UNIT-II 1972 to $1950 in 1980 and to over $2500by 1989.

By 1974, electric motor manufacturers were

ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS AND POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
looking formethods to improve three-phase induction motor efficiencies tovalues above those for
INTRODUCTION standard NEMA design B motors.
During the period from 1960 to 1975, electric motors, particularlythose in the 1 to 250-hp Unfortunately, there is no single definition of an energy effective motor. Similarly, there are
range, were designed for minimum firstcost. The amount of active material, i.e., lamination steel, no efficiency standards for stand NEMA design B poly-phase induction motors. Energy-efficient
copper oraluminum or magnet wire, and rotor aluminum, was selected as theminimum levels motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are incorporated specifically to increase
required meeting the performance requirements ofthe motor. Efficiency was maintained at levels operating efficiency over motors of standard design (see Figure 3.1). Design improvements focus
high enough to meetthe temperature rise requirements of the particular motor. As aconsequence, on reducing intrinsic motor improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses. Improvements
depending on the type of enclosure and ventilationsystem, a wide range in efficiencies exists for include the use of lower loss silicon steel, a longer core (to increase active material), thicker wires
standard NEMA(National Electrical Manufacturers Association) designB poly-phase (to reduce resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead
motors.“Energy-Efficient motors cost more than motor first cost (Standard Motor)”. On a life cycle of aluminum bars in the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller cooling fan, etc.,
basis, electric motor efficiency can be far more important than motor first cost. Fig. 3.1 STANDARD (vs) HIGH EFFICIENCY MOTORS
(Typical 3- Induction Motor)
The minimum efficiency is the lowest level of efficiency to beexpected when a motor is 100
marked with the nominal efficiency inaccordance with the NEMA standard. This method of
95
identifyingthe motor efficiency takes into account variations in materials,manufacturing processes, tors
cy Mo
fficien
and test results in motor-to-motorefficiency variations for a given motor design. High E
90

Efficiency (%)
The nominal efficiencyrepresents a value that should be used to compute the
energyconsumption of a motor or group of motors. For example, astandard 10-hp electric motor 85 otors
ard M
Stand
may have an efficiency range of 81–88%.
80
At 81% efficiency,

75
Motor losses = 9210-7460 = 1750 W
At 88% efficiency, 70
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201
Motor Rating (KW)
Motor losses = 8477-7460 = 1077 W
Therefore, for the same output the input can range from 8477 W to9210 W, or an increase Energy-efficient motors operate with efficiencies that are typically 4 to 6% higher than the
in energy consumption and power costs of8%, to operate the less efficient motor. standard motors. In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS, energy-efficient motors are designed
to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75% and 100% of rated capacity. This may
WHY MORE EFFICIENT MOTORS? result in major benefits in varying load applications. The power factor is about the same or may be
The escalation in the cost of electric power that began in 1972 madeit increasingly higher than for standard motors. Furthermore, energy-efficient motors have lower operating
expensive to use inefficient electric motors. From 1972through 1979, electric power rates increased temperatures and noise levels, greater ability to accelerated higher-inertia loads, and are less
at an average annualrate of 11.5% per year. From 1979 to the present, the electric power rateshave affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
continued to increase at an average annual rate of 6% per year.
Theannual electric power cost to operate a 10-hp motor 4000 hr/yrincreased from $850 in

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FACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENCY AND LOSS DISTRIBUTION
Measures adopted for energy efficiency address each loss specifically as under:
Stator and Rotor I R Losses
2
These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the total losses. I2R
losses are heating losses resulting from current passing through stator and rotor conductors. I R 2
losses are the function of conductor resistance and the square of current. Resistance of conductor is
a function of conductor material, length and cross sectional area. The suitable selection of copper
conductor size will reduce the resistance.
Reducing the motor current is most readily accomplished by decreasing the magnetizing
component of current. This involves lowering the operating flux density and possible shortening of
air gap.
When improving the motor performance, it is important to recognizethe interdependent
relationship of the efficiency and the power factor.Rewrite the preceding equation and solve for the
power factor:
Therefore, if the efficiency is increased, the power factor will tend todecrease. For the
power factor to remain constant, the stator currentI1 must decrease in proportion to the increase in
efficiency. To increasethe power factor, the stator current must be decreased more thanthe
efficiency is increased. From a design standpoint, this is difficultto accomplish and still maintain
other performance requirementssuch as breakdown torque. However,
(or)
The rotor power loss is generally expressed as the slip loss:
where,
Nr= rotor speed, rpm
Ns = synchronous speed, rpm
FW = friction and windage loss
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The rotor slip can be reduced by increasing the amount of conductormaterial in the rotor or
increasing the total flux across the air gapinto the rotor. The extent of these changes is limited by
the minimumstarting (or locked-rotor) torque required, the maximum locked-rotor current, and the
minimum power factor required.Rotor I2R losses are a function of the rotor conductors (usually
aluminum) and the rotor slip. Utilization of copper conductors will reduce the winding resistance.
Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce rotor I2R losses.
Core Losses
Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to hysteresis effect
and eddy current effect during 50Hz magnetization of the core material. These losses are
independent of load and account for 20-25% of the total losses.
The hysteresis losses which are a function of flux density, are reduced by utilizing low-loss
grade of silicon steel laminations. The reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable increase in
the core length of stator and rotor. Eddy current losses are generated by circulating current within
the core steel laminations. These are reduced by using thinner laminations.
However, because of variables in the processing of the laminationsteel into finished motor
cores, the reduction in core loss in wattsper pound equivalent to the Epstein data on flat strips of the
lamination steel is seldom achieved. Magnetic core loss reductionson the order of 15–40% can be
achieved by the use of thinner-gaugesilicon-grade electrical steels. A disadvantage of the higher-
siliconlamination steel is that, at high inductions, the permeability may belower, thus increasing the
magnetizing current required. This willtend to decrease the motor power factor.
Friction and Windage Losses
Friction and Windage losses result from bearing friction, windage and circulating air
through the motor and account for 8-12% of total losses. These losses are independent of load. The
reduction in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permits the use of smaller fan. The windage
losses also reduce with the diameter of fan leading to reduction in windage losses.
The friction losses in the bearings are a function of bearing size, speed, type of bearing,
load, andlubrication used. This loss is relatively fixed for a given design and,since it is a small
percentage of the total motor losses, design changesto reduce this loss do not significantly affect the
motor efficiency.Most of the windage losses are associated with the ventilation fansand the amount
of ventilation required to remove the heat generatedby other losses in the motor, such as the
winding power losses I2R,magnetic core loss, and stray load loss. As the heat-producing lossesare
reduced, it is possible to reduce the ventilation required to removethose losses, and thus the
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windage loss can be reduced. This appliesprimarily to totally enclosed fan-cooled motors with
externalventilation fans. One of the important by-products of decreasingthe windage loss is a lower
noise level created by the motor.
Stray Load-Losses
These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by leakage flux
induced by load currents in the laminations and account for 4-5% of total losses. These losses are
reduced by careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot geometry and air gap.
Stray load losses are residual losses in the motor that are difficult todetermine by direct
measurement or calculation. These losses areload related and are generally assumed to vary as the
square of theoutput torque. The nature of this loss is very complex. It is a functionof many of the
elements of the design and the processing of themotor. Some of the elements that influence this loss
are the statorwinding design, the ratio of air gap length to rotor slot openings,the ratio of the
number of rotor slots to stator slots, the air gap fluxdensity, the condition of the stator air gap
surface, the condition ofthe rotor air gap surface, and the bonding or welding of the rotorconductor
bars to rotor lamination. By careful design, some of theelements that contribute to the stray loss can
be minimized. Thosestray losses that relate to processing, such as surface conditions, canbe
minimized by careful manufacturing process control. Because ofthe large number of variables that
proof operation in oil-field or fire pumps or for very low speed applications (below 750 rpm). Also,
most energy-efficient motors produced today are designed only for continuous duty cycle
operation.
Given the tendency of over-sizing on the one hand and ground realities like: Voltage, Frequency
variations, efficacy of rewinding in case of a burnout, on the other hand, benefits of EEMs can be
achieved only by careful selection, implementation, operation and maintenance efforts of energy
managers.
Within a limited range, the various motor losses discussed areindependent of each other.
However, in trying to make majorimprovements in efficiency, one finds that the various losses are
verydependent. The final motor design is a balance among several lossesto obtain a high efficiency
and still meet other performance criteria,including locked-rotor torque, locked-rotor amperes,
breakdowntorque, and the power factor.
Summary of energy efficiency improvements in EEMs is given in the following Table.
Table:ENERGY EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS IN EEMS
Sr. No. Power Loss Area Efficiency Improvement
1. Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross

