire rock is made up of
large crystals, which are generally 1/2 mm to several centimeters in size; no fine matrix
material is present. This texture forms by slow cooling of magma deep underground in
the plutonic environment.

11
b. Aphanitic Texture

Aphanitic texture consists of small crystals that cannot be seen by the eye with or hand
lens. The entire rock is made up of small crystals, which are generally less than 1/2 mm
in size. This texture results from rapid cooling in volcanic or hypabyssal (shallow
subsurface) environments.

c. Porphyritic Texture

Porphyritic rocks are composed of at least two minerals having a conspicuous (large)
difference in grain size. The larger grains are termed phenocrysts and the finer grains
either matrix or groundmass. Porphyritic rocks are thought to have undergone two
stages of cooling; one at depth where the larger phenocrysts formed and a second at or
near the surface where the matrix grains crystallized.

d. Glassy Texture

Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock contains no mineral
grains. Glass results from cooling that is so fast that minerals do not have a chance to
crystallize. This may happen when magma or lava comes into quick contact with much
cooler materials near the Earth's surface. Pure volcanic glass is known as obsidian.

e. Vesicular Texture

This term refers to vesicles (cavities) within the igneous rock. Vesicles are the result of
gas expansion (bubbles), which often occurs during volcanic eruptions. Pumice and
scoria are common types of vesicular rocks.

f. Fragmental (Pyroclastic) Texture

Pyroclastic are rocks blown out into the atmosphere during violent volcanic eruptions.
These rocks are collectively termed fragmental. If you examine a fragmental volcanic
rock closely you can see why. You will note that it is comprised of numerous grains or
fragments that have been welded together by the heat of volcanic eruption. If you run
your fingers over the rock it will often feel grainy like sandpaper or a sedimentary rock.
You might also spot shards of glass embedded in the rock.

2.2.1.3.2. Colour

A rock with major dark minerals form mafic rocks but with more fractionation during
magma cooling lighter coloured mineral are able to form based on Bowens series. Based
on this colour difference the rocks can be either mafic or felsic in Figure 4 below shows
that as you move from right to left you have more ultra-mafic due to fractionation.

12
2.2.1.3.3. Composition

Igneous rocks can also be classified based on chemistry. This is mainly based on silica
content as highlighted in Figure 4 below .When silica is above 75% main minerals that
form are feldspars while with reduction of silica more mafic minerals form, hence basis
for rock difference.

FIGURE 2.4: Classification of igneous rocks based on texture, colour, and chemistry
(Ehlers et al, 1997).

2.2.2. Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks are rocks that are formed by the weathering, transportation,
deposition and subsequent cementation of materials at the Earth's surface and within
bodies of water (Carlson et al, 2009). Sedimentation is the collective name for processes
that cause mineral or organic particles (detritus) to settle in place. The particles that form
a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment. Before being deposited, the
sediment was formed by weathering and erosion from the source area, and then
transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers,
which are called agents of denudation. Sedimentation may also occur as minerals
precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.

13
2.2.2.1. Geological setting

The sedimentary rock cover all the continents of the Earth's crust that is about 73% of
the Earth's current land surface but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is
estimated to be only 8% of the total volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a
thin layer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding.
Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels,
drinking water or ores (Peng 1990).

2.2.2.2. Classification of sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes
responsible for their formation (Wang 2003, Sun and Wang 2000) ; clastic sedimentary
rocks, biochemical (biogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a
fourth category for "other" sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other
minor processes.

a. Clastic sedimentary rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of other rock fragments that were cemented by
silicate minerals. Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, rock fragments,
clay minerals, and mica any type of mineral may be present, but in general they
represent the minerals that exist locally.

b. Biochemical sedimentary rock

Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms used materials dissolved in
air or water to build their tissue. Examples include: Limestone, Conglomerate. Most
types of limestone are formed from the calcareous skeletons of organisms such as corals,
mollusks, and foraminifera. Coalformed from plants that have removed carbon from the
atmosphere and combined it with other elements to build their tissue.

c. Chemical sedimentary rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are form when mineral constituents in solution become
supersaturated and inorganically precipitate. Common chemical sedimentary rocks
include limestone and rocks composed of evaporate minerals, such as halite (rock salt),
sylvite, barite and gypsum. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited
out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This
sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose
material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the

14
deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the
hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as
evaporates, are composed of material that forms at the place of deposition. The nature of
a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the
sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.

d. Mineralogy

Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz (especially siliciclastic rocks) or calcite
(especially carbonate rocks). In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a
sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. However, the
origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous
rock. Minerals in a sedimentary rock could have formed by precipitation during
sedimentation or by diagenesis. In the second case, the mineral precipitate can have
grown over an older generation of cement. A complex diagenetic history can be studied
by optical mineralogy, using a petrographic microscope. Carbonate rocks dominantly
consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite or dolomite. Both the cement and
the clasts of a carbonate sedimentary rock can consist of carbonate minerals. The
mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area,
the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular
mineral.

2.2.2.4. Sedimentary environments and rock geomechanical behaviors

Sedimentary environments are important for investigating rock physical, geological, and
geomechanical behaviors (Peng and Zhang 1995). Different from other mineral
resources, coal-bearing formations mainly formed in different ancient coal accumulation
environments (Peng 1991). Its characters are controlled by the ancient geologic
environment and its transition when the peat was piled up. Because of different
sedimentary environments and sedimentary features, the thicknesses of the coal seam
roof and floor formed under different environments changes greatly in both vertical and
lateral directions (Peng 1993a). In the past, mine designers often considered that the
rocks distribute constantly in both thickness and lithology in the lateral direction. This
design was not always true and led to the failure of the original design. Therefore, it is
necessary to study rock sedimentary environments, to understand rock lithology
distribution in the studied area, and to make the appropriate design according to
geological conditions (Wang 2003, Sun and Wang 2000). Formations making up the
Earth’s crust are described by the term, facies. Sedimentary facies is the most interested

15
facies with regard to fluid flow. Broadly divided into sandy facies, shaly facies, and
carbonate facies, sedimentary facies is related to the environment in which their
sediments are deposited. In general, sedimentary environments include the following;

i. Alluvial fan sediments

Alluvial fan sediments are deposits of sediments in regions of high relief, generally
where streams issue from mountains onto a level plain. The fan starts at the apex, the
source of sediments from regions of higher relief.

ii. River sediment

Fluvial deposits are sediments deposited as the result of rivers. Fluvial sediments include
deposits of braided streams, meandering rivers, and anastomosing streams (Peng 1990).

iii. Delta sediments

Deltas form where rivers carrying a large supply of sediments empty into a sea coast
where the sediments cannot be transported away as fast as it is deposited (Peng 1996a).

iv. Lake Sediments

Lake sediments are deposited in a lake accumulated on the lake shore and on lake floor.
They are deposited in a terrestrial environment and contain organic and inorganic
particles, microfossils such as pollen and algae, and macrofossils such as leaves and
seeds. Deposit speed in Lake Environment is faster than that in marine environment,
because of a smaller wave in the lake.

v. Barrier island sediments

Barrier islands or spits are long, narrow, offshore deposits of sand or sediments that
parallel the coast line. The islands are separated from the main land by a shallow sound,
bay or lagoon. Barrier islands are often found in chains along the coast line and are
separated from each other by narrow tidal inlets. The rising waters carried sediments
from those beach ridges and deposited them along shallow areas just off the new coast
lines.

vi. Lagoon and tidal lagoon sediments

Lagoon, tidal lagoon, and barrier islands or spits are sedimentary elements that parallel
to the coast line, (Danmeier and Williams 2005).

16
TABLE 2.1: Examples of sedimentary rocks. (Geoffrey Mibei, 2014)

Rock name Description

Limestone The rock is classified as chemical or organic
sediment depending on how it forms. It is
composed primarily of calcium carbonate. The
rock can form in two ways either by organically
from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal and
fecal debris or from chemically from the
precipitation of calcium carbonate from lake or
ocean water. Limestone is used in many ways.
Some of the most common are: production of
cement, crushed stone and acid neutralization
Conglomerate This is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains
large (greater than 2 millimeters in diameter)
rounded particles. The space between the pebbles
is generally filled with smaller particles and/or
chemical cement that bind the rock together.
This primarily a clastic sedimentary rock made up
mainly of sand-size (1/16 to 2 millimeter
diameter) weathering debris. Environments where
large amounts of sand can accumulate include
Sands
beaches, deserts, flood plains and deltas
tone
Coal This purely organic sedimentary rock that forms
mainly from plant debris. The plant debris usually
accumulates in a swamp environment. Coal is
combustible and is often mined for use as a fuel.

