Energy Auditing & Demand Side Management Lighting and Energy Instruments

UNIT – V

5. LIGHTING AND ENERGY INSTRUMENTS

5.1. Good Lighting System Design and Practice
Lighting is an essential service in all the industries. The power by the industrial lighting varies
between 2 to 10% of the total power depending on the type of industry. In hotels, lighting consumes up
to 30% of total electrical energy. Innovation and continuous improvement in the field of lighting has
given rise to tremendous energy saving opportunities in this area.
Lighting is an area, which provides a major scope to achieve energy efficiency at the design stage, by
incorporating modern energy efficient lamps, luminaires and gears, apart from good operational
practices.
5.1.1. Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features
(A) Lamps
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are described briefly as
follows:
Incandescent lamps
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by the flow of
electric current through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as GLS (General
Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas and the cap.
Reflector lamps
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror, which follows
exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus making the lamp
maintenance free and output efficient.
Gas discharge lamps
The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in either a tubular or
elliptical outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
 Fluorescent Tube Lamps (FTL)
 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
 Mercury Vapor Lamps (HPMV)
 Sodium Vapor Lamps (HPSV)
 Metal Halide Lamps
(B) Luminaire
Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light emitted from one or more
lamps. The luminaire includes all the parts necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps, except the
lamps themselves. In some cases, luminaires also include the necessary circuit auxiliaries, together with

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the means for connecting them to the electric supply. The basic physical principles used in optical
luminaire are reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.
(C) Control Gear
The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:
Ballast or Choke
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any discharge lamps.
In case of fluorescent lamps, it aids the initial voltage build -up required for starting.
Igniters
These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium vapor lamps.
(D) Illuminance
This is the quotient of the luminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a point of
surface containing the point, by the area of that element. The lighting level produced by alighting
installation is usually qualified by the illuminance produced on a specified plane. In most cases, this
plane is the major plane of the tasks in the interior and is commonly called the working plane. The
illuminance provided by an installation affects both the performance of the tasks and the appearance of
the space.
(E) Lux (lx)
This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lux, uniformly distributed over a
surface area of one square meter. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
(F) Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)
This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the lamp. It is a
reflection of efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light form.
(G) Color Rendering Index (RI)
Is a measure of the degree to which the colors of surfaces illuminated by a given light source
confirm to those of the same surfaces under a reference illuminant; suitable allowance having been
made for the state of Chromatic adaptation.

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5.1.2. Lamp Types and their features

Table shows the various types of lamp available along with their features.
Table: Luminous Performance Characteristics of Commonly Used Luminaries
Lumens/Watt Typical
Type of Lamp CRI Typical Application
Range Average Life (h)

Homes, restaurants,
Incandescent 8--18 14 Excellent general lighting, 1000
emergency lighting
Good w.r.t.
Offices, shops,
Fluorescent Lamps 46-60 50 5000
coating hospitals, homes
Compact
Very good Hotels, shops, homes, 8000-
Fluorescent Lamps 40-70 60
offices 10000
(CFL)
General lighting in
High Pressure Fair
44-57 50 factories, garages, car 5000
Mercury (HPMV)
parking, flood lighting
Display, flood lighting,
Excellent stadium exhibition
Halogen lamps 18-24 20 2000-4000
grounds, construction
areas
High Pressure General lighting in
Fair 6000-
Sodium (HPSV) 67-121 90 factories, ware houses,
12000
SON street lighting
Low Pressure
101- Poor Roadways,, tunnels, 6000-
Sodium (LPSV) 150
175 canals, street lighting 12000
SOX

5.1.3. Methodology of Lighting System Energy Efficiency Study

A step-by-step approach for assessing energy efficiency of lighting system is given below:
Step-1: Inventorise the Lighting System elements & transformers in the facility as per following typical
format (Table given below).
Table: Device Rating, Population and Use Profile
Plant Lighting Device Rating in Watts Population No. of
S. No.
Location & Ballast Type Lamp & Ballast Numbers Hours/Day

Table: Lighting Transformer/Rating and Population Profile

Lighting
Plant Numbers Meter Provisions Available
S. No. Transformer Rating
Location Installed Volts/Amps/kW/Energy
(kVA)

