Chapter 2 The Laplace Transform

Objective: Mathematical preparation for the study of next chapters

Contents:

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Complex Numbers and Harmonic Motion
2.3 Laplace Transformation
2.4 Inverse Laplace Transformation
2.5 Solving Linear Differential Eqs. by Laplace Transform

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2.2 (a) Complex Numbers

Why need complex number ?
Quadratic equation: ax 2 + bx + c = 0
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
Roots: x1, 2 =
2a

− b ± b 2 − 4ac
If b 2 − 4ac > 0 x1, 2 = Two real roots
2a

−b
b 2 − 4ac = 0 x1, 2 = Two roots
2a

− b ± − 1 4ac − b 2
b 2 − 4ac < 0 x1, 2 = = xr ± − 1xi
2a
Two complex conjugate roots!

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 Definition of Complex Number
real part imaginary part
complex number
z = x + jy
imaginary operator : j = −1
eg. z=5+j3 or z=8-j10
Note: In reality, x may mean one component of z, jy may be Im
the quadrature component relative to x
z
• complex plane |z|
(graphical representation of complex number) y
θ
Re
Note: a complex number is correspondent to a point or directed line o
in complex plane x

• magnitude and phase angle

magnitude of z: z = x2 + y2 (easy to calculate)

phase angle of z: y (be careful, see next page!)

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θ = tan −1 3
x

How to Calculate Phase Angle (1)

Remember: phase angle is measured from + Re-axis and counterclockwise is positive direction

Im (y) Im (y)

z
z
|z|
θ
θ Re (x)
Re (x)
o o

Z is within Quadrant I (both x, y are positive) Z is within Quadrant II (x is negative, y is positive)

y y
θ = tan −1 θ = 180o − tan −1
x x

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 How to Calculate Phase Angle (2)
Im (y) Im (y)

θ θ
Re (x) Re (x)

z
z

Z is within Quadrant III (both x, y are negative) Z is within Quadrant II (x is positive, y is negative)

or

• In Programming language, ATAN2(Y,X) other than ATAN(Y/X) is recommended

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Two Written Forms of Complex Numbers

rectangular form of z: z = x + jy
or z = z (cosθ + j sin θ )

Im
polar form of z: z = z ∠θ z

jθ
|z|
or z = ze y
θ
Re
o
If converting from polar form to rectangular form: x

x = z cos θ
y = z sin θ

If converting from rectangular form to polar form:

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 Complex Conjugate
• complex number and its complex conjugate

complex number z: z = x + jy
Im
Its complex conjugate z = x − jy x z
|z|
y
z = x + jy = z ∠θ = z e jθ
= z (cosθ + j sin θ ) θ
Re
o
z = x − jy = z ∠ − θ = z e − jθ
= z (cosθ − j sin θ ) -θ -y
|z|

x z

Note: The product of a complex number and its complex conjugate is a real number

zz = ( x + jy )( x − jy ) = x 2 + jyx − jxy − ( jy ) 2 =

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Euler’s Theorem
• The series expansions of some functions

θ2 θ4 θ6
cos θ = 1 − + − + ... ...
2! 4! 6!
θ3 θ5 θ7
sin θ = θ − ++ ... ... −
3! 5! 7!
x2 x3 θ 4
ex = 1+ x + + + + ... .
2! 3! 4!

• Euler’s Theorem
( j θ ) 2 ( jθ ) 3 ( j θ ) 4
It is easy to find: cos θ + j sin θ = 1 + ( jθ ) + + + + ... ...
2! 3! 4!
e jθ = cosθ + j sin θ

• z in polar form z = x + jy = z (cosθ + j sin ϑ ) = z e jθ

• sine and cosine in complex form e jθ + e − jθ e jθ − e − jθ

cosθ = sin θ =
2 2j
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 Complex Algebra (1)
z = x + jy and w = u + jv