2.2.3. Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are basically rocks that have experience change due to high pressure
and temperature below zone of diagenesis. Metamorphic rocks arise from the
transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, (Eskola, 1920)
which means "change in form”. In low grade metamorphic rocks, original textures are
often preserved allowing one to determine the likely protolith. Protolith refers to the
original rock, prior to metamorphism. As the grade of metamorphism increases, original
17
textures are replaced with metamorphic textures and other clues, such as bulk chemical
composition of the rock, are used to determine the protolith. Below is an examination of
the role of two agents of metamorphism

i. The Role of Temperature

Changes in temperature conditions during metamorphism cause several important

processes to occur. With increasing temperature, and thus higher energy, chemical bonds
are able to break and reform driving the chemical reactions that changes the rock's
chemistry during metamorphism. Increasing in temperature can also result in the growth
of crystals. In a rock, a small number of large crystals have a higher thermodynamic
stability than do a large number of small crystals. As a result, increasing temperature
during metamorphism, even in the absence of any chemical change, will generally result
in the amalgamation of small crystals to produce a coarser grained rock. It is a fact that
individual minerals are only stable over specific temperature ranges. Thus, as
temperature changes, minerals within a rock become unstable and transform through
chemical reactions to new minerals. This property is very important to our interpretation
of metamorphic rocks. By observing the mineral assemblage (set of minerals) within a
metamorphic rock, it is often possible to make an estimate of the temperature at the time
of formation. That is, minerals can be used as thermometers of the process of
metamorphism.

ii. The Role of Pressure

Pressure, the second of the two physical parameters controlling metamorphism and
occurs in two forms. The most widely experienced type of pressure is lithostatic. This
"rock-constant" pressure is derived from the weight of overlying rocks. Lithostatic
pressure is experienced uniformly by a metamorphic rock. That is, the rock is squeezed
to the same degree in all directions. Thus, there is no preferred orientation to lithostatic
pressure and there is no mechanical drive to rearrange crystals within a metamorphic
rock experiencing lithostatic conditions. The second pressure is the directed pressure,
this is pressure of motion and action. Plate tectonics provide the underlying mechanical
control for all forms of directed pressure. Thus, metamorphism is closely linked to the
plate tectonic cycle and many metamorphic rocks are the products of tectonic
interactions. As was the case with changes in temperature, changes in pressure, either
lithostatic or directed, have important impacts upon the stability of minerals. Every
mineral is stable over a range of pressures, if pressure conditions during metamorphism
exceed a mineral’s stability range the mineral will transform to a new phase. Many of

18
these solid-state reactions involve polymorphic transformation – changes between
minerals with the same chemistry and different crystallographic structures. Just as with
temperature, mineral assemblages within a metamorphic rock can be used as a
barometer to measure pressure at the time of formation.

2.2.3.1. Classification of Metamorphic rocks

Classification of metamorphic rocks depends on its mineralogy, chemical composition,

textures and its degree of metamorphism (Carlson et al, 2008). Three kinds of criteria
are normally employed in the classification of metamorphic rock. These are:

a) Mineralogical

The most abundant minerals are used as a prefix to a textural term. Thus, a schist
containing biotite, garnet, quartz, and feldspar, would be called a biotite-garnet schist. A
gneiss containing hornblende, pyroxene, quartz, and feldspar would be called a
hornblende-pyroxene gneiss. A schist containing porphyroblasts of K-feldspar would be
called a K-spar porphyroblastic schist.

b) Chemical

If the general chemical composition can be determined from the mineral assemblage,
then a chemical name can be employed. For example a schist with a lot of quartz and
feldspar and some garnet and muscovite would be called a garnet-muscovite quartzo-
feldspathic schist. A schist consisting mostly of talc would be called a talc-magnesian
schist.

c) Texture

Most metamorphic textures involve foliation. Foliation is generally caused by a

preferred orientation of sheet silicates. If a rock has a slatey cleavage as its foliation, it is
termed a slate, if it has a phyllitic foliation, it is termed a phyllite, if it has a shistose
foliation, and it is termed a schist. A rock that shows a banded texture without a distinct
foliation is termed a gneiss. All of these could be porphyroblastic (i.e. could contain
porhyroblasts).A rock that shows no foliation is called a hornfels if the grain size is
small, and a granulite, if the grain size is large and individual minerals can be easily
distinguished with a hand lens.
d) Metamorphic Grade

The intensity of a metamorphic event through the use of the concept of metamorphic
grade (Figure 3). With increasing depth in the Earth, ambient temperature and pressure
conditions rise steadily. Thus, within the continental crust, temperatures vary from

19
approximately 200 °C at 5 km to 800°C at 35 km. While these temperatures are extreme
relative to our everyday experiences, they are significantly below the melting point of
most rocks. Likewise, lithostatic pressure increases with increasing depth. At 5 km the
pressure is approximately 2 kilo bars, or about 2000 times atmospheric pressure. Deeper
within the crust, at about 35 km, the pressure increases to some 10 kb. This trend of
increasing temperature and pressure within the Earth is defined by a region of
commonly encountered metamorphic conditions. Low temperature and pressure setting
as low-grade metamorphism usually gneisses, while high temperature and intense
pressure is known as high-grade metamorphism in schist environment.

FIGURE 2.5: Grade of metamorphism gneiss to schist (Geoffrey Mibei, 2014)

2.2.3. Types of Metamorphism

1) Contact Metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high
temperatures associated with the igneous intrusion. Since only a small area surrounding
the intrusion is heated by the magma, metamorphism is restricted to the zone
surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic or contact aureole. Outside of the
contact aureole, the rocks are not affected by the intrusive event. The grade of
metamorphism increases in all directions toward the intrusion. Because the temperature
contrast between the surrounding rock and the intruded magma is larger at shallow
levels in the crust where pressure is low, contact metamorphism is often referred to as

20
high temperature, low pressure metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-
grained rock that shows no foliation, called a hornfels.

Figure 2.6: Metamorphic aureole (Geoffrey Mibei, 2014)

1) Regional Metamorphism

Regional metamorphism occurs over large areas and generally does not show any
relationship to igneous bodies. Most regional metamorphism is accompanied by
deformation under non-hydrostatic or differential stress conditions. Thus, regional
metamorphism usually results in forming metamorphic rocks that are strongly foliated,
such as slates, schists, and gneisses. The differential stress usually results from tectonic
forces that produce compressional stresses in the rocks, such as when two continental
masses collide. Thus, regionally metamorphosed rocks occur in the cores of fold/thrust
mountain belts or in eroded mountain ranges. Compressive stresses result in folding of
rock and thickening of the crust, which tends to push rocks to deeper levels where they
are subjected to higher temperatures and pressures.

2) Cataclastic Metamorphism

Cataclastic metamorphism occurs as a result of mechanical deformation, like when two

bodies of rock slide past one another along a fault zone. Heat is generated by the
friction of sliding along such a shear zone, and the rocks tend to be mechanically
deformed, being crushed and pulverized, due to the shearing. Cataclastic metamorphism
is not very common and is restricted to a narrow zone along which the shearing
occurred.

3) Hydrothermal Metamorphism

Rocks that are altered at high temperatures and moderate pressures by hydrothermal
fluids are hydrothermally metamorphosed. This is common in basaltic rocks that
generally lack hydrous minerals. The hydrothermal metamorphism results in alteration

21
to such Mg-Fe rich hydrous minerals as talc, chlorite, serpentine, actinolite, tremolite,
zeolites, and clay minerals. Rich ore deposits are often formed as a result of
hydrothermal metamorphism.

4) Burial Metamorphism

When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters, temperatures
greater than 300oC may develop in the absence of differential stress. New minerals
grow, but the rock does not appear to be metamorphosed. The main minerals produced
are often the Zeolites. Burial metamorphism overlaps, to some extent, with diagenesis,
and grades into regional metamorphism as temperature and pressure increase.

5) Shock Metamorphism (Impact Metamorphism)

When an extra-terrestrial body, such as a meteorite or comet impacts with the Earth or if
there is a very large volcanic explosion, ultrahigh pressures can be generated in the
impacted rock. These ultrahigh pressures can produce minerals that are only stable at
very high pressure, such as the SiO2 polymorphs coesite and stishovite. In addition they
can produce textures known as shock lamellae in mineral grains, and such textures as
shatter cones in the impacted rock.

2.2.4. Metamorphic Facies

The changes in mineral assemblages are due to changes in the temperature and pressure
conditions of metamorphism. Thus, the mineral assemblages that are observed must be
an indication of the temperature and pressure environment that the rock was subjected
to. This pressure and temperature environment is referred to as Metamorphic Facies
(Eskola, 1920). The sequence of metamorphic facies observed in any metamorphic
terrain, depends on the geothermal gradient that was present during metamorphism.
Figure 5 below highlights metamorphic faces depending on temperatures and pressures
(Winter, 2001). Each facies has specific index minerals as described of Table 1 below
(Spear, 1993).

22
FIGURE 2.7: Metamorphic faces (Winter, 2001)

2.3. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks

Information collected by geologists and engineering geologists in general is not

sufficient to predict the engineering behavior of rocks and rock masses (Kurtulus et al,
2012). Tests need to be conducted to assess the response of rocks under a wide variety
of disturbances such as static and dynamic loading, seepage and gravity and the effect of
atmospheric conditions and applied temperatures. Rock physical and mechanical
properties are very important parameters for geological engineering design and
construction. For instance, in coal mining industry many geological disasters induced by
mining were associated with misunderstanding of rock mechanical properties (Peng
1998a, Han and Peng 2002). Rock physical properties include density, porosity, and
permeability, etc. Rock mechanical properties mainly include elastic modulus, Poisson’s
ratio, and rock strength. These parameters can be obtained by lab experiments of core
samples or by in-situ tests. The other characteristics of rocks include time-dependent
rheological and creep behaviors (Wang 1981). When the rock samples are not available,
such as oil and gas drilling and mining at deep depth, the well log data and geophysical
data can be used to analyze and interpret rock physical and mechanical parameters (Peng
1997, Peng 1999).

23
2.3.1. Physical Properties of Rocks

The physical properties of rocks affecting design and construction are:

a. Weathering Potential
b. Slaking Potential
c. Swelling Potential
d. Hardness And Abrasiveness
e. Degree of fissuring
f. Porosity
g. Density
h. Water absorption
i. Void Ratio
j. Degree Of Saturation
k. Unit Weight
l. Water Absorption
m. Specific Gravity
n. Degree Of Saturation
o. Permeability

a) Weathering Potential

When exposed to atmospheric conditions, rocks slowly break down. This process is
called weathering and can be separated into mechanical and chemical weathering.
(Kehew, 1995).

 Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering causes disintegration of rocks into smaller pieces by exfoliation

or decrepitating (slaking). The chemical composition of the parent rock is not or is only
slightly altered. Mechanical weathering can result from the action of agents such as frost
action, salt crystallization, temperature changes (freezing and thawing), moisture
changes (cycles of wetting and drying), wind, glaciers, streams, unloading of rock
masses (sheet jointing), and biogenic processes (plants, animals, etc.). For instance,
mechanical weathering is very active in high mountains with cold climates. The 9%
increase in volume associated with the transformation of water into ice as the
temperature drops below 0°C can create pressures large enough to crack rocks. A good
example of this type of process can be found in the Niagara Falls area where large

24
blocks of dolomite detach from the rest of the rock mass in the spring and summer
seasons.

Another example is the weathering associated with the natural unloading of massive
granitic or sandstone rock masses associated with removal of overburden. As unloading
takes place, discontinuities called sheet joints (also called exfoliation joints or lift joints)
may develop parallel to the surface of rock outcrops. The rock outcrops appear to be
spalling off like layers of a giant onion. The rock mass is divided onto blocks or sheets,
a few centimeters thick near the ground surface and becoming thicker with depth until it
fades out completely at depth of about 50 m. Stability problems can arise if these joints
dip toward excavations with a potential for detachment of sheets. Sheeting tends to
round the topography and create dome-shaped hills. Good examples of sheeting can be
found at Yosemite, Zion and Stone Mountain National parks in the US. The "Sugarloaf"
mountain near Rio de Janeiro in Brazil is another example. Unloading of rock masses in
the form of rock bursts can be found in deep mines such as those in the Coeur d' Alene
mining district in Idaho or in South Africa. Unloading can also be expressed as buckling
of canal or quarry floors such as in the Niagara Falls area.

Shale and poorly cemented sandstones quickly disintegrate when exposed to natural
conditions, and in particular moisture changes. Swelling or shrinking of the shale may
occur if it contains such minerals as montmorillonite. Note that weathered shales are
most susceptible to swell than non-weathered types.

A last example of mechanical weathering is the one associated with the rapid cooling
and heating of rocks in desert areas. Temperature gradients are large enough to crack
rocks. On the Moon, meteorite impacts are also responsible for the weathering of basalt.

 Chemical Weathering

This type of weathering creates new minerals in place of the ones it destroys in the
parent rock. As rocks are exposed to atmospheric conditions at or near the ground
surface, they react with components of the atmosphere to form new minerals. The most
important atmospheric reactants are oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water. In polluted air,
other reactants are available (acid rain problems associated with the release of sulfuric
acid from coal-fired power plants, sulfur dioxide and smoke emissions, and nitrogen
oxides from vehicle exhaust. In general, chemical weathering reaction is exothermic and
cause volume increases. Solution is a reaction whereby a mineral completely dissolves
during weathering. This type of reaction depends on the solubility of the rock minerals.
For instance, evaporate minerals (salt, gypsum) dissolve quickly in water, whereas

25
carbonate minerals are somewhat less soluble. Limestone dissolves by meteoric water
which contains dissolved carbon dioxide. This result in the formation of cavities called
dolines or karsts and geologic hazards called sink holes. Because of impurities in the
limestone, a red residual soil remains at the limestone surface called terra rossa (Sowers,
1975). Underground cavities can also be formed in gypsum because of its large
solubility (Brune, 1965).

Hydrolysis is the reaction between acidic weathering solutions and many of the silicate
minerals. Feldspars are transformed by hydrolysis as they react with hydrogen ions to
form various products including clay minerals. This phenomenon is responsible for the
degradation of granite and other plutonic rocks to a material that resembles more of a
dense soil than a rock. The disintegrated granite called grus, saprolite, or spheroidal
granite consists of rounded blocks surrounded by a mixture of detrital clays and resistant
grains of quartz.

Hydration corresponds to the penetration of water into the lattice structure of minerals.
A good example is the hydration of anhydrite into gypsum which is often accompanied
with large volume increases and substantial swelling pressures (Brune, 1965).

Oxidation corresponds to the reaction of free oxygen with metallic elements. This
reaction is familiar to everyone as rust. In an oxidation reaction, the iron atoms
contained in the minerals lose one or more electrons each and then precipitate as
different minerals or amorphous substances. The sulfuric acid can also attack calcium
carbonate to produce gypsum. This production of gypsum berates sulfuric acid creates a
local volume increase and possible attack of concrete (Grattan-Bellew and Eden, 1975).
Oxidation of pyrite in mudstone can transform chlorite into smectite along the oxidation
front. The increase in smectite is expected to be closely related to landslides.

a) Slaking Potential

Since rocks change properties with time, a problem of interest is to assess their weather
ability or its inverse their durability. From an engineering stand point, we are interested
in an index to describe the degree of rock alterability and relate the properties of the rock
to that index. Such an index has been developed for clay-bearing rocks (shales, clay
stones, mudstones, etc.) and is called the slake durability index.

The slake durability test, first proposed by Franklin and Chandra (1972), is a test
intended to assess the resistance offered by a rock sample to weakening and
disintegration when subject to one or several cycles of drying and wetting. It is a
standardized measurement of the weight loss of rock lumps when repeatedly rotated
26
through an air water interface. The procedure has been standardized by the ISRM
(Franklin, 1979) and the ASTM (ASTM D4644-87).

The slake durability test apparatus consists of two drums 100 mm long and 140 mm in
diameter, containing about 500g of rocks (10 lumps) in each drum. Sieve mesh forms
the walls of the drums with openings of 2 mm. The drums rotate at a speed of 20 rpm for
a period of 10 minutes in a water bath. The rock in the drums are subject to different
cycles of wetting in the bath and drying in the oven.

Let D be the mass of the empty dry drum. The initial dry mass of rock plus drum is
defined as A. After one cycle of wetting and drying, the new dry mass of the drum and
the rock is B. The slake durability index Id1 is the percent of rock retained and is equal
to,

The test is repeated a second time and C is the final dry mass of the drum and remaining
rock.

The slake durability index Id2 is then equal to

The slake durability classification suggested by Franklin and Chandra (1972) based on
the value of Id2. It is also recommended that the value of I d1 be used whenever the
values of Id2 range between 0 and 10%,

Rocks giving low slake durability results should be subjected to soils classification tests
such as Atterberg limits (Gamble, 1971). (Morgenstern et al, 1974) have shown that the
liquid limit test in soil mechanics can be used to predict the maximum amount of slaking
that can be expected for argillaceous rocks.

Note that several versions of the original slake durability test have been proposed. For
instance, more cycles of drying and wetting may be necessary especially for rocks with
higher durability. A comprehensive review and discussion of the different methods can
be found in (Richardson, 1987).

a) Swelling Potential

Chemical weathering reactions are usually accompanied with an increase in volume

such as in the transformation of anhydrite into gypsum. For this reaction, increases in
volumes ranging between 30 and 58% and swelling pressures as high as 10,000 psi (70
MPa) have been reported by Brune (1965) for anhydrite deposits in Texas. Heaving of
27
structures founded on black shale in Canada has been observed as a result of the
oxidation of pyrite and the formation of secondary sulfates such as gypsum (Quigley and
Vogan, 1970; Grattan-Bellew and Eden, 1975). Swelling can also take place in clay
bearing rocks containing such minerals as montmorillonite (Meehan et al., 1975). In
Norway, Selmer-Olsen and Palmsrom (1989) reported several examples of tunnel
collapse due to swelling clay gouge in faults and other rock discontinuities intersecting
the tunnels. Expansive soils and rocks do at least $ 1 billion a year in damage to U.S.
homes more than the combined residential damage from floods, hurricanes, earthquakes
and tornadoes (Jones and Jones, 1987).

The term swelling rock (or soil) implies not only the tendency of a material to increase
in volume when water is available but also to decrease in volume and shrink if water is
removed. Whether a soil or rock with high swelling potential will actually exhibit
swelling characteristics depends on several factors such as:

 The difference between the field moisture content at the time of construction and the
final equilibrium, moisture content associated with the completed structure
 The degree of compaction with more compaction favor swelling as moisture
becomes available.
 The final stress to which the material will be subjected after construction is
complete.

Various tests have been proposed to determine the swelling potential of rocks, a review
of which can be found in Einstein (1989). In 1994, the ISRM proposed some suggested
methods for rapid field identification of swelling and slaking rocks (Einstein, 1994a).

The apparatus is essentially an oedometer with a rock specimen placed in a rigid ring.
An initial vertical load is applied on the specimen. As water is added, the specimen
swells and the vertical load is adjusted to maintain zero specimen swell. The swelling
pressure is defined as the maximum swelling vertical force recorded during the test
divided by the specimen cross-sectional area. Swelling strain or displacement can also
be measured on unconfined specimens after immersion in water (as long as the
specimens do not slake or disintegrate upon contact with water). Franklin (1984) also
proposed the ring swell test to measure swelling or shrinking. This test allows to account
for axisymmetric radial confinement and axial loading on swelling. Huang et al. (1986)
proposed the moisture activity index as a measure of the swelling potential of shale.

Remedial actions to reduce the swelling potential of a rock can essentially be classified
into two groups:
28
 Treating the rock (removal or control its water content or chemical treatment)
 Design engineering structures to account for possible swelling or shrinking (bell
shape piers, caissons, piles).