contribute to the stray loss, it isthe most difficult loss in the motor to control. Stator I R
2
sectional area of stator windings. This lowers resistance (R) of
the windings and reduces losses due to current flow (I)

SUMMARY OF LOSS DISTRIBUTION 2. Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross
Energy Efficient Motors Rotor I2R section, lowering conductor resistance (R) and losses due to
Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load efficiencies are current flow (I)
higher by 3-7%. The mounting dimensions are also maintained as per IS1231 to enable easy 3. Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy
replacement. As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the costs of energy-efficient Iron current losses. Longer core adds more steel to the design,
motors are higher than those of standard motors by about 30%. The higher cost will often be paid which reduces losses due to lower operating flux densities.
back rapidly in saved operating costs, particularly in new applications or end-of-life motor 4. Friction &Windage Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement.
replacements. In cases where existing motors have not reached the end of their useful life, the
economics will be less positive. 5. Use of optimized design and strict quality control procedures
Stray Load Loss
Because the favorable economics of energy-efficient motors are based on savings in minimizes stray load losses.

operating costs, there may be certain cases which are economically ill-suited to energy-efficient
motors. These include highly intermittent duty or special torque applications such as hoists and
cranes, traction drives, punch presses, machine tools, and centrifuges.
In addition, energy efficient designs of multi-speed motors are generally not available.
Further, energy-efficient motors are not yet available for many special applications, e.g. for flame-

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CONSTRUCTINAL DETAILS (Design Features)
The efficiency of energy efficient motors is higher due to the following constructional features:
1. By increasing the amount of copper in the motor ( 60%) which reduces the resistance
(ohmic) loss in the winding & temperature rise. Performance improves because of increased
thermal mass.
2. Use of more & thinner laminations of high quality motor steel reduces core losses in the
stator and rotor.
3. Narrowing of air gap between stator and rotor increases the intensity of magnetic flux,
thereby improving the motor ability to deliver the same torque at reduced power. Increasing
the length of the stator and rotor increases the net flux linkages in the air gap to the same
effect.
4. More complex rotor bar designs enable good starting torque with efficient full speed
operation.
5. Improved overall design reduces windage losses and stray load losses.
Applications
Energy efficient motors hold their efficiency better at part loads enhancing their advantage
over standard motors. Economic benefits of installing energy efficient motors can be recognized in
three situations:
 In a new application (plant expansion)
 In lieu of rewinding of failed motors
 Proactive replacement for in-service standard motors
Energy efficient motors are more cost effective than standard motors in the above cases. Efficiency
of EEMs is 4-6% higher compared to the efficiency of standard motors
Energy efficient motors run cooler, and therefore have potentially longer life than their standard
efficiency counterparts.
Three Phase (3-) Induction Motors
In the integral horsepower sizes, i.e., above 1 hp, three-phaseinduction motors of various types
drive more industrial equipmentthan any other means. The most common three-phase
(polyphase)induction motors fall within the following major types:
NEMA design A: High torques, low slip, high locked amperes
NEMA designB: Normal torques, normal slip, normal locked amperes
NEMA design C: High torques, normal slip, normal lockedamperes
NEMA design D: High locked-rotor torque, high slip
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Wound-rotor: Characteristics depend on external resistance
Multispeed: Characteristics depend on design-variable torque,constant torque, constant
horsepower
There are many specially designed electric motors with uniquecharacteristics to meet specific
needs. However, the majority of needscan be met with the preceding motors.
NEMA Design B Motors
The NEMA design B motor is the basic integral horsepower motor.It is a three-phase motor
designed with normal torque and normalstarting current and generally has a slip at the rated load of
less than4%. Thus, the motor speed in revolutions per minute is 96% ormore of the synchronous
speed for the motor. For example, a four-pole motor operating on a 60-Hz line frequency has a
synchronousspeed of 1800 rpm or a full-load speed of
1800 – (1800 x Slip) = 1800 – (1800 x 0.04)
= 1800 – 72
= 1728 rpm
(or)
1800 x 0.96 = 1728 rpm
In general, most three-phase motors in the 1- to 200-hp range have a slip at the rated load of
approximately 3% or, in the case of four-pole motors, a full-load speed of 1745 rpm. Figure 3.2
shows the typical construction for a totally enclosed, fan-cooled NEMA design B motor with a die-
cast aluminum single-cage rotor.
FIGURE3.2 NEMA design B totally enclosed, fan-cooled poly-phaseinduction motor.
Figure 3.3 shows the typical speed-torque curve for the NEMA design B motor. This type
of motor has moderate starting torque, a pull-up torque exceeding the full-load torque, and a
breakdown
torque (or maximum torque) several times the full-load torque. Thus, it can provide starting and
smooth acceleration for most loads and, in addition, can sustain temporary peak loads without
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stalling.

FIGURE 3.4 NEMA design C drip-proof polyphase induction motor.

FIGURE 3.3 NEMA design B motor speed-torque curve.

NEMA Design A Motors

The NEMA design A motor is a poly-phase, squirrel-cage inductionmotor designed with
torques and locked-rotor current that exceedthe corresponding values for NEMA design B motors.
The criterionfor classification as a design A motor is that the value of the locked-rotor current be in
excess of the value for NEMA design B motors.The NEMA design A motor is usually applied to
special applicationsthat cannot be served by NEMA design B motors, and most oftenthese
applications require motors with higher than normalbreakdown torques to meet the requirements of
high transient orshort-duration loads. The NEMA design A motor is also applied toloads requiring
extremely low slip, on the order of 1% or less.
NEMA Design C Motors
The NEMA design C motors is a squirrel-cage induction motor thatdevelops high locked-rotor
torques for hard-to-start applications.Figure 3.4 shows the construction of a drip-proof NEMA
design Cmotor with a double-cage, die-cast aluminum rotor. Figure 3.5 showsthe typical speed
torque curve for the NEMA design C motor. Thesemotors have a slip at the rated load of less than
5%.
FIGURE 3.5 NEMA design C motor speed-torque curve.
NEMA Design D Motors
The NEMA design D motor combines high locked-rotor torque withhigh full-load slip. Two
standard designs are generally offered, onewith full-load slip of 5–8 % and the other with full-load
slip of 8–13%. The locked-rotor torque for both types is generally 275–300%of full-load torque;
however, for special applications, the locked-rotor torque can be higher.Figure 3.6 shows the
typical speed-torquecurves for NEMA design D motors. These motors are recommendedfor
cyclical loads such as those found in punch presses, which have stored energy systems in the form
of flywheels to average the motorload and are excellent for loads of short duration with
frequentstarts and stops.