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In case of distribution boards (instead of transformers) being available, fuse ratings may be inventoried
along the above pattern in place of transformer kVA.
Step-2: With the aid of a lux meter, measure and document the lux levels at various plant locations at
working level, as daytime lux and night time lux values alongside the number of lamps “ON” during
measurement.
Step-3: With the aid of portable load analyzer, measure and document the voltage, current, power factor
and power consumption at various input points, namely the distribution boards or the lighting volt age
transformers at the same as that of the lighting level audit.
Step-4: Compare the measured lux values with standard values as reference and identify locations as
under-llt and over-llt areas.
Step-5: Collect and analyze the failure rates of lamps, ballasts and the actual life expectancy levels from
the past data.
Step-6: Based on careful assessment and evaluation, bring out improvement options, which could
include:
1) Maximize sunlight use through use of transparent roof sheets, north light roof, etc.
2) Examine scope for replacements of lamps by more energy efficient lamps, with due
consideration to luminaire, color rendering index, lux level as well as expected life comparison.
3) Replace conventional magnetic ballasts by more energy efficient ballasts, with due consideration
to life and power factor apart from watt loss.
4) Select interior colors for light reflection.
5) Modify layout for optimum lighting.
6) Providing individual / group controls for lighting for energy efficiency such as:
a. On / off type voltage regulation type (for illuminance control)
b. Group control switches / units.
c. Occupancy sensors
d. Photocell controls
e. Timer operated controls
f. Pager operated controls
g. Computerized lighting control programs
7) Install input voltage regulators / controllers for energy efficiency as well as longer life
expectancy for lamps where higher voltages, fluctuations are expected.
8) Replace energy efficient displays like LED’s in place of lamp type displays in control panels /
instrumentation areas, etc.

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5.1.3. Some Good Practices in Lighting

Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of “Conventional” fluorescent lamps
Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent powder
technology. They offer excellent color rendering properties in addition to the very high luminous
efficacy.
Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) in place of Incandescent lamps
Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower wattage
incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/watt. The average rated
lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times longer than that of a normal incandescent lamps. CFLs are
highly suitable for places such as Living rooms, Hotel lounges, Bars, Restaurants, Pathways, Building
entrances, Corridors, etc.
Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapor lamps
Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury & sodium
vapor lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the choice for color critical
applications where, higher illumination levels are required. These lamps are highly suitable for
applications such as assembly line, inspection areas, painting shops, etc. It is recommended to install
metal halide lamps where color rendering is critical.
Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapor (HPSV) lamps for applications where color rendering is
not critical
High pressure sodium vapor (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the color rendering
property of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV lamps for applications such
street lighting, yard lighting, etc.
Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps
Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication, signaling,
etc. Conventionally filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has got the following disadvantages:
 High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)
 Failure of lamps is high (Operation life less than 10,000 hours)
 Very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations Recently, the conventional filament lamps
are being replaced with Light Emitting Diodes (LEXs).
 The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps.
 Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)
 Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power supply.
 Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)
 It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.

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5.2. Light Distribution

Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps alone. Efficient
luminaires along with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror-optic
luminaires with a high output ratio and bat-wing light distribution can save energy.
For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are having light distribution characteristics appropriate
for the task interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with a lamp should ensure that discomfort
glare and veiling reflections are minimized. Installation of suitable luminaires depends upon the height
– Low, Medium & High Bay. Luminaires for high intensity discharge lamp are classified as follows:
 Low bay, for heights less than 5 meters.
 Medium bay, for heights between 5-7 meters.
 High bay, for heights greater than 7 meters.
System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major role in achieving energy efficiency. This
also varies from application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaires at optimum height and usage of
mirror optic luminaries leads to energy efficiency.

5.3. Light Control

The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is “On-Off”
switch. The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operations costs may be
high. This does not provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not required.
Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduction in
lighting level, when not needed. The following light control systems can be adopted at design stage:
Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control
Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.
Installation of microprocessor based controllers
Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or switching
circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling, which can take
pre-programmed commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting control system
uses movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals to the controllers.
Optimum usage of day lighting
Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in combination with
electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of brightness in visual
environment. Usage of day lighting (in offices/air conditioned halls ) will have to be very limited,
because the air conditioning load will increase on account of the increased solar heat dissipation into the
area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable reduction of electric light in the window zones
during certain hours, has to be designed.