According to Chen (1988), three methods are available for reducing or avoiding the
effect of swelling of soils and rocks on foundations. These include:

 Isolating the structure from the swelling materials

 Designing a structure that will remain undamaged in spite of swelling (rare
approach)
 Elimination of the swelling altogether.

a) Hardness and Abrasiveness

Knowledge of the hardness and abrasiveness of rock is very important when predicting
rock drillability, cuttability, borability and tunnel boring machine advance rates. These
two physical properties depend to a great extent on the mineralogical composition of the
rock, the type and the degree of cementation of the mineral grains. Examples showing
the importance of these properties in excavation engineering can be found in Selmer-
Olsen and Blindheim (1970), Lachel (1973), Hansen and Lachel (1980), Aleman (1983),
Nelson et al. (1983), Nelson et al. (1984), Howarth et al. (1986), Howarth (1987a), and
West (1989), among others.

Rock hardness can be expressed using the Mohs scale used for minerals or can be
measured (in a non-destructive way) using the Schmidt Rebound Hammer or the Shore
Scleroscope. Suggested procedures for measuring intact rock hardness with those two
devices can be found in Atkinson (1978). The techniques are simple, and the tests can be
done rapidly and inexpensively.

The Schmidt Rebound Hammer is used in rock mechanics (L-type) and is similar to that
used to determine the strength of concrete (N-type). After calibration (on a material
supplied by the manufacturer), the plunger (1) of the hammer is pressed against the rock
surface (2). A spring driven mass (14) within the housing of the hammer (3) is released,
strikes the plunger and rebounds, a pointer (4) on a scale (5) recording the amount of
rebound as a percentage of the initial spring compression. The rebound number, also
known as the Schmidt Rebound Index, R, is read by pressing a locking mechanism (6).
In general, 10 readings are made. The value of R is higher for harder and stronger rocks
which absorb less of the impact energy. Tests can be conducted in the laboratory on rock
specimens or in the field on rock surfaces away from major discontinuities. In all cases,
measurements must be made at right angles to the surfaces. The Schmidt hammer is
29
calibrated for horizontal impact direction, i.e. for testing vertical surfaces. When using it
on horizontal or inclined surfaces, correction factors must be applied. Empirical
equations have been suggested to relate R to the unconfined compressive strength.
Figure 6a shows the relationship between R and the unconfined compressive strength for
shale proposed by Hucka (1965). Figure 6b is a chart proposed by Deere and Miller
(1966) where the strength is determined by multiplying the value of R by the dry density
of the rock. Other empirical equations have been proposed by Aufmuth (1974), and by
Irfan and Dearman (1978).

The Shore Scleroscope is used to determine dynamic hardness whereindentation is done

by a rapidly moving indenter. It measures the height of rebound of a diamond-tipping
hammer falling freely on a horizontal planar surface from a height of about 10 inches.
The hammer is contained within a close-bore glass tube. Air pressure, supplied by hand
compression of a rubber bulb, and operates a catch which releases the hammer. The bulb
is connected by a rubber tube to a cylinder, containing a piston, at the top of the
instrument. The vertical scent of the hammer after a test is effected by squeezing the
bulb, the hammer again being suspended by the catch at the top. The height of rebound
is read from the attached scale. The average of 10 readings is used to determine the
value of the Shore Scleroscope Index, S.

Empirical equations have been suggested to relate S to the unconfined compressive

strength

Dietl and Tarkoy (1973) studied the relationship between rock hardness and the advance
rate of a TBM in Manhattan schist. Several hardness indices were introduced. They
found that the advance rate could be predicted by using a total hardness, H T, which
depends on the Schmidt Hammer Rebound Index R=HR and a so-called rock abrasion
hardness. The advance rate increases as the rock hardness decreases as expected.

The resistance to abrasion of aggregates can be obtained using the Los Angeles abrasion
testing machine (Atkinson, 1978). A steel drum is loaded with about 5 kg of rock
samples and a specified number of iron balls. The drum is rotated at 30-33 rpm for 500
revolutions. Abrasion,

A, is expressed as a percentage of the original weight, or

Selmer-Olsen and Blindheim (1970) also proposed a bit wear index to assess the
abrasion capacity of different rock types on wolfram carbide bits. This index is obtained
30
by using the wolfram carbide abrasion laboratory test. West (1981) discussed various
testing methods to evaluate rock abrasiveness for tunneling applications and
recommended the quartz content and the uniaxial compressive strength as useful rock
properties. Tarkoy and Hendron (1975) also proposed a rock abrasiveness index for
tunneling purpose.

a) Degree of Fissuring

The degree of intact rock fissuring can be characterized through direct observation using
the microscope. It can also be characterized through simple tests such as measurement of
sonic velocity or permeability.

The sonic velocity method (or pulse method) consists of propagating waves in intact
samples of rock. Transmitters and receivers transducers and an oscilloscope are used to
measure the time that longitudinal and transverse elastic waves propagate through an
intact rock sample ( Rummel, 1978). As discussed by Goodman (section 2.8, 1989), if
we know the mineral composition of the rock, the theoretical longitudinal velocity Vl*
that the sample would have without fissures and pores can be written as

Where N is the number of mineral constituents in the rock, V il and Ci are the theoretical
longitudinal velocity and concentration of the ith mineral. Values of V il for some
common minerals are given in Table 2.8 in Goodman (1989) and Christensen (1989).

The ratio between the measured value Vl and the theoretical value Vl* can serve as an
index to describe the degree of rock fissuring (Fourmaintraux, 1976), i.e.

The degree of fissuring is affected by the temperature (Houpert and Homand-Etienne,

1989).

a) Porosity

Porosity is defined as the ratio of a volume of void spaces within a rock to the total bulk
volume of the rock. The porosity, n, (expressed in percent) is defined as follows

It represents the relative proportion of solid grains and voids in the rock. It is also a
measure of the interconnected pore space. Note that the pore phase may not be

31
completely continuous in a rock and fluid may not permeate to all the pores. The
apparent porosity is the measure of the volume of interconnected pores and cracks
linked to the external surface of the rock. On the other hand, the total porosity is a
measure of the volume of all the cracks and pores and includes those interconnected to
the external surface and those having no connection to the external surface of the rock.
For rocks with porosity less than two percent, micro fissures are dominant. On the other
hand, for rocks with porosity larger than two percent, pores are dominant Porosity is
very much affected by the rock texture, its age, depth, and the in situ state of stress. For
instance, sedimentary rocks with clastic texture will be more porous than those with
crystalline texture.

In general, the presence of microcavities in the fabric of a rock will influence its
engineering properties. An increase in porosity is usually accompanied with an increase
in deformability and permeability and a decrease in strength. The decrease in strength
with an increase in porosity was observed by Howarth (1987b). He also found that
drilling rate increases with rock porosity. Porosity increases with temperature (Houpert
and Homand-Etienne, 1989).

b) Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of the solid phase of a rock, Gs, is defined as follows

Where and are the density of the solid particles and water (at 20°C),
respectively. The specific gravity can be measured directly or estimated once the
mineralogical composition of the rock is known. As shown by Goodman (1989), the
specific gravity for an aggregate of mineral grains i (i=1, N) can be expressed as follows

Where Gsi and Vi are the specific gravity and volume percentage of the ith mineral in the
rock. Values of Gsi for most common minerals are given in Goodman (1989) and
Olhoeft and Johnson (1989).

c) Water Content and Saturation

The water content (w), and the degree of saturation (Sr), are equal to

32
and

d) Bulk Density

The bulk density is equal to

For rocks, the bulk density varies between 2.5 and 3.0 g/cm 3. Values for different rock
types can be found in Olhoeft and Johnson (1989). In general, low density rocks are

highly porous. The dry density is the value of the bulk density when the rock is dry,
i.e. Mw=0 (Sr=0%). On the other hand, when the rock is saturated (S r=100%), the bulk
density is defined as

The following relationships exist between densities and other physical properties
introduced before:

and

e) Permeability

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit fluids. Most rocks,

including igneous, metamorphic and chemical sedimentary rocks, generally have very
low permeability. Permeability of rock material is governed by porosity. Porous rocks
such as sandstones usually have high permeability while granites have low permeability.
Permeability of rock materials, except for those porous one, has limited interests as in
the rock mass, flow is concentrated in fractures in the rock mass.

33
Table 2.2: Physical Properties of Fresh Rock Materials (Jaeger JC, Cook NGW, 1979)

34
 2.3.2. Mechanical Properties of Rock Material

The mechanical properties of a material is the ability of that material to resist an externally
applied load, Rock mechanical properties mainly include elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio,
and rock strength (Wang 1981). These parameters can be obtained by lab experiments of
core samples or by in-situ tests. There are many types of laboratory tests to obtain rock
mechanical properties. Laboratory tests usually consist of simple experiments appropriate to
the nature of the rock in which important quantities, often stress and strain, are determined
(Jaeger and Cook 1979). Before laboratory tests, rock sample preparation and physical
analysis are needed. The ISRM standards gave the suggested methods for both core
preparation and testing (Brown 1981, Kovari et al. 1983).

2.3.2.1. Rock Strength Experiments and Failure Criteria

Rock strength parameters can be obtained from core sample tests in lab experiments (Peng
1998b, Peng et al. 2002a, Peng et al. 2002c). However, in most case the core samples are
unavailable for laboratory testing, particularly in oil and gas industry, where the formations
are very deep. In this case the empirical corrections between rock strength and geophysical
well log data can be used for estimation. (Peng et al. 2001) , depending on type of loading
and the stresses, the strength in general may be classified as

 Tensile strength
 Compressive Strength
 Shear Strength

A. Tensile Strength

Tensile strength describes the capacity of the rock to resist tensile stress. There are direct
and indirect methods for measurement of tensile strength (ISRM 1985). The indirect
methods have been dominant in determining tensile strength of rocks in the past due to their
ease in sample preparation and testing procedure. The indirect methods include point load
test and Brazilian test.