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 FIGURE 3.7 Wound-rotor motor speed-torque curves: 1, rotor short-circuited; 2–4,
increasing values of external resistance.

The wound-rotor induction motor is an induction motor in whichthe secondary (or rotating)
winding is an insulated polyphase windingsimilar to the stator winding. The rotor winding
generally terminatesat collector rings on the rotor, and stationary brushes are in contactwith each
collector ring to provide access to the rotor circuit. Anumber of systems are available to control the
secondary resistanceof the motor and hence the motor’s characteristics. The use andapplication of
wound-rotor induction motors have been limitedmostly to hoist and crane applications and special
speed-controlapplications. Typical wound-rotor motor speed-torque curves forvarious values of
resistance inserted in the rotor circuit are shown inFig. 3.7.

As the value of resistance is increased, the characteristic ofthe speed-torque curve progresses
from curve 1 with no externalresistance to curve 4 with high external resistance. With
appropriatecontrol equipment, the characteristics of the motor can be changedby changing this

FIGURE 3.6 NEMA design D motor speed-torque curves: 5–8% and8–13% slip. value of external rotor resistance. Solid-state invertersystems have been developed that, when
connected in the rotor circuitinstead of resistors, return the slip loss of the motor to the powerline.

The proper application of this type of motor requiresdetailed information about the system This system substantially improves the efficiency of the wound-rotor motor used in variable-speed

inertia, duty cycle, andoperating load as well as the motor characteristics. With thisinformation, the applications.

motors are selected and applied on the basis oftheir thermal capacity.
Multispeed Motors

Wound-Rotor Induction Motors Motors that operate at more than one speed, with characteristicssimilar to those of the NEMA-type
single-speed motors, are alsoavailable. The multispeed induction motors usually have one or
twoprimary windings. In one-winding motors, the ratio of the two speedsmust be 2 to 1; for
example, possible speed combinations are 3600/1800, 1800/900, and 1200/600 rpm.
In two-winding motors, theratio of the speeds can be any combination within certain
designlimits, depending on the number of winding slots in the stator. Themost popular
combinations are 1800/1200, 1800/900, and 1800/600 rpm. In addition, two-winding motors can be
wound to providetwo speeds on each winding; this makes it possible for the motor tooperate at four
speeds, for example, 3600/1800 rpm on one windingand 1200/600 rpm on the other
winding.Multispeed motors are available with the following torquecharacteristics.
Variable Torque:
The variable-torque multispeed motor has atorque output that varies directly with the
speed, and hence thehorsepower output varies with the square of the speed. This motoris commonly
used with fans, blowers, and centrifugal pumps tocontrol the output of the driven device.
Constant Torque:

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 The constant-torque multispeed motor has a torqueoutput that is the same at all speeds, and
hence the horsepower output varies directly with the speed. This motor can be used withfriction-
type loads such as those found on conveyors to control theconveyor speed.
Constant Horsepower:
The constant-horsepower multispeed motorhas the same horsepower output at all speeds.
This type of motor isused for machine tool applications that require higher torques atlower speeds.
Note:
The construction details of Energy Efficient Motors (EEM)i.e., efficient or high efficiency 3-
 Induction motors are shown above. Similar for other type of machines also but the design
changes have been made to the normal standard motors.
CHARACTERISTICS – VARIABLE SPEED, VARIABLE DUTY CYCLE DIAGRAMS
The single most potent source of energy savings in induction motor system lies not in the
motor, but rather in the controls that govern its operation. Adjustable speed, intelligent controls and
other ways of modifying or controlling motor behavior hold great promise for improving
performance and efficiency in drive systems.
In addition, the basis of rating specifies the type of duty:
 Continuous duty
 Intermittent duty
 Varying duty
It is desirable to use standard motors for as many differentapplications as possible. Consequently,
general-purposecontinuousrated motors should be used when
1. The peak momentary overloads do not exceed 75% of thebreakdown torque
2. The root-mean-square (rms) value of the motor losses over an extended period
of time does not exceed the losses at theservice factor rating
3. The duration of any overload does not raise the momentary peak temperature
above a value safe for the motor’sinsulation system
Need for using Controls
Induction motors are well suited to single speed, constant output applications. However, there
are large numbers of motor/load/system combinations where single speed operation does not
efficiently meet the proves requirements, usually due to two common factors:
 Oversized motor: Motors are often oversized for their loads causing not only reduced
efficiency, but also reduced power factor, and in many cases increased energy consumption
in the load because of reduced slip.
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 Varying load: Many applications require modulated output from a motor/load/system.
These systems are sized to provide the maximum output under the worst operating
conditions, but rarely require this much flow (output). The excess energy is wasted, usually
be some form of throttling.
Controlling motor speed to correspond to load requirements provides many benefits,
including increased energy efficiency and improved power factor. Adjustable speed capability can
significantly improve productivity of many manufacturing processes by reducing scrap, enabling
quality manufacturing during transition times and allowing more control over start up and shut
down.
Following are the benefits of VSDs (Variable Speed Drives):
 Matching motor and load to the output.
 Improved process precision
 Improved power factor
 Improved tool life.
 Increased production & flexibility
 Faster response
 Extend operating range
 Electrical isolation
 Driving multiple motors
 Throttled load saving (throttling is the most energy inefficient operation)
 Cube-law load savings (P α N3)
In many applications, the load imposed on the driving motor variesfrom no load to a peak
load. When the motor load fluctuates, thetemperature rise of the motor fluctuates. When there is a
definiterepeated load cycle, the motor size selection can be based on the rmsvalue of motor losses
for the load cycle. However, normally, thelosses at each increment of the load cycle are not
available to theuser. Therefore, a good approximation for the motor size selectioncan be based on
the rms horsepower for the load cycle. The rmshorsepower is then defined as that equivalent
steady-state horsepowerthat would result in the same temperature rise as that of the definedload
cycle. When making the rms calculation, it is assumed that,when the motor is running, the heat
dissipation is 100% effective.
However, when the motor is at standstill, the heat dissipation isseverely reduced and is
limited to dissipation by radiation and naturalconvection. This can be compensated for by using an
effective coolingtime at standstill of one-fourth of the total standstill time.
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Animportant word of caution:
This method of selecting electric motorsis not satisfactory for applications requiring Duratio
frequent starting or plugreversing or systems with a high load inertia. Ste Horsepowe n
HP2 HP2xTime
p r (seconds
)
RMS HORSEPOWER LOADING
1 3 9.0 3 27.0
There are a great many applications especially in hydraulics and hydraulically-driven
2 7.5 56.3 10 563.0
machines that have greatly fluctuating load requirements. In some cases, the peak loads last for
3 2.5 6.3 12 75.6
relatively short periods during the normal cycle of the machine. At first glance, it might seem that a
156.
4 12.5 3 468.8
motor would have to be sized to handle the worst part of the load cycle. For example, if a cycle 3
included a period of time where 18 HP is required, then the natural approach would be to utilize a Total 28 1134.4
20 HP motor. A more practical approach to these types of “duty cycle loads” takes advantage of an
electric motor’s ability to handle substantial overload conditions as long as the period of overload is At first glance, it appears that a 7.5 HP motor would be adequate to handle the loading

relatively short compared to the total time involved in the cycle. required by this duty cycle. One further check has to be made and that is to determine if the motor