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Installation of “exclusive” transformer for lighting

In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the problems faced by
the lighting equipment and the “gears” are due to the “voltage” fluctuations. Hence, the lighting
equipment has to be isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better voltage regulation for the
lighting. This will reduce the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the efficiency of the
lighting system.
Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder
Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically attractive, servo
stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide stabilized voltage for the lighting
equipment.
The performance of “gears” such as chokes, ballasts, will also improve due to the stabilized
voltage. This set up also provide, the option to optimize the voltage level fed to the lighting feeder. In
many plants, during the non-peaking hours, the voltage levels are on the higher side. During this period,
voltage can be optimized, without any significant drop in the illumination level.
Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts
New high frequency (28-32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the
traditional magnetic ballasts:
Energy savings up to 35%; less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load
 Lights instantly
 Improved Power Factor
 Operates in low voltage load
 Less in weight
 Increases the life of lamp
The advantage of HF electronic ballasts, out weight the initial investment (higher costs when
compared with conventional ballast). In the past the failure rate of electronic ballast in Indian Industries
was high. Recently, many manufacturers have improved the design of the ballast leading to drastic
improvement in their reliability. The life of the electronic ballast is high especially when, used in a
lighting circuit fitted with a automatic voltage stabilizer. The Table below gives the type of luminaire,
gear and controls used in different areas of industry.

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Table: types of Luminaire with their Gear and Controls Used in Different Industrial Locations.
Location Source Luminaire Gear Controls
Industrial rall reflector:
High bay Conventional/Low
Plant HID/FTL Manual/electronic
Medium bay loss electronic ballast
Low bay
Office FTL/CFL FTL/CFL Electronic/low loss Manual/auto
Yard HID/FTL Flood light Suitable Manual
Road
HID/PL Street light luminaire Suitable Manual
Peripheral

5.4. Electrical Energy Audit Instruments

The basis of any energy accounting system is the measurement of the usage of electricity in the
various items of plant. The system must include the basic measuring device plus the instrument for
direct or remote indication of the actual measurement. The sensor or measuring device converts some
physical property into a voltage or some other output which can be applied to a secondary device; for
example, a thermocouple converts a temperature to a voltage which can be measured by a voltmeter.
It is important to seek advice form instrument manufacturers or consultants on the selection of
measuring device, since purchase cost, reliability and accuracy are important features. Furthermore, it is
necessary to determine the measurements which can be most appropriately made for calculating each
energy flow required. Certain characteristics of the measuring device may be significant; for example,
physical size, resistance to corrosion, temperature changes, vibration.
Such a great variety of electrical instruments are available, only the most important meters form an
energy viewpoint will be considered.
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 Wattmeter
 Watt-hour meter
 Maximum demand meter
 Ammeter and Voltmeter
An ammeter measures current and a voltmeter measure voltage. However, the nature of the
property to be measured should be considered; is it steady with only slowly changing magnitude,
pulsating or intermittent. The properties which could be indicated by electrical meters may be defined:
a. Peak Value: The positive (negative) peak value of a signal is the maximum positive (negative)
value of that signal.
b. Average Value: The average of a periodic signal may be defined in several ways. The average
of the signal over a full cycle is the full cycle average. The average of the positive (negative)

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parts of the signal is the positive (negative) pulse average. The average of the instaneous
absolute values of the function is the absolute average.
c. Effective Value: The effective value of a periodic voltage (current) is defined as the magnitude
of a constant d.c. voltage (current) which dissipates the same average power in a given resistor
as is dissipated by the periodic voltage (current).
All meters respond to one of these three values and many meters have scales indicating correct ly
the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal even though they do not respond to true r.m.s. The sinusoidal wave is,
however, the shape most frequently encountered in practice. Consequently, it is necessary to use caution
in interpreting the indications of meters when measuring signals and the advice of instrument suppliers
and manufacturers is indispensable.
 Wattmeter
This instrument measures the basic unit of electrical power, the watt. It is a function of current,
voltage and power factor and measures only the component of the current that is in phase with the
voltage, that is, the component flowing through the circuit resistance. Thus W represents the real work
done by the machine.
The current component that is out of phase with the voltage, VAR, magnetizes the circuit and
flows even when a motor is not driving any load. This is the idle or wattles current. The voltage
multiplied by the line current VA gives the apparent power. Thus,
VA = Vector sum of VAR and W
Power factor = W/VA
The wattmeter measures W.
 Watt-hour meter
This instrument is time dependent and measures power multiplied by time. It measures total
electrical energy supplied and not just instantaneous power as depicted by the wattmeter.
 Maximum demand meter
This is basically a wattmeter whose motor drives an indicating maximum demand mechanism in
addition to the normal Wh recorder. The maximum demand measuring periods are kept constant in
time, for example, 15 minute periods, and the energy consumed is integrated over this interval. The
system is used to indicate the highest average power consumed during a predetermined period.
 Energy Monitors (Data Loggers)
Energy monitors are used to measure the single and three-phase power parameters such as current,
voltage, power factor, frequency, active power, apparent power, reactive power, and energy over a
period of time.