35
i. Direct tensile strength test

The direct measurement of tensile strength can be performed by gluing both ends of a
cylindrical rock specimen to metal front plates which are fixed to the platens of a load frame
(Fjær et al. 1992). The cement has to be more resistant to tensile stress than the specimen.

ii. Point load test

The standardized equipment in the point load test includes a pair of 6 00 conical point
loading platens installed either on a hydraulic hand-pump, for field use, or on a loading
frame for laboratory use, as shown in Fig. 2.8. The rock sample can be of regular or
irregular shape, and is compressed to failure. The load at failure, P, is recorded for the
strength calculation following these three steps (Zeng 2002).

60 q
Specimen
D
2L
R =5mm W

Fig. 2.8. Schematic figure showing point load test apparatus (point load tester) and the
specimen. (Zeng 2002)

Step 1: calculate initial index, Is:

Where De is the specimen equivalent diameter in mm. According to the sample geometry
and loading direction, De is calculated as:

36
For diametral test, D e=D

For axial, block and lump test,

Where D, W are the parameters related to sample size in mm, as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Step 2: calculate standard index, Is(50) for size effect:

Step 3: calculate uniaxial tensile strength, T0:

Where L is the sample size in mm, as defined in Fig. 2.8.; Sa is the shape factor determined
by:

For diametral test

For other test

The point load test also can be used for determining rock uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS). A linear regression between the mean Is(50) and mean UCS values determined for
908 samples in US coal measure rocks yields the following equation (Rusnak and Mark
2000):

Where UCS and Is(50) are in psi, and 1 MPa is approximately equal to 145psi.
The zero-intercept regression equation obtained from the entire data set
is as follows:

37
Early studies (Bieniawski 1975) were conducted on hard, strong rocks, and found that
relationship between UCS and the point load strength could be expressed as:

iii. Brazilian test

The Brazilian test is performed by applying a load by two platens diametrically compressed
to a rock cylinder (Fig. 2.9.), which is normally shorter than or equal in thickness (t) to its
diameter (D). The technique involves loading disc-shaped specimens in compression across
their diameters. Such loading generates a tensile stress at the center of the disc in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the applied load. Failure occurs by an extensional fracture
in or close to the loaded diametral plane. The tensile strength is given by the ratio of the
peak load Fc to the diameter and thickness product (Fjær et al. 1992):

Fig. 2.9. Schematic Brazilian test apparatus and the specimen. (Fjær et al. 1992):

Where D, t are the sample diameter and thickness in mm; Fc is the yield load in Newtons; T0
is the tensile strength in MPa.

Brazilian method often overestimates the tensile strength of the poorly consolidated rocks,
because the line load applied during the test typically widens for soft materials. In such a
case, a line load is no longer applied and the force is distributed over a larger area.
Consequently, a higher tensile strength is calculated.

38
B. Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed compressive

forces. The most common measure of compressive strength is the uniaxial compressive
strength or unconfined compressive strength. Usually compressive strength of rock is
defined by the ultimate stress. It is one of the most important mechanical properties of rock
material, used in design, analysis and modeling.

a. Uniaxial compressive test of rock samples

Uniaxial compressive test is used to determine uniaxial compressive strength, Poisson’s

ratio, and Young’s modulus. Uniaxial compressive test is also called unconfined
compressive test. In this test, circular cylinders of rock samples are compressed parallel to
their longitudinal axis. It is the oldest and simplest test, and continues to be one of the most
convenient and useful ways for determining the properties of rocks (Jaeger and Cook 1979).

The ISRM recommends that the diameter (D) and height (H) of cylindrical samples of rocks
should have the following relationship:

In the uniaxial test, the following equation is used for calculating uniaxial compressive
strength (UCS) for ISRM suggested samples.

Where Pmax is the maximum load exerted in the sample, A is the area of the cross section
of the sample.

If the sample size does not meet ISRM requirement of, the strength test results need to be
corrected. The following equation may be used to correct the UCS:

Where UCS is the uniaxial compressive strength and is the test strength of rock sample
when its H/D is not equal to 2. When the stress-strain curve is nonlinear, or the Young’s

39
modulus (E) and Poisson’s ratio depend on the axial stress level, it is common to

specify the values of E and at 50% of the peak stress, i.e.:

Where is the stress at 50% of the peak stress; and are the axial and
radial strains at , respectively.

b. Triaxial compressive test

The triaxial compression test has proved to be the most useful test in the study of the
mechanical properties of rocks over a wide range of values (Jeager and Cook 1979). In a

triaxial compressive test, the major principal stress is applied along the axis of a

cylindrical rock specimen and an equal minor principal stress is applied to the curved
surfaces of the specimen by fluid-confining pressure. In the triaxial compressive tests both
the UCS and failure envelope can be determined, when enough rock samples are tested.
Figure 2.10. shows a typical servo controlled triaxial compressive test apparatus made by
MTS Systems (Peng et al. 2000).

40
Fig. 2.10. Servo-controlled triaxial compressive test apparatus of MTS Systems in China
University of Mining and Technology. (Brown et al. 1989)

c. Polyaxial compressive test

Mogi (1971) constructed perhaps the first apparatus that enabled the application of three
independent and mutually perpendicular uniform loads to the faces of a rectangular
prismatic specimen with minimum friction. He subjected Dunham dolomite and other rocks
to different intermediate principal compressive stresses for the same least principal stress,
and then raised the maximum principal stress to failure. The Polyaxial cells built by Mogi
(1971) and Spetzler et al. (1981) were mainly suited for testing deformational and strength
characteristics of weak to medium strength rocks. The University of Wisconsin designed
and fabricated a true triaxial testing system suitable for testing both weak and strong rocks
(Haimson and Chang 2000). The true triaxial tests can better describe the stress-strain
relationship for rocks situated in a three dimensional stress domain. Polyaxial compressive
tests demonstrate experimentally that rock strength is a function of the major principal stress

and the minor principal stress as well as the intermediate stress . Therefore,
rock failure characteristic depends on the effects of all three principal stresses.

41
d. Shear Strength

Shear strength is used to describe the strength of rock materials, to resist deformation due to
shear stress. Rock resists shear stress by two internal mechanisms, cohesion and internal
friction. Cohesion is a measure of internal bonding of the rock material. Internal friction is
caused by contact between particles, and is defined by the internal friction angle, φ.
Different rocks have different cohesions and different friction angles. Shear strength of rock
material can be determined by direct shear test and by triaxial compression tests. In
practice, the later methods is widely used and accepted. With a series of triaxial tests
conducted at different confining pressures, peak stresses (σ1) are obtained at various lateral
stresses (σ3).

2.3.2.2. POISSON’S RATIO

Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to corresponding axial strain on a material
stressed along one axis. For a rock core subjected to axial load, Poisson’s ratio (V) can be
expressed as:

Where the lateral is strain; is the axial strain. Therefore, Poisson’s ratio can be
determined by measuring the lateral and axial deformations of the uniaxial compressive test
in rock samples.

2.3.2.3. Elastic Modulus

Elastic modulus (also called Young’s modulus) is an important parameter to describe stress
and strain relationship. For most rocks, the uniaxial stress-strain curve before failure takes
approximately the linear form. This can be presented by (Jaeger and Cook 1979) as:

Where is the stress; is the strain; the constant, E, is called elastic modulus. A material
is linearly elastic if the above relation holds accurately.

42
Elastic modulus describes the capacity of rock deformation, or the stiffness of a rock. For a
high elastic modulus rock, it is less deformable (i.e. stiff). For a low elastic modulus (soft)
rock, it is more deformable, and the initial part of the complete stress-strain curve will be
gentle (Hudson and Harrison 1997). Rock static elastic modulus can be obtained from lab
core tests of either uniaxial or triaxial compressive experiment (Meng et al. 2002).

43
Table 2.3: Mechanical properties of rock materials. (Jaeger JC, Cook NGW, 1979)

44
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA OF STUDY

3.1.1. Historical Presentation of Kumba

Kumba was founded around 1640 by Mediki-Ukeh, Said to have been a hunter. He later
settled there and began procreating with the wife, Bokeng. Kumba derived its name
from the “EKUMBA” tree, which dominated the area at the time of its discovery. This
tree type is popularly known as “Umbrella tree” in English. The appellation EKUMBA
therefore was the original Bafaw vernacular name for Kumba, meaning “a place of
umbrella trees”. Today, the huge settled population has extinct the EKUMBA tree.

Kumba otherwise known as “The Green City” is located in the South West Region of
the Republic of Cameroon. The town is referred to as the Green City because of her
greenery look with trees blossoming on all major street sides. It is the largest city in the
South West and economic hub of the Region. Kumba is also the headquarters of the
Grand Meme that gave birth to Kupe-Muanenguba division and the current Meme
division. Kumba is a road junction town with roads from Nigeria via Mamfe to Kumba,
Nigeria, Akwa, Mundemba, Ekondo Titi, Kumba road, Loum, Tombel Kumba road and
Douala, Buea, Muyuka, Kumba road.