The method of calculating whether or not the motor will be suitable for a particular cycling has adequate pullout torque (breakdown torque) to handle the worst portion of the duty cycle (12.5

application is called the RMS (Root Mean Squared) horsepower loading method. The calculations hp load for 3 seconds) without stalling. In this case, one would have to refer to the manufacturer’s

required to properly size a motor for this type of application are relatively simple. data for the motor and determine the percent of pullout torque that is available.

The RMS calculations take into account the fact that heat buildup within the motor is very
much greater at a 50% overload than it is under normal operating conditions. Thus, the weighted VOLTAGE VARIATION AND VOLTAGE UNBALANCE

average horsepower is what is significant. RMS calculations determine the weighted average NEMA Standard MG1 recognizes the effect of voltage and frequencyvariation on electric

horsepower. motor performance. The standard recommendsthat the voltage deviation from the motor rated

In addition to reducing the size and cost of a motor for a particular application, RMS horse voltage not exceed±10% at the rated frequency. A certain degree of confusion mayexist in regard to

power loading increases the overall efficiency and then oversized motor is so working the motor the rated motor voltage since the rated motorvoltage and the system voltage are different. The rated

result in improved overall. The duty cycle has to be motor voltagehas been selected to match the utilization voltage available at themotor terminals.
This voltage allows for the voltage drop in thepower distribution system and for voltage variation
Duration
Ste Horsepowe
(Seconds as the systemload changes.
p r
)
The basis of the NEMA standard rated motor voltages for three-phase, 60-Hz induction motors is as
1 3 3
follows:
2 7.5 10
3 2.5 12
4 12.5 3
Repeats Continuously
In order to obtain the RMS horse power loading of the above data, the formula can be
For single-phase, 60-Hz induction motors, the basis for standardrated motor voltages is as follows:
written as,

The easiest way to approach this type of calculation is to make several columns as shown below
and fill in the details underneath.

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 Poly-phase induction motors are designed to operate most effectivelyat their nameplate
rated voltage. Most motors will operatesatisfactorily over ±10% voltage variation, but deviations
fromthe nominal motor design voltage can have marked effects on themotor performance.
Following indicates the type of changes inperformance to expect with variation in the motor
terminal voltage.
The following shows the effect on the efficiency and power factor instandard NEMA design
B motors and also in energy-efficientmotors. It is important to note that the efficiency and the
powerfactor of energy-efficient motors are not as sensitive to voltagevariations as standard motors.
In recent years, the trend in some areas is to decrease systemvoltage to reduce the system load. In
some cases, this reduction hasbeen as low as 85% of the nominal voltage. For most electric
motorloads, this increases rather than decreases the electric motor inputand increases the full-load
temperature rise. Also, the locked-rotortorque is severely reduced such that hard-to-start loads may
notstart at the 85% voltage level. Following Figures.illustrate the effect ofreduced voltage on
selected horsepower ratings of both standardmotors and energy-efficient motors
It is recommended that the voltage unbalances at the motor terminals not exceed 1%. Common
causes of voltage unbalance include:
 Faulty operation of power factor correction equipment.
 Unbalanced or unstable utility supply.
 Unbalanced transformer bank supplying a three-phase load that is too large for the
bank.
 Unevenly distributed single-phase loads on the same power system
 Unidentified single-phase to ground faults
 An open circuit on the distribution system primary.
The efficiency of a rewound, 1800-RPM, 100-hp motor is given as a function of voltage unbalance
and motor load in the following table.
The general trend of efficiency reduction with increased voltage unbalance is observed for all
motors at all load conditions.
Table: Motor Efficiency under Conditions of Voltage Unbalance

Motor Efficiency, %
Motor Load % of Full Voltage Unbalance
Nominal 1% 2%
100 94.4 94.4 93
75 95.2 95.1 93.9
50 96.1 95.5 94.1

Voltage unbalance degrades the performance and shortens the life of a three-phase motor.
Voltage unbalance at the motor stator terminals causes phase current unbalance far out of
proportion to the voltage unbalance.Unbalanced current lead to torque overheating, which results in
a shorter winding insulation life.
Voltage unbalance is defined by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) as 100 times the absolute value of the maximum deviation of the line voltage from the
average voltage on a three-phase system, divided by the average voltage. For example, if the
measured line voltage are 462,463, and 455 volts, the average is 460 volts. In this case, the voltage
unbalance is :
Voltage unbalance is probably the leading power quality problem that results in motor
overheating and premature motor failure. If unbalanced voltages are detected, a thorough
investigation should be undertaken to determine the cause. Energy and cost savings occur when
corrective actions are taken.
Example
Assume that the motor tested as shown in the above table was fully loaded and operated for 8000
hours per year, with an unbalanced voltage of 2.5%. with energy priced at $0.05/kwh, the annual
energy and cost savings, after corrective actions are taken, are:
Annual Energy Savings = 100 hp x 0.746 kW/hp x 8000 hrs/yr x (100/93 – 100/94.4)
= 9517 kWh
Annual cost Savings = 9517 kWh x $0.05/kWh = $476
Overall savings may be much larger because an unbalanced supply voltage may power numerous
motors.

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OVER MOTORING
“Rating of motor is higher than the required rating of themotor is called over motoring”.
In many instances, the practice has been to overmotor an application,i.e., to select a higher-
horsepower motor than necessary. Thedisadvantages of this practice are,
 Lower efficiency
 Lower power factor
 Higher motor cost
 Higher controller cost
 Higher installation costs
Consider the comparisonsof the 40-hp motor that could have been selected based on the peakload
versus the 30-hp motor that can be selected on the basis of theduty cycle:
1. Motor cost: list price of standard open 1800-rpm drip-proofmotor:
30 hp = $1160
40 hp = $1446 FIGURE 3.8 Power savings in watts for a 30-hp motor versus a 40-hp motorat the same
load.
2. Control Cost: NEMA-1 general-purpose motor, 240-Vstarter:
30 hp, size 3 = $600 more favorable for the 40-hp motor. However, at loads below 36hp, the kilowatt and kilovolt-
40 hp, size 4 = $1350 ampere inputs are lower with the 30-hp motor.
This results in a cost difference of $1036, or 59%. In general, the larger the difference between the actual load andthe motor rating, the higher
Figure 3.8 shows the difference in the input watts and Fig. 3.9the difference in the input kilovolt- the input requirements for the sameload.
amperes for 30- and 40-hp motors operating at the same output. At loads above 36 hp, the input is