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5.5. Wattmeter
An instrument that measures electric power. See electric power measurement
A variety of wattmeters are available to measure the power in ac circuits. They are generally
classified by names descriptive of their operating principles. Determination of power in dc circuits is
almost always done by separate measurements of voltage and current. However, some of the
instruments described will also function in dc circuits, if desired .
Probably the most useful instrument in the measurement of ac power at commercial frequencies
is the indicating (deflecting) electro dynamic wattmeter. It is similar in principle to the double-coil dc
ammeter or voltmeter in that it depends on the interaction of the fields of two sets of coils, one fixed and
the other movable. The moving coil is suspended, or pivoted, so that it is free to rotate through a limited
angle about an axis perpendicular to that of the fixed coils. As a single-phase wattmeter, the moving
(potential) coil, usually constructed of fine wire, carries a current proportional to the voltage applied to
the measured circuit, and the fixed (current) coils carry the load current. This arrangement of coils is
due to the practical necessity of designing current coils of relatively heavy conductors to carry large
values of current. The potential coil can be lighter because the operating current is limited to low values.
See Ammeter, Voltmeter.
A thermal converter consists of a resistive heater in close thermal contact with one or more
thermocouples. When current flows through the heater, the temperature rises. Thermocouples give an
output voltage proportional to the square of the current, and so make suitable transducers for the
construction of thermal wattmeters. See thermal converters, thermocouple, Thermoelectricity.
The electrostatic force between two conductors is proportional to the product of the square of the
potential difference between them and the rate of change of capacitance with displacement. A
differential electrostatic instrument may therefore be used to construct a quarter-squares wattmeter. In
spite of the problems of matching the capacitance changes of the two elements and the small forces
available, electrostatic wattmeters were used as standards for many years.
Digital wattmeters combine the advantages of electronic signal processing and a high-resolution,
easily read display. Electrical readout of the measurement is also possible. A variety of electronic
techniques for carrying out the necessary multiplication of the signals representing the current and
voltage have been used. Usually the electronic multiplier is an analog system which gives as its output a
voltage proportional to the power indication required. This voltage is then converted into digital form in
one of the standard ways. Many of the multipliers were originally developed for use in analog
computers. See analog computer.
The instruments described are designed for single-phase power measurement. In polyphase
circuits, the total power is the algebraic sum of the power in each phase. This summation is assisted by
simple modifications of single-phase instruments. See alternating current

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5.6. Data logger

A data logger (also data logger or data recorder) is an electronic device that records data over
time or in relation to location either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and
sensors. Increasingly, but not entirely, they are based on a digital processor (or computer). They
generally are small, battery powered, portable, and equipped with a microprocessor, internal memory
for data storage and sensors. Some data loggers interface with a personal computer and utilize software
to activate the data logger and view and analyze the collected data, while other have a local interface
device (Keypad, LCD) and can be used as a stand -alone device.
Data loggers vary between general purpose types for a range of measurement applications to
very specific devices for measuring in one environment or application type only. It is common for
general purpose types to be programmable however many remain as static machines with only a limited
number or no changeable parameters. Electronic data loggers have replaced chart recorders in many
applications.
One of the primary benefits of using data logger s is the ability to automatically collect data on a
24-hour basis. Upon activation, data loggers are typically deployed and left unattended to measure and
record information for the duration of the monitoring period. This allows for a comprehensive, accurate
picture of the environmental conditions being monitored, such as air temperature and relative humidity.
The cost of data loggers has been declining over the years as technology improves and costs are
reduced. Simple single channel data loggers cost as little as $25. More complicated loggers may costs
hundreds or thousands of dollars.