3.1.2. Economy

The economic potential of Kumba is closely linked to the production of timbers and
cocoa. Most commercial activities in Kumba take their strengths from the cocoa sector,
which acts as a major economic catalyst in the town. Banks, schools, corporations, and
other commercial activities get to a boom during the cocoa season. The Kumba market,
is the major source of the city council income becomes a beehive during the cocoa
season, especially when the prices are encouraging. In other words, a slump in the prices
of cocoa will mean a drastic drop in business in Kumba. Trading in Kumba has attracted
the interest of foreigners, mostly Nigerians (the Igbo’s), who have always controlled a
greater percentage of the Kumba market. Most of the peoples in Kumba are farmers and
this has made Kumba one of the leading towns in Cameroon that provide food stuff to its
neighbouring towns and cities not leaving out some neighbouring countries like Nigeria,
Equatorial guinea, Gabon, Chad, and a good number of African countries.

45
3.1.3. Geographical Location of Kumba

Although Kumba is the largest city in the southwest Region of Cameroon, it is not the
regional capital. Buea is the regional capital, the former German colonial capital.
Because of its size, most major roads to the regional interior radiate from Kumba,
running to the Nigerian border at Mamfe, the Korup National Park at Mundemba, and
Mount Koupe to the east. The most important geographical attraction in Kumba is Lake
Barombi Mbo. Kumba having a surface area of 3105 km 2 it’s a city of the western south
west Cameroon. It is the present day Headquarter of Meme Division of the South West
Region of Cameroon. From a Geographic perspective, it is located between latitudes 3°
and 4° north of the Equator and between longitude 9° and 10° east of the Greenwich
meridian.

46
47
Figure 3.1: localization map of Kumba Source: Adapted from BD NIC and MINATD

48
3.2. SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION

The samples were collected from one selected location which is ST. Etienne gravel a
quarry located at Kang Barombi in Kumba III sub-division at different locations within
the quarry faces using random sampling technique, limestone and granite rocks which
represents two different classes of rock that’s sedimentary and igneous rocks were
collected and taking to the laboratory for testing. The samples for the density, porosity,
water absorption, water content and uniaxial compressive strength test of limestone and
granite were prepared having a cylindrical shape while the samples for the flexural
tensile tests of limestone and granite were prepared having a circular shape and the
laboratory investigations for the various physical and mechanical properties of limestone
and granite rocks were carried out in the civil engineering laboratory of Government
Technical High School Kumba popularly known as SOFATI located at Kumba III sub-
division, the laboratory is well constructed and equipped. The laboratory
is a multipurpose unit with the tests performed there ranging from geotechnical tests to
tests in structural engineering. The preparations of these samples follow the standards
suggested by the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM, 1981) and conform
to American Standard for Testing Method (ASTM, 1994).

Figure 3.2: Sample collection and preparation Source: C.J.AKWO, 2020

48
3.3. METHODS AND MATERIALS OF VARIOUS LABORATORY TEST
CARRIED OUT.

3.3.1. Determination of Density of Limestone and Granite

a. Test Equipment and Materials

The equipment used to determine the density of limestone and granite were; Measuring
Cylinder, Oven (24hours at 1050 C +/- 5 0 C ), Desiccators, Balance with accuracy of
0.01g and range of 100g sample container (not-corrodible) with airtight lid, sledge
hammer and a moisten cloth.

b. Test method

The objective of this test is to measure the porosity of rock specimens of irregular form.
The porosity is the volume of pores in the rock expressed as a percentage of the total
volume of the rock. The saturation and Buoyancy techniques for irregular rock samples
were adopted and the procedures follow the standard suggested by ISRM, 1981 and
conform to ASTM, 1994. Three samples of irregular form from a representative sample
of rock were prepared. The size of the specimens was made such that the following
conditions were fulfilled; the specimen mass should be at least 250g and of irregular
form. The saturated specimen dry volume (V) was determined by measurement of the
saturated-submerged dry mass (Mdry) and the saturated mass (Msat) of the sample for
each dimension of the specimen. The specimen is saturated by water immersion in a
vacuum for a period of at least 74 hours, with periodic agitation to remove trapped air.
The specimen is removed from the water and surface dried using a moisten cloth, care
being taken to remove only surface water and to ensure that no fragments are lost. The
specimen is located in a container to avoid loss of mass during subsequent sample
handling. The mass of specimen plus container (B) is determined with an accuracy of
0.01g. The specimen (in the open container) is dried in an oven to constant mass
(generally 24 hours is enough) at the temperature of 105 °C. After closure of the
container and cooling in a desiccators for 30 minutes, the mass (C) of the dry sample
with the container and lid is determined with an accuracy of 0.01g. The container with
the lid is cleaned and dried and it’s mass (A) is determined with an accuracy of 0.01g.

49
Figure 3.3: Scale balance used to determine the weight of the specimen

Source: C.J.AKWO, 2020

The Density and porosity shall be calculated from the following formula:

Specimen mass (Ms)

Saturated surface mass (Msat) = B – A

Specimen dry mass (Mdry) = C – A

Pore volume, Vv=Msat−Ms

Saturated surface dry mass Volume; V =Msat −Mdry

Vv
Porosity, n¿ × 100 %
V

Ms
Density, P=
V 2−V 1

50
3.3.2. Determination of the water content of Limestone and Granite

a. Test Equipments and Material

The equipment used to determine the water content of limestone and granite were; Oven
(24hours at 1050 C +/‐50 C ), Desiccators and a Balance with accuracy of 0.01g.

b. Test Method

The mass of the specimens (Mbulk) was weighed in a balance with accuracy of 0.01g
then the specimens are dried to a constant mass at a temperature of 1050 C +/‐5 0 C in an
oven for 24 hours and cooled for 30 minutes in a desiccators then the dry mass of the
specimens (Mdry) are weighed in a balance with accuracy of 0.01g.

Figure 3.4: Specimens placed in an oven and undergoing drying

Source: C.J.AKWO, 2020

The water content (Wc) shall be calculated from the following formula:

51
 ( Mbulk−Mdry )
Wc= ×100 %
Mdry

3.3.3. Determination of the water absorption capacity of Limestone and Granite

a. Test Equipments and Material.

The equipment used to determine the water absorption capacity of limestone and granite
were; Measuring Cylinder, Oven (24hours at 1050 C +/‐5 0 C ), Desiccators, Balance
with accuracy 0.01g range of 100g sample container and moisten cloth.

b. Test method

The test piece was washed with water in other to remove particles of dust or mud from
the surface, the sample is dried in an oven at the temperature of 105 °C for not less than
24 hours. It was removed from the oven and cooled in a desiccators for 30 minutes, the
mass (A) of the dry sample is determined with an accuracy of 0.01g. The specimen was
immersed in water in a transparent container at room temperature at 20 0 C ¿ 30 0 C for
about 336 hours. Soon after immersion for 24 hours, the test piece was then placed on a
moisten cloth and gently surface dried with the moisten cloth. It was then transferred to
a second moisten cloth when the first one removes no further moisture. It was left
exposed to atmosphere away from direct sunlight or any other source of heat for not less
than 10 minutes until it appears to be completely surface dry. The sample mass was then
weighed with an accuracy of 0.01g and was denoted (B).

Figure 3.5:
Specimens in a graduated cylinder container with water

Source: C.J.AKWO, 2020

52
The water absorption shall be calculated from the following formula:

B− A
Water absorption= × 100 %
A

3.3.4. Determination of the Uniaxial Compressive strength of Limestone and Granite

a. Test Equipments and Material.

The equipment used to determine the uniaxial compressive strength of limestone and
granite were; a measuring tape, sledge hammer, hydraulic press machine also known as
the Brazilian machine.

b. Test method
The objective of this test is to determine the uniaxial compressive strength. The rock
specimens were prepared using sledge hammer. The size of the specimen was made such
that the following conditions were fulfilled; the specimens was made circular in
diameter and cylindrical in shape, the ends of the specimen was made flat and the height
(H) and the diameter (D) of the specimen had the relationship recommended by ISRM
which is H / D = 2. The specimen was placed between the platen point in a way to allow
at least 0.5 the diameter and distance between the platens was measured and recorded.
When it touches the lower plate, metallic disc were placed on top of the specimen in
other for the specimen to have contact with the upper platen and the specimen was
adjusted in other for it to be parallel with the platen. Then we started loading by
pumping continuously at a constant rate on till the specimen started to fail within 20 to
30 minutes, the pointer was then observed, the action was stopped and the maximum
load achieved was recorded in KN. The pressure released valve was opened and
manually forced the platen down to allow the next specimen to be tested.

53
 Figure 3.6: Measuring the height (H) and diameter (D) of specimen

Source: C.J.AKWO, 2020

Figure 3.7:
Crushing
specimens using the hydraulic press machine

Source: C.J.AKWO, 2020

The uniaxial compressive strength was determined using the equation suggested by
ISRM:

Pmax
UCS¿
A

Where Pmax is the maximum load exerted in the sample and A is the area of the cross
section of the sample and it is given here by,

π D2
A= H
4

3.3.5. Determination of the Tensile strength of Limestone and Granite

a. Test Equipments and Material.

The equipment used to determine the tensile strength of limestone and granite were; a
measuring tape, sledge hammer and a hydraulic press also known as the Brazilian
machine.

54
b. Test method

The test method adopted to determine the tensile strength of the rock specimens was the
Brazilian Tensile strength test method. The BTS is determined by an indirect testing
method governed by the ISRM (1978) and ASTM (2008b) standards which state that the
tensile stress at failure is a function of the applied load (P), the diameter (D) and the
thickness (t) at the center of the specimen.

