Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 2: Biology and Psychology

Nervous System
- capable of receiving and processing information, making decisions, and relaying the
required command for action
- allows organisms to sense, organize, and react to information in the environment

Two kinds of Cell present in the Nervous System:

1. Glial Cells
- provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up
closely with each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to
neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses
- support

2. Neurons
- serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of
the nervous system
- central building blocks of the nervous system
- there are 100 billion neurons
- like cells, it is composed of different parts each serving a specific function
- the outer surface is semi-permeable
- main function

Process of transmitting information

1. Receptor neurons receive
stimulus or sense information
from the environment
through the sense organ;
located in sense organs
2. Interneurons or
internuncial relay the
stimulus or sense information
received by the receptor
neurons from one neuron to
another. They conduct
messages from one part of
the nervous system to
another.
3. Motor neurons sent out the
direction(s) ordered by the
brain as signaled by the corresponding stimulus. Consequently, these neurons produce
body movements or responses accordingly.

Parts of a neuron

a. DENTRITES are networks of short fibers

or filaments branching out from the cell
body or converging to the cell body which
accepts the stimulus signaled by the
neurons.
b. CELL BODY contains the nucleus to
provide the energy for transmitting
stimulus received from the dendrites to the
axon, and then to another neuron.
 c. AXON is a long single fiber that carries away the stimulus signaled by the cell body to
another neuron. It ranges from a fraction of an inch to several feet.

NOTE: At the end of each AXON, there are Terminal Buttons that contain
synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters.

d. MYELIN SHEATH covers and protects the axons and is responsible for the rate of
transmission of signaled stimulus. It acts like “bumps”.

e. NODES serve as break on the momentum of speed; interruption on the myelin sheath that
control the speed of transmission of information or stimulus on the neurons. It acts like
“oil”.

f. SYNAPSE is a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where
communication between neurons occurs.

g. RECEPTORS are proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in
shape, with different shapes “matching” different neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters are chemical substances released by one neuron through the synapse and
affecting another neuron; generated excitatory current when the neuron’s charge increases upon
connection through synapse and inhibitory current for decreasing charge; responsible for:
1. Sensation
2. Perception
3. Cognitive
4. Motor behavior

Neurotransmitters are related to:

 Psychotropic medication – drugs that treats psychiatric symptoms by restoring
neurotransmitter balance
1. Agonist – chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and strengthen its
effect

A depressed person is LOW in DOPAMINE. A

psychoactive (agonist) drug is needed to elevate
Ex. her DOPAMINE level.

2. Antagonist – blocks / impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor

Ex.

A schizophrenic person is HIGH in DOPAMINE.

A psychoactive (antagonist) drug is needed to
reduce her DOPAMINE level.

HIGH in
A depressed MOREPENEPHRINE
A happy person is & EPENEPHRINE
person is LOW in (Stressed or
HIGH in SEROTONIN fight/flight
People in love are HIGH in
SEROTONIN and situation)
SEROTONIN, DOPAMINE
DOPAMINE.
and OXYTOCIN.
 ACETYLCHOLINE
Primary Function: Muscle control, memory formation,
sensory response. Excitatory. 
Locations: Neuromuscular junctions, CNS
Receptors: Nicotinic muscarinic 
Definition: One of the most common very well studied. A
major player in memory. Imbalances cause twitching or
paralysis.
- Increases arousal and enhance cognition

SEROTONIN
Primary Function: Intestinal movement control, mood
regulation, appetite, sleep, muscle control

Locations: Gut, CNS 

Receptors: 5-HT 

Definition: Most antidepressants mimic the effect of

serotonin. Most narcotics affect its release or reuptake.

DOPAMINE
Primary Function: Reward pathways, cognition, voluntary
motion 
Locations: Hypothalamus 
Receptors: D1, D2, D3, D4, D5 
Definition: Imbalances cause Parkinson. Cocaine and
opiates have a significant effect on its release.
- Mood, sleep, learning, increase pleasure, sometime
suppress appetite

NOREPINEPHRINE
Primary Function: Fight or Flight response (increased heart rate, increased glucose in
bloodstream, increased oxygen to brain and muscles) 
Locations: Adrenal medulla 
Receptors: Adrenergic
Definition: Produced from Dopamine in the adrenal glands (on kidney

L-DOPA 
Primary Function: Precursor to dopamine 
Locations: Hypothalamus 
Receptors: N/A 
Definition: Able to cross the blood-brain barrier making it an
excellent pharmaceutical for treatment of Parkinson or depression
 TRYPTOPHAN
Primary Function: Precursor to Serotonin
Locations: Blood 
Receptors: N/A 
Definition: Essential amino acid

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric Acid)

Primary Function: Inhibits CNS
Locations: Brain 
Receptors: GABA-A, GABA-B 
Definition: Mediates muscle tone;
Receptors susceptible to alcohol which creates CNS
depression

GLYCINE
Primary Function: Inhibits signals
Locations: Spinal cord, Brainstem
Receptors: NMDA 
Definition: Amino acid