Data logging versus Data Acquisition

The terms data logging and data acquisition are often used interchangeably. However, in a
historical convert they are quite different. A data logger is a data acquisition system, but a data
acquisition system is not necessarily a data logger.
Data loggers typically have slower sample rates. A maximum sample rate of 1 Hz may be
considered to be very fast for a data logger, yet very slow for a typical data acquisition system.
Data loggers are implicitly stand-alone devices, while typical data acquisition system must
remain tethered to a computer to acquire data. This stand -alone aspect of data loggers implies on-board
memory that is used to store acquired data. Sometimes this memory is very large to accommodate many
days, or even months, of unattended recording. This memory may be battery-backed static random
access memory, flash memory or EEPROM. Earlier data loggers used magnetic tape, punched paper
tape, or directly viewable records such as “strip chart recorders”.
Given the extended recording times of data loggers, they typically feature a time and date
stamping mechanism to ensure that each recorded data value is employ built-in real-time clocks whose
published drift can be an important consideration when choosing between data loggers.

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Data loggers range from simple single-channel input to complex multi-channel instruments.
Typically, the simpler the device the less programming flexibility. Some more sophisticated instruments
allow for cross-channel computations and alarms based on predetermined conditions. The newest of
data loggers can serve web pages, allowing numerous people to monitor a system remotely.
The unattended and remote nature of many data logger applications implies the need in some
applications to operate from a DC power source, such as a battery. Solar power may be used to
supplement these power sources. These constraints have generally led to ensure that the devices they
market are extremely power efficient relative to computers. In many cases they are required to operate
in harsh environmental conditions where computers will not function reliably.
This unattended nature also dictates that data loggers must be extremely reliable. since they may operate
for long periods nonstop with little or no human supervision, and may be installed in harsh or remote
locations, it is imperative that so long as they have power they will not fail to log data for any reason.
Manufacturers go to great length to ensure that the devices can be depended on in these applications. As
such data loggers are almost completely immune to the problems that might affect a general-purpose
computer in the same application, such as program crashes and the instability of some operating
systems.

Applications
Applications of data logging include:
 Unattended weather station recording (such as wind speed / direction, temperature, relative
humidity, solar radiation).
 Unattended hydrographic recording (such as water level, water depth, water flow, water pH,
water conductivity).
 Unattended soil moisture level recording.
 Unattended gas pressure recording.
 Offshore buoys for recording a variety of environmental conditions.
 Road traffic counting.
 Measure temperatures (humidity, etc) of perishables during shipments: Cold chain.
 Process monitoring for maintenance and troubleshooting applications.
 Process monitoring to verify warranty conditions.
 Wildlife research.
 Measure vibration and handling shock (drop height) environment of distribution packaging.
 Tank level monitoring.
 Deformation monitoring of any object with geodetic or geotechnical sensors controlled by an
automatic deformation monitoring system.
 Environmental monitoring.

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 Vehicle Testing.
 Monitoring of relay status in railway signaling.
 For science education enabling ‘measurement’, ‘scientific investigation’ and an appreciation of
‘change’
 Record trend data at regular intervals in veterinary vital signs monitoring.
 Load profile recording for energy consumption management.

5.7. Temperature Measurement

To control the temperature in buildings and determine the heat content of process streams it is
necessary to measure temperatures accurately. There are several devices available, most of which can be
set up as indicating and/or recording instruments.

5.8. Thermocouples
The principle is that two dissimilar wires are fused at each end and when one junction is heated,
an e.m.f. is produced causing a current to flow round the loop. the e.m.f. generated, E, is given by the
following equation:
log E = A log t + B
where,
t = temperature and A and B are constants depending on the wires forming the junction.

Metal-A
I
T1 T2
(Cold) (Hot)
I
Metal-B
1. A device for measuring temperature consisting of a pair of wires of different metals or
semiconductors joined at both ends. One junction is at the temperature to be measured, the
second at a fixed temperature. The electromotive force generated depends upon the temperature
difference.
2. A similar device with only one junction between two dissimilar metals or semiconductors
A device in which the temperature difference between the ends of a pair of dissimilar metal
wires is deduced from a measurement of the difference in the thermoelectric potentials developed along
the wires. The presence of a temperature gradient in a metal or alloy leads to an electric potential
gradient being set up along the temperature gradient. This thermoelectric potential gradient is
proportional to the temperature gradient and varies from metal to metal. It is the fact that the
thermoelectric emf is different in different metals and alloys for the same temperature gradient that
allows the effect to be used for the measurement of temperature.