The specimens were prepared having the form of a disc with diameter (D) and thickness
approximately equal to the radius of the specimen. The surface was prepared free from
obvious tool marks and any irregularities across the thickness. The specimen is
introduced and loaded in to the Brazilian tensile test apparatus across its diameter.
Loading is applied continuously at a constant rate until failure starts to occur within 5 to
10 minutes, the pointer was then observed, the action was stopped and the maximum
load achieved was recorded in KN. The pressure released valve was opened and
manually forced the platen down to allow the next specimen to be tested.

Figure 3.8: Crushing of specimens and measuring the Diameter (D) and thickness (t)

Source: C.J.AKWO, 2020

55
The tensile strength (To) of the specimens is calculated from the failure load (P),
specimen diameter (D), and specimen thickness (t) by the following equation:

2P P
¿= ¿ 0.636
πDt Dt

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the results of the laboratory test program designed to study the
physical and mechanical properties of the various rocks (limestone and granite rock)
which are the most used rocks for construction in the town of Kumba as described in
chapter 3. Three (3) specimens each of limestone and granite rock were taken to the
laboratory to evaluate their density, porosity, water content, water absorption, uniaxial
compressive strength and tensile strength. The results are presented and discussed as
follows:

4.1. Test Results of Density and Porosity for Limestone and Granite

4.1.1. Test results of Density

The densities of three samples of limestone and granite rock were determined and are
presented in the tables below:

Table 4.1.1.a: Density of Limestone

S/N Ms(g) V 1¿) V 2(cm3) P ¿)

S1 10234 2000 5450 2.96
S2 10100 2000 5382 2.98
S3 10520 2000 5602.31 2.92
Average 2.95
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.1.1.b: Density of Granite

Sample Ms(g) V 1¿) V 2(cm3) P ¿)

number
S1 10140 2000 5399.94 2.98
S2 9571.42 2000 5380.10 2.67
S3 9942.86 2000 5294.95 3.10
Average 2.92
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

The tables above present the results of density for limestone and granite rock. It can be
observed that the density of the three samples of limestone fall within the range of 2.92

56
 ¿ 2.98 g/cm3 and that of granite rock falls within the range of 2.67 to 3.10 g/cm3 and
from the two average values of the different rock type, the value of limestone is greater
than that of granite rock. The results of density proposed by Jaeger et al 1979 in the
literature review range between 2.67 to 2.72 for limestone and 2.53 to 2.62 for granite
rock. Comparing their results with what we obtain, we observe that the variation
between the results is more than theirs. This increase maybe caused by the decrease of
clay in the samples. Bob et al 2006, holds that the increase in clay contribute to low
density or low resistivity in rocks since clay mineral have substantial negative surface
charge that causes resistivity to plummet. The average value of the results of the density
test for limestone and granite rocks was taken to determine the actual density of each
rock type. The results of the average value are further represented on the figure as
follows:

AVERAGE DENSITY
DENSITY

3.5

3
¿
2.5
)

Granite
2 Limestone
1.5

0.5

0
Limestone Granite

Figure 4.1: Average density of limestone and granite rock.

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

4.1.2. Test results of Porosity

The porosity of three samples of limestone and granite rock were determined and are
presented in the following tables below:

Table 4.1.2.a: Porosity of Limestone

Sample Ms(g) Msat(g) Mdry(g) Vv V n

57
 number (%)
S1 10234 10243.2 102212.9 0.3 8.2 3.65
S2 10100 10113 10112.64 0.36 13 2.77
S3 10520 10529 10528.78 0.22 8 2.76
Averag 3.10
e

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.1.2.b: Porosity of Granite

Sample Ms(g) Msat(g) Mdry Vv V n

number (g) (%)
S1 10140 10149.5 10149 0.1 9.5 1.10
.4
S2 9571. 9576.9 9576. 0.0 6.4 1.10
42 83 7 8
S3 9942. 9949.6 9949. 0.0 6.7 2.10
86 46 74 4
Average 1.43
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.1.2a and b above present the results of porosity for limestone and granite rock. It
can be observed that the porosity of the three samples of limestone falls within the range
of 2.76 to 3.65% and that of granite rock falls within the range of 1.10 to 2.10% and
from the two average values of the different rock type, the value of limestone is greater
than that of granite rock. The results of porosity proposed by Jaeger et al 1979 in the
literature review for limestone is 0.27 to 4.10% and for granite 1.02 to 2.87. Adeniyi et
al 2015 evaluated the porosity of granite rock and limestone and their results were given
as follows, 1.35% for granite and 2.79% for limestone. Comparing their results with
what we obtain, we observe that the variation between the results has some differences.
This difference might be due to the variation of the interconnected pores and cracks
linked to the external surface of the rock. Howarth (1987b) holds that an increase in
porosity is usually accompanied with an increase in deformability and permeability and
a decrease in strength. He also found that drilling rate increases with rock porosity.
Houpert et al 1989 also holds that porosity increases with temperature. . The average
value of the results of the porosity test for limestone and granite rocks was taken to

58
 determine the actual porosity of each rock type. The results of the average value are
further represented on the figure below as follows:

AVERAGE POROSITY
3.50%

3.00%
Porosity (%)

2.50%
Granite
2.00% Limestone
1.50%

1.00%

0.50%

0.00%
Limestone Granite

Figure 4.2: Average porosity of limestone and granite rock.

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

4.2. TEST RESULTS OF WATER CONTENT FOR LIMESTONE AND GRANITE

Table 4.2.a: Water content of Limestone

Sample Mbulk(g) Mdry(g) Wc (%)

number
S1 10200 10139 0.60
S2 9900 9853 0.47
S3 10800 10727 0.68
Average 0.58
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.2.b: Water content of Granite

Sample Mbulk(g) Mdry(g) Wc (%)

number
S1 10000 9987 0.13
S2 8571.45 8557.5 0.16
S3 9142.86 9130.5 0.13
Average 0.14

59
 Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

The tables above present the results of water content for limestone and granite rock. It
can be observed that the water content of the three samples of limestone range from
0.47% to 0.68% and that of granite rock range from 0.13% to 0.16%and from the two
average values of the different rock type, the value of limestone is greater than that of
granite rock. We can say limestone absorb and store more water than granite rock
because it is very porous than granite as an evidence from the result obtained.

The
AVERAGE WATER CONTENT average
value of the
0.60% results of
0.50% Granite the water
0.40% Limestone
content test
0.30%
for
0.20%
0.10% limestone
0.00% and granite
Limestone Granite
rocks was
taken to determine the actual water content of each rock type, the results of the average
value are further represented on the figure below as follows:
Water Content (%)

Figure 4.3: Average water content of limestone and granite rock.

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

4.3. TEST RESULTS OF WATER ABSORPTION FOR LIMESTONE AND

GRANITE

Table 4.3.a: Water absorption of Limestone

Sample A(g) B(g) Wabs (%)

number
S1 10139 10197.5 0.57
S2 9853 9936.8 0.85

60
 S3 10727 10798.5 0.66
Average 0.69
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.3.b: Water absorption of Granite

Sample A(g) B(g) Wabs (%)

number
S1 9987 9999.2 0.12
S2 8557.5 8576.9 0.22
S3 9130.5 9149.3 0.20
Average 0.18
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.3a and b presents the results obtained from the water absorption test of three
samples of limestone and granite rock. The results of limestone range between 0.57% to
0.85% while that of granite rock falls within the range of 0.12% to 0.22%. From the
results obtain, we can observe that limestone can absorb more what than granite rock.
This high percentage of water absorption maybe because limestone has high voids in its
surface which permit water to penetrate easily through its pores while granite rocks are
so dense that cannot permit water to easily penetrate through its pores because they are
very small as compared to limestone with large pores. An estimated water absorption
value for rocks ranges from 0.12% to 12% thus implying that the averages of limestone
and granite rocks that we obtain in the laboratory which is 0.69% and 0.18% can be
considered as low water absorption capacity which is said to be good capacity for
construction materials because the lower the water absorption capacity of a material the
more efficient the material can withstand applied load.

The average value of the results of the water absorption test for limestone and granite
rocks was taken to determine the actual water absorption capacity for the various rock
type, the results of the average value are further represented on the figure below as
follows:

61
 AVERAGE WATER ABSORPTION
Water absorption (%)
0.70%
0.60%
0.50% Limestone
Granite
0.40%
0.30%
0.20%
0.10%
0.00%
Limestone Granite

Figure 4.4: Average water absorption of limestone and granite rock.

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

4.4. TEST RESULTS OF UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR

LIMESTONE AND GRANITE

Table 4.4.a: Uniaxial compressive strength of Limestone

Sample H(cm) D(cm) Pmax(KN) UCS(MPa)

number
S1 17 8.5 226 234.24
S2 16.4 8.2 212.58 245.42
S3 18 9 231.82 202.42
Averag 227.36
e

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.4.b: Uniaxial compressive strength of Granite

Sample H(cm) D(cm) Pmax(KN) UCS(MPa)

number
S1 17.50 8.75 287.5 273.20
S2 16.60 8.30 232.56 258.89
S3 16.20 8.10 235 281.47

62
 Averag 271.20
e

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.4a and b presents the results of the uniaxial compressive strength test of
limestone and granite rock respectively. According to Cook et al 1979, the uniaxial
compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed
compressive forces. The most common measure of compressive strength is the uniaxial
compressive strength or unconfined compressive strength. From the results obtained, we
can observe that the UCS of limestone range from 202.42MPa to 245. 42MPa and the
results of granite rocks range from 258.89MPa to 281.147MPa. The UCS strength
results that we obtain for limestone and granite rock falls within the range of very high
according to Broch and Franklin 1972.