TYRAMINE
Primary Function: Blood Pressure regulation
Locations: CNS, Kidney 
Receptors: TA1 
Definition: Amino acid, minor neurotransmitter that is
largely not understood

GLUTAMATE
Primary Function: Long-term potentiation, memory 
Locations: CNS, PNS 
Receptors: NMDA, others
Definition: Most common

BETA-ENDORPHIN
Primary Function: Plain, Pleasure
Effect: decreased anxiety / tension

OXYTOCIN
It is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response to sexual activity and during
labor. It is also associated with empathy, trust, sexual activity, and relationship-building. It is
sometimes referred to as the “love hormone,” because levels of oxytocin increase during
hugging and orgasm
Central Nervous System
- comprised of the brain and spinal cord
- main function: the integration and processing of sensory information
- synthesizes sensory input to compute an appropriate motor response or output

SPINAL CORD

- not only routes messages to and from the

brain, but it also has its own system of
automatic processes called reflexes
- functionality organized in 30 segments,
corresponding with the vertebrae
- This is where integration happens
- It connects the brain to the outside world
(makes an action from sensory neurons to
the motor neurons)
- A smart relay stations
- Located until below the ribs and protected by the vertebrae

BRAIN

- The body’s main control center

- Made up of the three main sections: forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain

a. Forebrain - is the largest and most complex part of the brain and is responsible for
cognition, motivation and action 

1. Cerebrum - contains the information

that essentially makes us who we are:
our intelligence, memory, personality,
emotion, speech, and ability to feel and
move. 

TMI. Anatomical term:

Forehead - frontal

2. Corpus Collosum -that enables the

two sides (right and left halves, called
hemispheres) to communicate

3. Thalamus - carries messages from the

sensory organs like the eyes, ears,
nose, and fingers to the cortex 

4. Hypothalamus - controls body temperature, thirst, appetite, sleep patterns, and other
processes in our bodies that happen automatically. It triggers the pituitary gland to
release hormones.

b. Midbrain - located underneath the middle of the forebrain, acts as a master coordinator
for all the messages going in and out of the brain to the spinal cord. It serves primarily as
a reflex center for orienting the eye and ears. It is also serves as a passageway for the left
and right hemispheres of the brain described like a “security guard”.
 c. Hindbrain - sits underneath the back end of the cerebrum, and it consists of the
cerebellum, pons, and medulla. It performs routine, housekeeping functions that keep the
body working properly.

1. Cerebellum - also called the “little brain” because it looks like a small version of the
cerebrum; is responsible for balance, movement, and coordination. 

2. Brain Stem - the pons and the medulla, along with the midbrain; takes in, sends out,
and coordinates all of the brain’s messages; also controls many of the body’s
automatic functions, like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, digestion,
and blinking

Medulla – reticular formation and arousal; responsible for breathing; variety of

reflexes, sleeping and attention

Pons – involved in balance and hearing; parasympathetic function

3. Frontal Lobe - control movement of

voluntary skeletal muscles; responsible
for elaboration of conscious thought

4. Parietal Lobe - responsible for the sensations of

temperature, touch, pressure and pain from skin

5. Temporal Lobe – responsible for hearing

and smelling

6. Occipital
Lobe -
responsible for visual

Peripheral Nervous System – made up of thick bundles of axons called nerves, carrying
messages back and forth between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery
of the body

 Somatic Nervous System – associated with activities traditionally thought as conscious

or voluntary; involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the
CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons

 Parasympathetic Nervous System – associated with returning the body to routine, day-
to-day operation
Autonomic Nervous System – controls our internal
organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside
the realm of voluntary control. It can be further subdivided
into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions:

a. Sympathetic Nervous System – involved in

preparing the body for stress-related activities

b. Parasympathetic Nervous System – associated

with returning the body to routine, day-to-day
operations. It promotes bodily maintenance and
energy conservation & storage under stressful
conditions.

Endocrine System – consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known
as hormones

a. Pituitary Gland - often referred to as the “master gland”

because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in
the endocrine system, although it mostly carries out
instructions from the hypothalamus 

b. Thyroid Gland - releases hormones (thyroxine) that regulate

growth, metabolism, and appetite

Excessive Thyroxine hormone release results to hypothyroidism

while low Thyroxine hormone results to laziness, demonstrates a
very active behavior resulting to losing weight & insomnia, goiter.

c. Adrenal Glands - sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones

involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

d. Gonads – secrete social hormones,

which are important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual
motivation and behavior.

Gonads release hormones such as androgen (male) and (female)

estrogen & progesterone – used for the maintenance during
pregnancy

e. Parathyroid - its hormone (parathormone) regulates the utilization of calcium and

phosphorus in the blood level of the body; stimulates bone resorption 

f. Pancreas - an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels:
insulin and glucagon. 

g. Placenta - formed during pregnancy and is important in the maintenance of pregnancy 

 Placental Hormone – used for maintenance during

pregnancy
 Chorionic gonadotropin hormone – found in urine

h. Pineal - its hormone (melatonin) helps the pituitary gland in regulating its function;
supports the pituitary gland