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The basic circuit of a thermocouple is shown in the illustration. The thermocouple wires, made
of different metals or alloys A and B, are joined together at one end H, called the hot (or measuring)
junction, at a temperature T1. The other ends, CA and CB (the cold or reference junctions), are
maintained at a constant reference temperature T0, usually but not necessarily 32 0 F (00 C). From the
cold junctions, wires, usually of copper, lead to a voltmeter V at room temperature Tr. Due to the
thermoelectric potential gradients being different along the wires A and B, there exists a potential
difference between CA and CB. This can be measured by the voltmeter, provided that CA and CB are at
the same temperature and that the lead wires between CA and V and CB and V are identical (or that V
is at the temperature T0, which is unusual). Such a thermocouple will produce a thermoelectric emf
between CA and CB which depends only upon the temperature difference T1 - T0. See temperature
measurement, thermoelectricity.
Letter designations and compositions for standardized thermocouples
Type designation Materials
B Platinum-30% rhodium/platinum-6% rhodium
E Nickel-chromium alloy/a copper – nickel alloy
J Iron/another slightly different copper-nickel alloy
K Nickel-chromium alloy/nickel-aluminum alloy
R Platinum-13% rhodium/Platinum
S Platinum-10% rhodium/Platinum
T Copper/a copper-nickel alloy
After T.J. Quinn, Temperature, Academic Press, 1983.
A large number of pure metal and alloy combinations have been studied as thermocouples, and
the seven most widely used are listed in the table. The thermocouples in the table together cover the
temperature range from about – 4200 F (-2500 c or 20 K) to about 33000 F (18000 C). The most accurate
and reproducible are the platinum/rhodium thermocouples, types R and S, while the most widly used
industrial thermocouples are probably types K, T, and E.

5.9. Optical and radiation pyrometers

These instruments depend on the intensity of radiation emitted from a hot body and while optical
pyrometers depend on visual observation of the indicator radiation pyrometers use a receiver such as a
thermocouple. Pyrometers are often used for measuring very high temperatures above the range covered
by other instruments.
A temperature measuring device, originally an instrument that measures temperatures beyond
the range of thermometers, but now in addition a device that measures thermal radiation in any
temperature range. This article discusses radiation pyrometers; for other temperature-measuring devices
see bolometer, Thermistor, Thermocouple.

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The illustration shows a very simple type of radiation pyrometer. Part of the thermal radiation
emitted by a hot object is intercepted by a lens and focused onto a thermopile. The resultant heating of
the thermopile causes it to generate an electrical signal (proportional to the thermal radiation) which can
be displayed on a recorder.

Unfortunately, the thermal radiation emitted by the object depends not only on its temperature
but also on its surface characteristics. The radiation existing inside hot, opaque objects is so-called
blackbody radiation, which is a unique function of temperature and wavelength and is the same for all
opaque materials. However, such radiation, when it attempts to escape from the object, is partly
reflected at the surface. In order to use the output of the pyrometer as a measure of target temperature,
the effect of the surface characteristics must be eliminated. A cavity can be formed in an opaque
material and the pyrometer sighted on a small opening extending from the cavity to the surface. The
opening has no surface reflection, since the surface has been eliminated. Such a source is called a
blackbody source, and is said to have an emittance of 1.00 By attaching thermocouples to the black-
body source, a curve of pyrometer output voltage versus blackbody temperature can be constructed.
Pyrometers can be classified generally into types requiring that the field of view be filled, such
as narrow-band and total-radiation pyrometers; and types not requiring that the field of view be filled,
such as optical and ratio pyrometers. The latter depend upon making some sort of comparison between
two or more signals.
The optical pyrometer should more strictly be called the disappearing-filament pyrometer. In
operation, an image of the target is focused in the plane of a wire that can be heated electrically. A
rheostat is used to adjust the current through the wire until the wire blends into the image of the target
(equal brightness condition), and the temperature is then read from a calibrated dial on the rheostat.
The ratio, or “two-color,” pyrometer makes measurement in tow wavelength regions and electronically
takes the ratio of these measurements. If the emittance is the same for both wavelengths, the emittance
cancels out of the result, and the true temperature of the target is obtained. This so-called gray-body

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assumption is sufficiently valid in some cases so that the “color temperature” measured by a ratio
pyrometer is close to the true temperature. See Thermometer.
A general guide to the selection of thermometer type is shown in the following table.
Temperature range Measuring device