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 FIGURE 3.9 Savings in kilovolt-amperes for a 30-hp motor versus a 40-hpmotor at the
same load.
MOTOR ENERGY AUDIT
 Collection of nameplate details of motors and load equipment.
 Measurement of voltage, current, power, apparent power, power factor, frequency and
annual operating hours for major loads.
 Calculation of load factor for major loads.
 Checking for light loads on large motors
 Check if valves are always used for flow control in pumps, fans and blowers.
 Check if flow from pumps, fans and blowers are changing continuously.
 Check if the set discharge pressure is at the lowest permissible limit of operation in the
compressor.
 Check for proper maintenance of major equipment, I. e. cleaning, measuring temperature,
dust, vibration, noise, lubrication and coupled condition.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
Introduction to Power Factor
Definition:
Power Factor is the cosine of the phase angle between current and voltage.
or
Power Factor is the ratio of true power to apparent power.
The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number
between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, example:0.8pf = 80%, means that 80% of
active power & 20% of reactive power and losses)
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Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent
power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and
returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn
from the source, theapparent power will be greater than the real power.
In an electric power system, a load with a low power apparent power will be greater than
the real power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount
of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system,
and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted
energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers
where there is a low power factor.
Calculation of Power Factor
AC power flow has the three components: Real Power (also known as active power) (P),
measured in watts (W); Apparent Power (S), measured in volt-amperes (VA); and Reactive Power
(Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes(var).
The power factor is defined as:
In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as vectors that
form a vector triangle such that
If  is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to
the cosine of the angle,and
Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless
number between 0 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and
stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the
energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as
"leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle.
If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change
polarity in step, the power factor will be unity (1), and the electrical energy flows in a single
direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as transformers and motors (any
type of wound coil) consume reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive
loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate reactive power with current phase leading
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the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in
the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest
of the cycle.
For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent
power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent
power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2 power
factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0.2 = 5 kVA). This apparent
power must be produced and transmitted to the load in the conventional fashion, and is subject to
the usual distributed losses in the production and transmission processes.
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive
power. The vector sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of reactive
power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a
power factor of less than 1.
Power Triangle
Q
S (KVA) (
K

P (KW)
Disadvantages of Low Power Factor
The power factor plays an importance role in a.c. circuits since power consumed depends
upon this factor.
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It is clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load current is inversely
proportional to the power factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa.
A power factor less than unity results in the following disadvantages
1. Large kVA rating of equipment.
2. Greater conductor size.
3. Large copper losses.
4. Poor voltage regulation.
5. Reduced handling capacity of system.
Causes of Low Power Factor
Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view. Normally, the power factor
of the whole load on the supply system in lower than 0.8. The following are the causes of low
power factor.
1. Most of the a.c. motors are of induction type (1 and 3 induction motors) which have low
light load (0.2 to 0.3) and rises to 0.8 or 0.9 at full load.
2. Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low
lagging power factor.
3. The load on the power system is varying; being high during morning and evening and
low at other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases
the magnetization current. This results in the decreased power factor.
Power Factor Improvement methods
Normally, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating station is in the region of
0.8 to 0.9. However, sometimes it is lower and in such cases it is generally desirable to take special
steps to improve the power factor. This can be achieved by the following equipment:
1. Static capacitor
The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the equipment
operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally known as Static capacitor) draws a
leading current and partly or completely neutralizes the lagging reactive component of load current.
This raises the power factor of the load. For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be
connected in delta or star. Static capacitors are in variably used for power factor improvement in
factories.
 Advantages
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 1. They have low losses. From the above figure shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser
2. They require little maintenance as there are no rotating parts. method. The 3- load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cos L. The synchronous
3. They can be easily installed as they are light and require no foundation. condenser takes a current Im which leads the voltage by angle m. The resultant current I is the
4. They can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions. phasor sum of Im and IL and lags behind the voltage by an angle . It is clear that  is less than L so
 Disadvantages that cos  is greater than cosL. Thus the power factor is increased from cosL to cos. Synchronous
1. They have short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years. condensers are generally used at major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement.
2. They are easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value.
3. Once the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical.  Advantages
1. By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be
2.Synchronous Condenser
changed by any amount. This helps in achieving step less control power factor.
When the motor power factor is unity, the dc excitation is said to be normal. Over excitation
2. The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
causes the motor to operate at leading power factor. Under excitation causes it to operate at lagging
3. The faults can be removed easily.
power factor.
 Disadvantages
 When the motor is operated at no-load with over excitation, it takes a current that leads the
1. There are considerable losses in the motor.
voltage by nearly 900. In this way it behaves like a capacitor and under such operating
2. The maintenance cost is high.
conditions, the synchronous motor is called a “Synchronous Capacitor”. It is also known as
3. It produces noise.
“Synchronous Compensator or Synchronous Phase modifier”.
4. Except in sizes above 500KVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the
 A synchronous compensator is therefore, a synchronous motor running without a mechanical
same rating.
load. It can generate or absorb reactive volt amperes (VAr) by varying the excitation of field
5. As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, therefore, an auxiliary equipment
winding.
has to be provided for this purpose.
 It can be made to taking a leading current with over-excitation of the field winding. In such a
If it is under excitation, it takes a lagging current and therefore, supplies capacitive or
case it delivers inductive (or absorbs capacitive) VAr
absorbs inductive VAr thus the current drawn by a synchronous capacitor can be varied from
I IL
lagging to smoothly by varying its excitation.
3- Load

Im
Note:
Im m The reactive power taken by a synchronous motor depends upon two factors, the dc field

V
 I excitation and the mechanical load delivered by the motor. Maximum leading power is taken by a
L

synchronous motor with maximum excitation and zero loads.

IL 3. Phase advancers
Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of induction motors. The low power
3- Synchronous Motor factor of an induction motor is due to the fact that its stator winding draws exciting current which
lags behind the supply voltage by 900. If the exciting ampere turns can be provided from some other
a.c. source, then the stator winding will be relieved of exciting current and the power factor of the