The average value of the results of the UCS test for limestone and granite rocks which
are 227.36MPa and 271.20MPa respectively was taken to determine the actual UCS for
the various rock types comparing the two average results with that of Adeniyi Adesida
which are 112.17MPa and 168.92MPa for limestone and granite rock respectively, we
can observe that the variation of the his results with ours is very high though the two
results falls within the range proposed by Jaeger et al 1979 in the literature review. The
high variation in the results can be due to the fact that the testing methods were
different. The results of the average value are further represented on the figure below as
follows:

AVERAGE UCS
UCS (MPa)

280
270
260 Granite
250 Limestone
240
230
220
210
200
Limestone Granite

63
 Figure 4.5: Average UCS of limestone and granite rock.

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

4.5. TEST RESULTS OF TENSILE STRENGTH FOR LIMESTONE AND GRANITE

Table 4.5.a: Tensile strength of Limestone

Sample D(cm) t(cm) P(KN) To(MPa)

number
S1 11.90 6.2 11.59 9.99
S2 12.5 6.8 15.57 11.65
S3 12.7 6.4 12.65 9.89
Averag 10.51
e
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.5.b: Tensile strength of Granite

Sample D(cm) t(cm) P(KN) To(MPa)

number
S1 12cm 7.8 17.5 12.10
S2 12.40 7 18.44 13.51
S3 12.90 7.7 18.49 11.83
Averag 12.48
e
Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

Table 4.5a and b presents the results of the tensile strength test of limestone and granite
rock respectively. From the results obtained, we can observe that the tensile strength of
limestone range from 9.89MPa to 11.65MPa and the results of granite rocks range from
11.83MPa to 13.51MPa. It should be worth noting that rocks don’t have a high tensile
strength and fro the results obtained for the tensile test falls within the range of very high
according to Broch and Franklin 1972. The results of tensile strength proposed by Jaeger
et al 1979 in the literature review range from 6MPa to 25MPa for limestone and 7MPa
to 25MPa for granite rock. Comparing their results with what we obtain, we observe that
the variation our results fall within the range. The results of the average value which we
consider as the actual tensile strength are further represented on a bar chart as follows:

64
 AVERAGE TENSILE STRENGTH

12.5
To (MPa)

12
Granite
11.5 Limestone

11

10.5

10

9.5
Limestone Granite

Figure 4.6: Average tensile strength of limestone and granite rock.

Source: C.J. AKWO, 2020

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSTION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion

At the end of this research work where the main objective was to study the physical and
mechanical characterization of rocks used as construction material in the town of Kumba
and its surroundings in line with the specific objectives and research questions. Based on
the literature review, the data collected from both public and private sectors alongside
some actors in the construction industry in Kumba, the materials and methods designed
to investigate some physical and mechanical properties of limestone and granite rocks
which represent two different classes of rocks(sedimentary and igneous rocks)

65
 respectively. The two types of rocks are said to be the most used rocks for various
construction operations in the town of Kumba and its surroundings.

Samples of limestone and granite rocks were collected from ST. Etienne gravel a quarry
located at Kang Barombi in Kumba III sub-division at different locations within the
quarry faces using random sampling technique, the samples were prepared in various
shapes and were taken to the laboratory were the density, porosity, water content and
water absorption were some of the physical properties tested while the uniaxial
compressive strength and the tensile strength were the mechanical properties tested.

The analysis of the results obtained and discussion is evident that the physical and
mechanical properties of the two rocks differ quite widely depending on their texture,
mineral composition, the place of occurrence and extraction. It is also evident that rocks
are absolutely different by their properties this is why samples taken from the same
location may significantly vary from one another in respect to the case of our study.

From the results obtained in this research work, the following conclusion can be drawn:
i. The two tested rocks have very high mechanical properties (UCS and tensile
strength) most especially granite rocks that can be used for most civil engineering
projects.
ii. The presence of too much voids and cracks on the rock surface decreases its
strength.
iii. The larger the pores on the surface of the rock, the more water can penetrate in to
the rock in which the rock can absorb and store water.
iv. Limestone is more porous and dense than granite rock thereby reducing its strength
and making it to deteriorate significantly and its engineering properties are
prejudices.
v. The values of the physical properties of limestone are greater than that of granite
rock while the values of the mechanical properties of granite rock are greater than
that of limestone.

5.2. Recommendation

As a consequence of the results of this research work, we recommend that:

i. Actors and experts in the construction industry (designers, contractors, project
managers and engineers) when carrying out any project that involves the use of
rocks in the town of Kumba and its surroundings should realize foundation,
retaining walls, drainage systems of roads or anywhere in a structure that requires

66
 high strength resistance with granite rocks because it has high resistance and low
water absorption capacity as compared to limestone.
ii. Limestone maybe used as coarse aggregates and can be used to realize the
foundations of small buildings because it has low resistance to applied load and
has a high water absorption capacity.
iii. Granite rocks should be used in realizing the foundation of structures in swampy
areas because it has a low water absorption capacity.

5.3. Suggestion for Further Study

Results from the physical and mechanical characterization of rocks used as construction
material in the town of Kumba and its surroundings focused on the physical and
mechanical properties of limestone and granite rocks. Future work should be undertaken
to correlate their physical and mechanical properties obtained in this work in order to
continue or improve what we have already done. On the other hand, research can be
undertaken to investigate the thermal properties of limestone and granite rocks.

5.4. Difficulties Encountered

The difficulties encountered by the researcher in the course of this research work were:
i. The social unrest in the North west and South west region of Cameroon which was
worsted by the outbreak of the ongoing corona virus pandemic made the researcher
not to be able to fully assess and exploit certain areas which could provide vital
information which could enhance and facilitate this research work.
ii. The constant and continues maintenance of our local networks made it difficult for
the research to assess the internet service for online research.
iii. Unannounced power cut by the energy supply company of Cameroon (ENEO) and
lack of sufficient finance to carry out the laboratory tests were major threats to the
researcher.
iv. Other academic activities made the time allotted for this research work not to be
sufficient.

67
 REFERENCES

 ASTM (2010), ASTM D7012-10, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength and
Elastic Moduli of Intact Rock Core specimens under varying States of Stress and
Temperature
 ASTM. Annual Book of ASTM Standard Construction Soil and Rocks. ASTM
Publication, Vol. 04, No. 08 p. 975. 1994
 Aufmuth, R. E. A Systematic Determination of Engineering Criteria for Rocks. Bull.
Assoc. Eng. Geol. 11, 235–245. 1973.
 Bell, F.G. Engineering in rock masses, Butterworth – Heinemann, Jordan Hill, Oxford,
p. 580. 1992.
 Bieniawski ZT (1975) the point load tests in geotechnical practice. Eng Geol,
Sept, pp 1-11
 Broch, E. and Franklin, J. A. The Point Load Test, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. (9) pp.
669 – 697. 1972.

68
 Brown ET (ed) (1981) Rock characterization, testing and monitoring: ISRM suggested
methods. Pergamon Press, Oxford
 Carlson, D.H, Plummer, C.C and Hammersley, L., 2008: Physical geology, earth
revealed.
 Ehlers, G.E. and Blatt, H., 1997: Petrology, Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
 Ersoy, A. and Waller, M. D. Textural Characteristics of Rocks. Eng. Geol, (39) pp.123‐
126. 1995.
 Eskola, P., 1920: The mineral facies of rocks. Norsk. Geol. Tidsskr. 6 (1922), 143-194.
 Fjær E, Holt RM, Horsrud P, Raaen AM (1992) Petroleum related rock mechanics.
Elsevier
 Franklin, J.A. (Coordinator) (1979) Suggested methods for determining water content,
porosity, density, absorption and related properties of rock.
 Goodman, R.E. (1989) Introduction to Rock Mechanics, 2nd. Ed. Wiley.
 Griffith AA (1921). The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids. Phil Trans Roy
Soc London A221:163-198
 Hoek E (1994) Strength of rock and rock masses. ISRM News J 2(2):4-16
 Hoek E (2007) Practical Rock Engineering.
 Hoek E, Brown ET (1997) Practical estimates of rock mass. Int J Rock Mech Min
Sci 34 (8);1165-1186
 ISRM (International Society of Rock Mechanics) (1985) Suggested methods for
determining point load strength. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr
22:71-96
 ISRM. Suggested Methods for Rock Characterization Testing and Monitoring ISRM
Commission on Testing methods, E. T. Brown Edition. Pergamon Press Oxford 211p.
1981.
 Jaeger JC, Cook NGW (1979) Fundamentals of rock mechanics, 3rd edition.
Chapman & Hall
 Jaeger JC, Cook NGW, Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 3rd Edition. Chapman and
Hall, London, 1979.
 Kahraman, S., Bilgin, N. and Feridunoghi, C. Dominant Rock Properties Affecting the
Penetration Rate of Percussive Drills. Int. J. Rock Mechanics Mining Sci. (40) pp.
711723. 2003.
 Kearey, P., Klepeis, K.A, and Vine, J.F., 2009: Global tectonics. John Wiley and sons
Ltd West Sussex P0198SQ, United Kingdom.

69
 Peng S (1998) Approach on mechanical properties of clastic rocks and rock
microstructure.
 Rusnak J, Mark C (2000) Using the point load test to determine the uniaxial
compressive strength of coal measure rock.
 Spear, F.S., 1993: Metamorphic Phase Equilibria and Pressure-Temperature-Time
Paths.
Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C., 799 pp
 Winter D.J., 2001: An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice
hall.
 Wuerker, R. The status of testing strength of rock. Trans. Min. Eng. AIME, pp. 1108–
1113. 1953.

70