Range between 1 K and room temperature Iron-gold: Chromel thermocouples

Liquid expansion (mercury-in-steel)

Ambient temperature up to 3500 C
Electrical resistance thermometer
Liquid expansion (mercury-in-steel)
Vapor pressure (organic Fluid)
Ambient temperature up to 4000 C Copper: constanton thermometer
Electrical resistance thermometer
Electrical resistance thermometer
Vapor pressure (mercury-in-steel)
Iron: Constanton thermocouple
Ambient temperature up to 8000 C
Polladium: gold thermocouple
Electrical resistance thermometer
Chromel: alumel thermocouple
Vapor pressure (mercury-in-steel)
800 – 12000 C
Palladium: gold thermocouple
Optical or radiation pyrometers
Palladium: rhodium-palladiun, thermocouple
1200 – 15000 C
Optical or radiation pyrometers
Palladium: rhodium-palladiun, thermocouple
1500 – 17000 C
Optical or radiation pyrometers

above 17000 C Optical or radiation pyrometers

5.10. Tongue Tester or Current Clamp

In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp or current probe is an electrical device
having two jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This allows the
electrical current in the conductor to be measured, without having to make physical contact with it, or to
disconnect it for insertion through the probe. Some types of current clamp are used to induce current in
the conductor.Tong tester also called current clamo.
5.10.1. Types of current clamp
Current transformer
A common form of current clamp comprises a split ring made of ferrite or soft iron. A wire coil
is wound round one or both halves, forming one winding of a current transformer. The conductor
around which it is clamped forms the other winding. Like any transformer this type works only with AC
or pulse waveforms, with some examples extending into the megahertz range.

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When measuring current, the subject conductor forms the primary winding and the coil forms the
secondary.
This type may also be used in reverse, to inject current into the conductor, for example in EMC
susceptibility testing to induce an interference current. Usually, the injection probe is specifically
designed for this purpose. In this mode, the coil forms the primary and the test conductor the secondary.
Iron vane
In the iron vane type, the magnetic flux in the core directly affects a moving iron vane, allowing
both AC and DC to be measured, and gives a true RMS value for non-sinusoidal AC waveforms. Due to
its physical size it is generally limited to power transmission frequencies up to around 100 Hz.
The vane is usually fixed directly to the display mechanism of an analogue (moving pointer) clamp
meter.
Hall effect
The Hall effect type is more sensitive and is able to measure both DC and AC, in some examples
up to the kilohertz (thousands of hertz) range. This type was often used with oscilloscopes, and with
high-end computerized digital multimeters, however, they are becoming common place for more
general use.
Multi-conductor
Traditional current clamps will only work if placed around one conductor of the circuit under
test because if it is placed around both, the magnetic field s would cancel. A relatively recent
development is a clamp meter that has several sensor coils around the jaws of the clamp. This type can
be clamped around standard 2 or 3 conductor single phase cables and will provide a readout of the
current flowing through the load. A version for three phase circuits does not currently exist, but in such
circuits the individual conductors are usually accessible.
5.10.2. Clamp meter
An electrical meter with integral AC current clamp is known as a
clamp meter, clamp-on ammeter or tong tester.
In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed through
the probe; if more than one conductor is passed through then the measurement
would be the vector sum of the currents flowing in the conductors and would
depend on the phase relationship of the currents. In particular if the clamp is
closed around a two-conductor cable carrying power to equipment the same
current flows down one conductor and up the other, with a net current of zero.
Clamp meters are often sold with a device that is plugged in between the
power outlet and the device to be tested. The device is essentially a short
extension cord with the two conductors separated, so that the clamp can be placed around only one
conductor.

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The reading produced by a conductor carrying a very low current can be increased by winding
the conductor around the clamp several times; the meter reading divided by the number of turns is the
current, with some loss of accuracy due to inductive effects.
Clamp meters are used by electricians, sometimes with the clamp incorporated into a general
purpose multimeter.
It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the appropriate current
transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few milliamperes) with a current transformer
clamp is more difficult.
An iron vane type clamp-on ammeter
Less-expensive clamp meters use a rectifier circuit which
actually reads mean current, but is calibrated to display the RMS
current corresponding to the measured mean, giving a correct RMS
reading only if the current is a sine wave. For other waveforms
readings will be incorrect; when these simpler meters are used with
non-sinusoidal loads such as the ballasts used with fluorescent
lamps or high-intensity discharge lamps or most modern computer
and electronic equipment, readings can be quite inaccurate. Meters
which respond to true RMS rather than mean current are described
as "true RMS".
Typical hand-held Hall effect units can read currents as low as 200 mA, and units that can read
down to 1 mA are available.