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motor can be improved. This job is accomplished by the phase advancer which is simply and a.c.
exciter. The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the main motor and is connected in the
rotor circuit of the motor. It provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency.
By providing more ampere turns than required, the induction motor can be made to operate
on leading power factor like an over-excited synchronous motor.
Phase advancers have two principal advantages. Firstly, as the exciting ampere turns are
supplied at slip frequency, therefore, lagging KVAR drawn by the motor are considerable reduce.
Secondly, phase advancer can be conveniently used where the use of synchronous motors is
inadmissible. However, the major disadvantage of phase advancers is that they are not economical
for motor below 200 H.P.
Location of Capacitors:
Capacitors are installed in the distribution system to reduce the reactive power burden on
the generators.By this the P.F is improved and losses are reduced by reduction in current and
voltage regulation is improved. Various possible points where we can locate the capacitors are as
follows.
1. Near the load (C1)
2. Near the distribution load (C2)
3. On the L.V side of the supply transformer (C3)
4. On the H.V side of the supply transformer (C4)
Capacitor at C1 location is meant for P.F improvement capacitors at location C2 & C3 are
beneficial for automatic switching purpose. Capacitors at location C4 are beneficial when we
consider the performance of entire power plant. However the order of preference is from C1 to C4
& the best possible location is at C1 i.e., near the load.
The main advantage of the capacitor installation is that the rating of the required equipment
like generators, Transformers, transmission & distribution lines, switchgear & protective apparatus
etc., is reduced.
< (b) If this quotient is still greater than the line section length, repeat step (a).
Best Capacitor Location
In general, the best location for capacitors can be found by optimizing power loss and
voltage regulation. A feeder voltage profile study is performed for finding the most effective
location for capacitors & also to determine the voltage which is within recommended limits.
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The general iteration process involved is summarized in the following steps.
1. Collect the following circuit and load information.
(a) Any two of the following for each load KVA, KVAR, KW and load P.F.
(b) Desired corrected power of circuit.
(c) Feeder circuit voltage.
(d) A feeder circuit map which shows locations of loads & presently existing capacitor
bank.
2. Determine the ‘KW’ load of the feeder & p.f.
3. From the power table determine the KVAR/KW of load (i.e., Correction factor) necessary
to correct the feeder-circuit power factor from the original to the desired p.f. To determine
the KVAR of capacitors required, multiply the correction factor by the total KW of the
feeder circuit.
4. Determine the individual KVA & p.f. for each load or groups of loads.
5. To determine the KVAR on the line, multiply individual load or groups of load b their
respective reactive factors that can be found from the power table.
6. Develop a monograph to determine the line loss in watt per thousand feet due to the
inductive loads tabulated in steps.
Multiply these line losses by their respective line lengths in thousands of feet. Repeat the
process for all loads & line sections & add 1 them to find the total inductive line losses.
7. In the case of having presently existing capacitors on the feeder, perform but this time,
subtract the capacitive line losses from the total inductive line loss, use the capacitors
KVAR determined in steps 3 and the monograph developed for each step 6 and but this time
subtract line loss in each line section due to capacitors.
8. To find the distance to capacitor location, divide total inductive line loss by capacitive line
loss per thousand feet. If this quotient is greater than the line section length
(a) Divide the remaining inductive line loss by capacitive line loss in the next line section to
find the location.
9. Prepare a voltage profile by hand calculations or by designing a computer program for
voltage profile and load analysis to determine the circuit voltages. If the profile shows that
the voltage is inside the recommended limits, then the capacitors are installed at the
locations of minimum loss.
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A Mathematical Procedure to determine the optimum capacitor allocation
The optimum application of shunt capacitors on distribution feeders to reduce losses. The
realistic representation of a feeder which contains a number of line segments with a combination of
concentrated and uniformly distributed loads. Each line segment represents a part of the feeder
between sectionalizing devices, voltage regulators, or other points of significance.
For the sake of convenience, the load or line current and the resulting I R loss can be
2
assumed to have two components namely
i. These due to the in-phase or active component of the current and
ii. Those due to the out-of-phase or reactive component of the current.
Assume that the I R losses, are caused by a lagging line current I flowing through the circuit
2
resistance R.
After adding a shunt capacitor with current IC. The resultants are a new line current I1 and a new
power loss I12R.
The loss reduction as a result of the capacitor addition can be found as
primary feeder with lumped-sum (or concentrated) and uniformly distributed loads and reactive
current profile before adding capacitor.
By substituting eqn 1,2 into eqn3
Thus only the out of phase or reactive component of the line current, should be taken into account
for loss reduction as a result of a capacitor addition.
Assume that the length of a feeder segment is 1.0 p.u
The current profile of the line current at any given point on the feeder is a function of the distance
of the point from the beginning end of the feeder.
The differential losses of a dx differential segment located at a distance x can be expressed as
The total I2R loss of the feeder can be found as
=(I12+I1I2+I22)R
Where PLS is the total I2R loss of the feeder before adding the capacitor, I1 is the reactive
current at the beginning of the feeder segment, I2 is the reactive current at the end of the feeder
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segment, R is the total resistance of the feeder segment & x is the P.U distance from the beginning
of the feeder segments.
Power factor correction of non-linear loads
A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power
supply), or some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric welding machine,
or arc furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current
contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency. Distortion power
factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average
power transferred to the load.
Non-sinusoidal components
Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other
form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency)
AC current. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from
entering the supplying system.
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power
factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is
"displacement power factor". The concept can be generalized to a total, distortion, or true power
factor where the apparent power includes all harmonic components. This is of importance in
practical power systems which contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric
lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies and other
devices.
A typical multimeter will give incorrect results when attempting to measure the AC current
drawn by a non-sinusoidal load; the instruments sense the average value of a rectified waveform.
The average response is then calibrated to the effective, RMS value. An RMS sensing multimeter
must be used to measure the actual RMS currents and voltages (and therefore apparent power). To
measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter designed to work properly with non-
sinusoidal currents must be used.
Power factor correction in non-linear loads
1. Passive PFC
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to design a
filter that passes current only at line frequency (e.g. 50 or 60 Hz). This filter reduces the harmonic
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current, which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the
power factor can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter
requires large-value high-current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive.
A passive PFC requires an inductor larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but costs less.
This is a simple way of correcting the nonlinearity of a load by using capacitor banks. It is not as
effective as active PFC. Passive PFCs are typically more power efficient than active PFCs.
Efficiency is not to be confused with the PFC, though many computer hardware reviews conflate
them.[6] A passive PFC on a switching computer PSU has a typical power efficiency of around 96%,
while an active PFC has a typical efficiency of about 94%.
2. Active PFC
An "active power factor corrector" (active PFC) is a power electronic system that controls
the amount of power drawn by a load in order to obtain a power factor as close as possible to unity.
In most applications, the active PFC controls the input current of the load so that the current
waveform is proportional to the mains voltage waveform (a sine wave). The purpose of making the
power factor as close to unity (1) as possible is to make the load circuitry that is power factor
corrected appear purely resistive (apparent power equal to real power).[12] In this case, the voltage
and current are in phase and the reactive power consumption is zero. This enables the most efficient
delivery of electrical power from the power company to the consumer.
Some types of active PFC are:
 Boost
 Buck
 Buck-boost
Active power factor correctors can be single-stage or multi-stage.
Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically
adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V to 230 V.With the rising cost of energy and
concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer
electronics. Methods of improvement
Power factor with Non-linear loads
A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply), or
some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric welding machine, or arc
furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains
frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency. Distortion power factor is
a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power
transferred to the load.
Non-sinusoidal components
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Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form.
Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC
current. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from
entering the supplying system.
In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor
arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is "displacement
power factor". The concept can be generalized to a total, distortion, or true power factor where the
apparent power includes all harmonic components. This is of importance in practical power
systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc
furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies and other devices.
A typical multimeter will give incorrect results when attempting to measure the AC current drawn
by a non-sinusoidal load; the instruments sense the average value of a rectified waveform. The
average response is then calibrated to the effective, RMS value. An RMS sensing multimeter must
be used to measure the actual RMS currents and voltages (and therefore apparent power). To
measure the real power or reactive power, a watt meter designed to work properly with non-
sinusoidal currents must be used.
LOCATION OF CAPACTIORS
Compensation can be carried out by a fixed value of capacitance in favorable circumstances.
Sometimes compensation is more-commonly effected by means of an automatically controlled
stepped bank of capacitors.
Note: when the installed reactive powers of compensation exceed 800kVAr and the load is
continuous and stable, it is often found to be economically advantageous to install capacitor banks
at high voltage.
Compensation at L.V:
At low voltage, compensation is provided by:
 Fixed-valued capacitor;
 Equipment providing automatic regulation or banks which allow continuous adjustment
according to requirements, as loading of the installation changes.
 Fixed Capacitors
This arrangement employs one or more capacitor (s) to form a constant level of compensation.
Control may be:
 Manual: by circuit breaker or load-break switch;
 Semi-automatic: by contactor;
 Direct connection to an appliance and switched with it.
These capacitors are applied:
 At the terminals of inductive devices(motor and transformers)
 At bus bars supplying numerous small motors and inductive appliance for which individual
compensation would be too expensive;
 In cases where the level of load is reasonable constant.
 Automatic Capacitor Banks
This kind of equipment provides automatic control of compensation, maintain within close limits, a
selected level of power factor. Such equipment is applied at points in an installation where the
active power and/ or reactive-power variations are relatively large, for example:
 At the bus bars of a general power distribution board.
Power factor correction in non-linear loads
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Passive PFC Although power is generated in the pure form, electrical consumers or loads distort it
progressively due to the manner in which it is consumed. This problem of power pollution was not
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to design a filter
that passes current only at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz). This filter reduces the harmonic current, heard of in the past but is taking a serious form due to extensive use of energy efficient power
which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the power factor
electronic (non-linear) loads.
can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter requires large-
value high-current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive.
These non-linear loads consume non-sinusoidal current when sinusoidal voltage is applied
A passive PFC requires an inductor larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but costs less.
This is a simple way of correcting the nonlinearity of a load by using capacitor banks. It is not as to them by conducting only period. The current drawn is characterized by sharp rise and fall during
effective as active PFC. One example of this is a valley-fill circuit.
only a fraction of the fundamental period.The current waveform contains a considerable amount of
Passive PFCs are typically more power efficient than active PFCs.Efficiency is not to be confused odd harmonics, the magnitude of which may be higher than the fundamental current component.
with the PFC, though many computer hardware reviews conflate them. A passive PFC on a
switching computer PSU has a typical power efficiency of around 96%, while an active PFC has a
typical efficiency of about 94%. The distorted current is a result of several sine wave currents at multiples of fundamental
frequency. These high frequency components are called as ‘Harmonics’. When the harmonic
Active PFC
currents flow through the power distribution system, harmonic voltages are developed. These
An "active power factor corrector" (active PFC) is a power electronic system that changes the wave
harmonic voltages are superimposed over the incoming pure supply voltage causing distortion in
shape of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor. The purpose is to make the load
circuitry that is power factor corrected appear purely resistive (apparent power equal to real power). the voltage. Since voltage is common to all loads (linear or non-linear), harmonic distortion
In this case, the voltage and current are in phase and the reactive power consumption is zero. This
spreads in the electrical system causing varying degree of damage depending upon the
enables the most efficient delivery of electrical power from the power company to the consumer.
susceptibility and sensitivity of the electrical equipment.
Some types of active PFC are:

