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Soil Mechanics II (CE 324)

Consolidation: A gradual process of increase in effective stress due to
Instructor: Tariq Mahmood Bajwa, PhD
NUST, Pakistan dissipation of pore water in the clay layer due to the surcharge, results in a
Office # 112 (NIT Building)
Email: tariq.bajwa@nice.nust.edu.pk settlement that is time-dependent, and is referred to as the process of

April 19, 2021

consolidation.

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 Consolidation and drainage: 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa

o Principles of consolidation: Time dependent mechanism

“Immediate settlement”

“Primary consolidation settlement”

“Secondary consolidation settlement

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Figure: Variation of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress in a
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clay layer drained at top and bottom as the result of an added stress,

 Consolidation and drainage:  Consolidation and drainage:

o Variations of ∆ , ∆ : o Variations of ∆ , ∆ :

Table: Principles of consolidation

Figure: A mechanical model to explain the process of consolidation

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 Consolidation and drainage:  Consolidation:

o Standard one dimensional consolidation test
o Assumptions: Theory of one-dimensional consolidation (Terzaghi - 1925)
• 25.4 mm thick and 63.5 mm in dia.
• The clay layer is homogeneous. • Saturated and unsaturated

• The clay layer is saturated.

• The compression of the soil layer is due to the change in volume only, which in

turn, due to the squeezing out of water from the void spaces.

• Darcy’s law is valid.

• Deformation of soil occurs only in the direction of the load application..

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 Consolidation:  Consolidation : 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa

o Standard one dimensional consolidation test o Standard one dimensional consolidation test
• 25.4 mm thick and 63.5 mm in dia.
• saturated specimens

Figure: Typical specimen deformation versus log-of-time plot for a given load increment
2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa Figure: Consolidation test is in progress 9 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa 10

 Consolidation :  Consolidation:
o Void ratio – pressure plots o Standard one dimensional consolidation test

Step 1: Calculate the height of solids, Hs , in the soil specimen

Now, =
height of voids, Hv :
Step 2: Calculate the initial height of voids, Hv :
=

H = initial height of the specimen.

Step 3: Calculate the initial void ratio, eo of the specimen

Figure: Change of height of specimen in one-dimensional consolidation test

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 Consolidation :  Consolidation :
o Standard one dimensional consolidation test o Standard one dimensional consolidation test

Step 4: For the first incremental loading 1 (total load/unit area of specimen), which causes deformation Step 7. Proceeding in a similar manner, we can obtain the void ratios at the end of the consolidation for all
load increments.
∆H1 , calculate the change in the void ratio ∆e1:
∆ ! is obtained from the initial and the final dial readings
for the loading. At this time, the effective pressure on the
specimen is = ! = ! (as in Figure)

Step 5: Calculate the new void ratio, e1 , after consolidation caused by the pressure increment 1

Step 6: For the next loading, (note : equals the cumulative load per unit area of specimen), which causes
additional deformation ∆H2 , the void ratio e2 at the end of consolidation can be calculated as

2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa • Note that, at this time, the effective pressure on the specimen is = = . 13 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa Figure: Typical plot of e versus log 14

 Consolidation :  Consolidation :

Problem 1: Following are the results of a laboratory consolidation test on a soil specimen Solution:

obtained from the field. Dry mass of specimen = 128 g, height of specimen at the beginning

of the test = 2.54 cm, Gs = 2.75, and area of the specimen = 30.68 cm 2.

Make necessary calculations and draw an e vs. log curve

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 Consolidation :  Consolidation and drainage:

o Standard one dimensional consolidation test

Solution:
• In the natural condition in the field, a soil - normally consolidated or over-
consolidated.

 Normally consolidated - present ≥ past maximum.

 Over-consolidated - present < past maximum.

 Preconsolidation pressure, "# .

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 Consolidation :  Consolidation:

o Standard one dimensional consolidation test o Standard one dimensional consolidation test
Over-consolidated soil
 Overconsolidation ratio in the field

',%
$%& = )'
(
Normally consolidated soil

* = present effective overburden pressure

# = preconsolidation pressure

Figure: Plot of void ratio versus effective pressure showing unloading and reloading branches
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 Consolidation and drainage: 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa  Consolidation and drainage:
• Effect of sample disturbance on the e versus log curve • Effect of sample disturbance on the e versus log curve

Figure: Consolidation behaviour of pre-consolidated / over consolidated clay

Figure: Consolidation behaviour of normally consolidated clay
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 Consolidation and drainage: 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa  Consolidation and drainage:

o Standard one dimensional consolidation test o Primary settlement consolidation from one dimensional consolidation theory

• Procedure to determine the preconsolidation pressure (Casagrande,1936)

For normally consolidated clays

'; + ∆' ≤ '>

'; + ∆' > '>

Figure: Graphic procedure for determining
preconsolidation pressure
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 Consolidation :  Consolidation :
o Compression index (Cc) and swelling index (Cs) o Mechanisms contributing over consolidation
Removal of overburden pressure

• The slope of the e versus log # plot for normally consolidated soil is referred to as the Past structures

compression index Cc Glaciation

Deep pumping

Desiccation due to drying

Overconsolidation Desiccation due to plant lift

mechanisms
Undisturbed clays Change in soil structure due to secondary compression
• Terzaghi and Peck (1967):
Change in pH

Change in temperature
Remolded clays
Salt concentration

• Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) Weathering

For calm clay model
Ion exchange

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Several empirical relationships - available 25 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa Precipitation of cementing agents (iron oxide in acidic soils) 26

 Consolidation : 2021-04-19/Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa

Problem 3: A soil profile is shown in Figure below. If a
uniformly distributed load ∆ is applied at the ground
Problem 2: The laboratory consolidation data for an undisturbed clay sample are as
surface, what will be the settlement of the clay layer
follows:
caused by primary consolidation? We are given that
So the soil is OC
@! = 1.1 CDE ! = 95 kN/m 2 !
σJ for the clay is 125 kN/m2 and Cs = CJ .
K
@ = 0.92 CDE = 475 kN/m 2
What will be the void ratio for a pressure of 600 kN/m 2 (Note: # < 95 kN/m 2)?

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 Consolidation:  Consolidation:

o Secondary consolidation settlement o Secondary consolidation settlement

• the plastic adjustment of soil

thickness of layer
fabrics, which is usually termed
• Secondary consolidation settlement
as creep
• During secondary consolidation,
the plot of deformation versus
the log of time is practically linear void ratio at the end of primary consolidation

MN = Secondary compression index

Figure: Variation of e with log t under a given load
increment for secondary compression index
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 Consolidation :

Practice problem:
For a normally consolidated clay layer in the field, the following values are given: Thickness of clay

layer = 3 m, Void ratio (eo ) = 0.8, Compression index (Cc ) = 0.28, Average effective pressure on

the clay layer P = 130 kN/m2 , ∆ = 50 kN/m2, Secondary compression index (MN ) = 0.02
Thank you very much/ Dr. Tariq Mahmood Bajwa
What is the total consolidation settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of primary

consolidation settlement? (Note: Time for completion of primary settlement = 1.5 years)

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