5.11. Lux Meter

Observed light levels are obtained using a photometer. The device is based on the photoelectric
effect, whereby the intensity of certain wavelengths of light on certain materials causes a proportional
voltage to be generated.
The photometer provides a direct readout of light intensity, measured in foot-candles. A foot-
candle is the illuminance on a surface of 1ft 2 in area on which there is a uniform flux of one lumen. The
metric equivalent to the foot-candle is the lux, which is the illuminance on a surface one m2 in area on
which there is a uniform flux of one lumen. In use, the photometer is placed at the task and a
measurement taken. For instance, readings in an office would be taken on the same plane as the
desktop. In a plant, the readings would be taken at an operator’s station or at a critical location in the
machine. When using the photometer, the energy auditor must be careful to avoid shading the sensor
with his body.

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A lux meter is a device for measuring brightness. It specifically measures the intensity with
which the brightness appears to the human eye. This is different than measurements of the actual light
energy produced by or reflected from an object or light source.
The lux is a unit of measurement of brightness, or more accurately, illuminance. It ultimately
derives from the candela, the standard unit of measurement for the power of light. A candela is a fixed
amount, roughly equivalent to the brightness of one candle.
While the candela is a unit of energy, it has an equivalent unit known as the lumen, which
measures the same light in terms of its perception by the human eye. One lumen is equivalent to the
light produced in one direction from a light source rated at one candela. The lux takes into account the
surface area over which this light is spread, which affects how bright it appears. One lux equals one
lumen of light spread across a surface one square meter.
A lux meter works by using a photo cell to capture light. The meter then converts this light to an
electrical current. Measuring this current allows the device to calculate the lux value of the light it
captured.
The most common use of a lux meter is in photography and video filming. By measuring the
light in luxes, photographers can adjust their shutter speed and depth of field to get the best picture
quality. The device can also be very useful for filming outdoor scenes of television programs or movies
as it allows adjustments to make sure scenes filmed in different light levels have a consistent brightness
on screen.
To a very limited extent, it is possible to use a camera as a make shift lux meter. This works
because some camera measure light and automatically adjust the exposure time appropriately. Using a
formula, you can then reverse the calculation and convert the stated exposure time into light levels. This
method has several limitations, including the fact that some light is absorbed as it passes through the
camera lens, so the calculation must be adjusted accordingly. However, the method can be useful in
situations where a lux meter is impractical, for example with delicate objects in a museum which can’t
easily be reached without disruption.
Another common use of a lux meter is in meeting health and safety regulations. It can be used to
check whether the brightness of a room is enough to meet any rules designed to protect workers from
suffering damage to their eyesight. Using a lux meter takes into account the size of the room in a way
that simply measuring the intensity of the light source in lumens would not.
Fields of applications
The instrument is suitable for
 the measuring of illuminance, luminance and reflection
 the measuring of luminous intensity by means of the photometrical law:

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 luminous flux measurements in accordance

with
Further applications are possible, e.g. for:
 luminous flux measurements in conjunction with the Ulbricht sphere
 control of the turning on and off of street luminaires
 brightness control for roadway tunnels
 Measurements of building materials used in lighting technology (e.g. for measurement of
reflection, transmission, absorption, extinction etc.)
 Measurements for solar facilities
 Light measurements for applications in physics, optoelectronics, meteorology, botany,
biology and medicine

5.12. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC or Programmable Controller is a digital computer used
for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines,
amusement rides, or light fixtures. The abbreviation "PLC" and the term "Programmable Logic
Controller" are registered trademarks of the Allen-Bradley Company (Rockwell Automation). PLCs are
used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for
multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in
battery-backed-up or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a hard real time system since
output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise
unintended operation will result.
Applications
The following are the major applications of PLC’s
1. High-Precision Synchronized control in Crimpimg Equipment
2. Bottle filling control
3. High-Speed sorting on Conveyors
4. Image processing in Electronic equipment
5. Sheet feedind control in Packing Machine
6. Testing Equipment
7. Air Cleaner
8. Shoppling Mall Fountain control
9. Annunciater e.t.c.,

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