 Boost Sources of Harmonics

 Buck
 Switched mode power supplies (SMPS)
 Buck-boost
 Electronic fluorescent lighting ballets
Active power factor correctors can be single-stage or multi-stage.
 Variable speed drive
In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a boost converter is inserted between the bridge  Uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
rectifier and the main input capacitors. The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant DC bus
 Magnetic cored devices.
voltage on its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same frequency
as the line voltage. Another switch mode converter inside the power supply produces the desired  Power converters and rectifiers
output voltage from the DC bus. This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and
 Electric arc furnaces and welders
control electronics, but permits cheaper and smaller passive components. It is frequently used in
practice.  Induction furnace
 Transformer magnetization non-linearity
For example, SMPS with passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0.7–0.75, SMPS with
active PFC, up to 0.99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction has a An industrial unit generating harmonics becomes a source of pollution not only for itself but
power factor of only about 0.55–0.65.
also other power consumers within its vicinity.
Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically HARMONICS
adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 230 V (Europe). That feature is
1) Types:
particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops.
a) Less than fundamental (sub harmonics)
b) Greater than fundamental
Introduction to Harmonics a) Multiple of fundamental harmonics i.e. odd & even

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 b) Non-multiple of fundamental (Inter harmonics) ingredients cause electrical resonance viz., capacitors, inductors, non-linear loads. Elimination of
[Fundamental harmonics any one of these avoids occurrence of resonance. As majority of modern electrical loads are both
50 Hz + 1 Hz (normally) inductive and non-linear, their elimination is not possible. Elimination of capacitance is
50 Hz + 3 Hz (exited)] impossible, as it would reduce PF below acceptable limits.
2)Nature of Occurrence:
a) Steady Reasons for Limiting Harmonics
b) Intermittent Harmonic pollution causes a number of problems. A first effect is the increase of RMS
3) Effects: value and the peak value of distorted waveform. This is illustrated in the figure below (next page),
A) NUISANCE which shows the increase of these values as more harmonic components are added to an initially
i) Communication noise. undistorted waveform. The RMS-value and peak value of undistorted waveform are defined as
ii) Light flickers 100%. For example let us consider fundamental, 3rd, 5th harmonics with the help of the fig 1. in
iii) T.V. interference follows. The increase of RMS-value increases heating of the electrical equipment. Furthermore,
iv) Computer mal-operation circuit breakers may trip due to higher thermal or instantaneous levels. All fuses may blow and
v) Transformer noise capacitors may get damaged. KWH meters may get fault readings. The winding and iron losses of
B) ECONOMICS motors increase and they experience perturbing torques on the shaft. Sensitive electronic equipment
i) Meter error may be damaged. Equipment, which uses supply voltage, as reference may not be able to
ii) Reduction of equipment life synchronize properly, and either apply wrong firing pulses to switching elements or switch off.
iii) Increased cost Interference with electronic communication equipment may occur. Excessive amount of harmonics
C) DAMAGE leads to premature ageing of the equipment.
i) Overheating Figure:1
ii) Over voltage
iii) Capacitor failure
iv) Motor vibration
Effects of Harmonics on Power Factor
Electric Utilities i.e., Electricity boards in India are offering attractive incentives for power
factor (PF) improvement to industrial consumers installing power capacitors in their electrical
network to achieve power factor to unity. Power factor is displacement of current waveform in time
with reference to voltage wave forms. Capacitor banks are even present in many industrial plants
for reactive power compensation purposes. Some more effects of harmonics are
The power factor correction i.e. improvement in power factor is basically done by  Reduced efficiency
capacitors. These power factor correction capacitors react adversely in the presence of harmonic  Insulation damage
distortion in the system. Although capacitors, being linear loads, do not generate harmonics, they  Malfunctioning of equipment
tend to amplify existing harmonics.  Increased copper losses etc.
The amplification of harmonics by capacitors is caused by the electrical phenomenon of
‘Resonance’. Which is similar to symphonic vibration in a stringed musical instrument. These