• Equality of complex numbers

x=u
z=w If and only if :
y=v

• Addition

z + w = ( x + jy ) + (u + jv ) = ( x + u ) + j ( y + v )

• Subtraction

z − w = ( x + jy ) − (u + jv ) = ( x − u ) + j ( y − v )

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Complex Algebra (2)

• Multiplication

a (real number) times z = x + jy

az = a ( x + jy ) = ax + jay

z = x + jy times w = u + jv

zw = ( x + jy )(u + jv ) = xu + jxv + jyu + j 2 yv = ( xu − yv ) + j ( xv + yu)

It is easy if written in polar forms:

z = z e jθ
zw = z e jθ w e jϕ = z w e j (θ +ϕ )
w = w e jϕ

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 Complex Algebra (3)
• Multiplication by j

z = x + jy = z e jθ
j = 0 + j = e j 90
o

jz = e j 90 z e jθ = z e j (θ + 90 )
o o

It means: z multiplied by j

Im
jz
z
90o
|z|

θ
Re
o
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Complex Algebra (4)

• Division

z = x + jy divided by w = u + jv

z x + jy ( x + jy )(u − jv ) xu − jxv + jyu − j 2 yv ( xu + yv ) + j ( yu − xv )

= = = =
w u + jv (u + jv )(u − jv ) u2 + v 2 u2 + v 2
xu + yv yu − xv
= 2 +j 2
u + v2 u + v2

It is easy if written in polar forms:

z = z e jθ z z e jθ z j (θ −ϕ )
= = e
w = we jϕ
w w e jϕ w

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 Complex Algebra (5)
• Division by j

z = x + jy = z e jθ
j = 0 + j = e j 90
o

jθ

= j 90o = z e j (θ − 90 )
z ze o

j e

It means: z divided by j

Im
z
|z|

θ
Re
o
90o

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Complex Algebra (6)

• Powers and roots

(
z n = z e jθ )
n
= z e jnθ
n

θ
( )
1 1 1 j
z n = z e jθ n = z ne n

Comments: (1) Addition and subtraction: using rectangular form is better

(2) Multiplication and division (including powers and roots)
is recommended

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 Examples of Complex Number Calculation

8 + j5
Problem: Find the magnitude and phase angle of z=
4 + j3
Solution 1

8 + j 5 (8 + j 5)(4 − j 3) 32 − j 24 + j 20 − j 2 15 47 − j 4
z= = = = = 1.88 − j 0.16
4 + j 3 (4 + j 3)(4 − j 3) 42 + 32 25
− 0.16
MAG = 1.88 2 + ( −0.16) 2 = 1.8868 PHASE = tan −1 = −4.87 o
1.88

Solution 2

8 + j5
z= =
4 + j3

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Complex Variable and Function

• Complex variable
Complex number Complex variable
z = x + jy s = σ + jω

constant variable

• Complex function
Independent variable is a complex variable

F ( s ) = Fx + jF y

Example:
MAG = Fx + F y
2 2

F ( s ) = 5 s + 6 = 5(σ + jω ) + 6 = (5σ + 6) + j (5ω )

−1
Fy
PHASE = tan
Fx
CONJ = Fx − jF y Fx Fy

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 Zeros and Poles
If complex function F(s) has following form:

K ( s + z1 )( s + z 2 )L ( s + z m )
F ( s) =
( s + p1 )( s + p2 )L ( s + pn )

The points at which F(s) =0 are called Zeros

so s=-z1, s=-z2, … … s=-zm are the zeros of F(s)
The points at which F(s)= infinity are called Poles
so s=-p1, s=-p2, … … s=-pn are the poles of F(s)
K
G ( s ) s →∞ ≈
Example: s3
K ( s + 2)( s + 10)
G( s) =
s( s + 1)( s + 5)( s + 15) 2 Multiple zero of order 3

Zeros: s = −2, s = −10, s = ∞ , s = ∞ , s = ∞

Poles:
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