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 In order to limit this disturbance, maximum allowable distortion limits have been defined in capacity, increased noise and possible
insulation failure
standards and recommendations. In many Cases, the regulations impose a limit for the total
Unility meters Measurement errors/ higher billings
harmonic distortion (THD) of the voltage or current telephones interference (low frequency hum, noise)
The THD expresses the relative importance of the harmonics with respect to the Drives/ power supplies Miss-operation due to multiple zero crossing
Cables Increased copper loss
fundamental Component. It is expressed as a ratio of total harmonic voltage to the fundamental
voltage and is called total harmonic distortion (THD). Generally 5% THD is considered an
PF MOTOR CONTROLLERS
allowable limit for an electrically clean supply.
Power factor can also be improved by using synchronous motors which can be operated at leading
power factor to compensate for loads with lagging power. These synchronous motors are normally
Advent of Harmonic Filters operated at no mechanical load and over-excitation. Synchronous motors re very expensive and are
In order to improve power factor without causing harmonic amplification, harmonic filters used only in few industries. Following problems (from JNTU previous years question papers)
describe these applications.
are to be used. Harmonic filters are suitably modified capacitors used together with series reactors,
which are specially designed to improve power factor and suppress harmonic amplification. These In recent years, solid-state control devices have been developed that, when connected between a
power source and an electric motor,
types of harmonic filters are the passive type and extensively used in place of conventional power
factor correcting in harmonic rich environments. A passive filter basically consists of a series
circuit of reactors and capacitors.
Eg. Blocking Reactor: Blocking Reactor sometimes called as re-tuned filter or low pass filter.
Active Filters-The Ultimate Solution
Active filters are a relatively new technology and overcome the disadvantages of passive
filters. They make use of IGBT semiconductors with various control loops to increase power factor
and reduce harmonics, thereby reducing amperage, KVA, circulating currents, harmonic resonance,
line voltage imbalance and closed delta-winding losses.
The active filter measures the harmonic currents and generates actively a harmonic current
spectrum in opposite phase to the original distorting current that was measured. The original
harmonics are thereby cancelled.
EFFECT OF HARMONICS

Harmonics distortion disrupts plants. Of greatest importance is the loss of productivity. These
occur because of process shutdowns due to the unexpected failure of motors, drives, power supplies
or just the spurious tripping of breakers. In addition, maintenances and repair budgets can be
severely stretched.

Table Effect of harmonics on various electrical equipment

EQUIPMENT CONSEQUENCES
Capacitors blown fuses, Reduced capacitor life
Motors Inability of fully load, mechanical fatigue
reduced motor life
Fuses/ breakers False/ spurious operation and damaged
components
transformers Increases copper and iron losses, reduced

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 FIGURE Graphic and harmonic analysis of current of a DC motor drive.
FIGURE System line current before harmonic suppression.
FIGURE System line current after harmonic suppression.
FIGURE System harmonic current comparison before and aft harmonic suppression.
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FIGURE Single-phase power factor controller block diagram.
Maintain an approximately constant power factor on the motor side of the controller. These devices
are generally called power factor controllers. Most of the units are made under a license of U.S.
Patent 4,052,648 issued to F. J. Nola and assigned to NASA.
The controller varies the average voltage applied to the motor as a function of the motor load and
thus decreases the motor losses at light-load requirements.
Single-Phase Motors
For application to single-phase motors, the power factor controller consists of a triac, sensing and
control circuits, and a firing circuit for the triac, as shown in Fig. The power factor controller
sensing circuit monitors the phase angle between the voltage and current and produces a signal
proportional to the phase angle. This signal is compared to a reference signal that indicates the
desired phase angle. This comparison produces an error signal that provides the timing for firing
the triac or SCR and causes the phase angle to remain constant when the load changes. Typical
motor voltage and current waveforms are shown in Figs. If the phase angle increases, the control
circuit adjusts the triac firing angle to decrease the average voltage applied to the motor.
Conversely, if the phase angle decreases, the control circuit adjusts the firing angle of the triac to
increase the average voltage applied to the motor.
FIGURE Single-phase power factor controller with no load on the motor.
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FIGURE Single-phase power factor controller with a full load on the motor.
The power factor of the motor is the cosine of the phase angle between the motor voltage and
current. Therefore, with this control system, by maintaining the phase angle constant, the motor
operates at an approximately constant power factor over the load range. The maximum power
factor is the power factor of the motor at the rated load with the triac full on. The minimum power
factor will be determined by the minimum voltage setting for no-load operation. This voltage FIGURE 4.24 Single-phase power factor motor controller power savings.
setting must be high enough to provide stable operation and prevent the motor from stalling on the
sudden application of load. However, the lower the no-load voltage, the higher the power savings at of the running time should be at one-fourth load or less. Typical applications of this type may be
no load. How are power savings achieved by decreasing the motor voltage at light loads? The drill presses and cutoff saws used in production processes. Figure 4.22 shows an oscilloscope
motor losses can be grouped into three categories: picture of the motor voltage and current at no load for a single motor controlled by a power factor
1. Constant losses, such as friction and windage controller.
2. Magnetic core losses, which are some function of the applied voltage Figure 4.23 shows an oscilloscope picture of the motor voltage and current of the same motor with
3. I2R losses, which are a function of the square of the motor current, including rotor losses load applied to the motor. Note the constant angle between the zero crossing of the voltage and
For a given load condition, the net losses, and hence the motor power input, decrease with a current in both cases.
decrease in voltage as long as the magnetic core losses decrease more than the I2R losses increase.
In addition, there is some increase in losses due to harmonics added to the motor input voltage by Three-Phase Motors
the triac switching and the losses in the controller. More recently, the application of power factor motor controllers has been extended to three-phase
In some instances, the increased harmonic content of the input voltage will result in increased motors. In some cases, this has been accomplished by adding a power-saver module to existing
motor noise.
The amount of power saved with a power factor controller depends on the duty cycle of the
application. Typical power savings under various loads and duty cycles are shown in Fig. 4.24. The
power savings are shown as a percent of the full voltage input and as a function of the percent
running times at full load versus running at a light load. To result in significant power savings, at
least 50%

FIGURE Three-phase power factor motor controller block diagram.

Solid-state three-phase motor controllers. These solid-state controllers generally include other
features such as current limit, timed acceleration, phase unbalance, under voltage, and overload
protection.The power factor control function is accomplished by sensing the phase angle between
the motor voltage and current. This signal is fed back and compared with a reference, and the

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 FIGURE Three-phase power factor motor controller power savings.

The feedback voltage from the power factor sensing circuit will change the average voltage applied
to the motor in accordance with the load on the motor. This reduces both the motor current and
voltage under light-load conditions. The circuit is designed to react to load changes to prevent
stalling of the motor on instantaneous load changes. Most of the controllers have provisions for
setting the minimum no-load voltage; this voltage is generally 65% of rated full voltage. Figure
4.25 is a typical block diagram for the three-phase controller. The three-phase power factor
controllers have potential applications in which the duty cycle for the motor is varying from light or
no load to full load as a step function. Examples of potential applications are ripsaws, conveyors,
rock crushers, and centrifuges.

The potential power saving when a power factor controller is an applied to a three-phase motor is
substantially lower than when such a controller is applied to a single-phase motor. Figure 4.26
illustrates the power saving when the controller is applied to a three-phase motor for various duty
cycles and loads. These curves depend on the ratio of the no-load losses of the motor. However, it
appears that the power factor controller shows significant power savings only on those three-phase
motor applications in which the motor operates at no load or light loads over 75% of the operating
time.To apply a power factor controller properly, the load characteristics, motor characteristics, and
load cycle must be known. In addition, one must determine how the controller-motor combination
will respond to the load cycle. Only then can the potential power saving and economic payback
analysis be made.

difference is used to feed the input signal voltage to the six SCRs in the power module.

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