Introduction To Energy Efficiency - UNIT 3

Source: Energy Efficiency and Management for Engineers, 1st Edition
ISBN: 9781260459098
Authors: Mehmet Kanoğlu, Yunus A. Çengel
11. Electric Motors
11-1. INTRODUCTION
In earlier chapters, we focused our attention on energy efficiency studies in basic energy systems, including cogeneration,
boilers, heat recovery, insulation, and heating and cooling of buildings. Energy is usually supplied to these systems by burning a
fuel such as coal, oil, or natural gas. Now we focus our attention on systems that consume energy in the form of electricity.
Energy efficiency studies of electrical systems are done first for electric motors in this chapter; in later chapters, we examine
compressed air systems, lighting systems, and home appliances.
Motors convert electricity to rotational shaft work. A motor has a rotor (rotating) and a stator (stationary), both of which
produce magnetic fields. The interaction between these two magnetic fields provides torque. There are many different types of
electric motors. Probably the most common type is the induction motor due to its high reliability, low cost, and relatively high
efficiency. Induction motors are used in industry, commercial applications, and home appliances. Another type of motor used
to a more limited extent is the synchronous motor, which is suitable in applications requiring constant speed, high efficiency,
and a controllable power factor. Recent motor developments offer some alternatives to induction motors. These include
permanent-magnet motors and switched-reluctance motors, both of which yield higher efficiencies than induction motors.
About half of the total electricity produced and two-thirds of electricity used in industry are consumed by electric motors. It is
estimated that the cost of electricity consumed by motors is about $100 billion a year in the United States (Almeida and
Greenberg, 2007). Therefore, improvements in motor efficiencies would save tremendous amounts of energy and money.
The purchase cost of a motor is typically less than 2 percent of its total cost over its lifetime; the cost of electricity to run the
motor represents the other 98 percent. In other words, the cost of electricity to run a motor over its 20-year lifetime is 50 times
the initial cost of the motor. The cost of electricity consumed by an average motor in a few months is equal to its purchase price
(Fig. 11-1). For example, a $5000 motor can consume up to $1.4 million of electricity over its 20-year lifetime (Fig. 11-2).
Figure 11-1 A useful posting for electric motors.
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Figure 11-2 Total electricity cost of a 75-kW motor over its 20-year lifetime can reach up to $1.4
million.
11-2. HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS

The electrical energy a motor draws for a specified power output is inversely proportional to its efficiency. Electric motors
cannot convert the electrical energy they consume into mechanical energy completely, and the ratio of the mechanical power
supplied to the electrical power consumed during operation is called the motor efficiency, ηmotor. Therefore, the electric power
consumed by the motor and the mechanical (shaft) power supplied by the motor are related to each other by (Fig. 11-3)
Ẇ shaft
ηmotor =
Ẇ electric
(11-1)
Figure 11-3 The electrical energy consumed by a motor is inversely proportional to its efficiency.
For example, assuming no transmission losses, a motor that is 80 percent efficient will draw 1/0.8 = 1.25 kW of electric power
for each kW of shaft power it delivers, whereas a motor that is 95 percent efficient will draw only 1/0.95 = 1.05 kW to deliver 1
kW. Therefore, high-efficiency motors cost less to operate than their standard counterparts, but they also usually cost more to
purchase. However, the energy savings usually make up for the price differential during the first few years. This is especially
true for large equipment that operates for more than one regular shift.
Motors manufactured before the 1970s were relatively inexpensive and had low-efficiency. Low-efficiency motors are also
referred to as standard motors. Higher-efficiency motors appeared on the market after the mid-1970s. In 1997, the U.S. Energy
Policy Act (EPAct) established mandatory efficiency standards for many general-purpose motors. Later in the 1990s, a
voluntary premium efficiency standard was developed by the Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE). This has become the
NEMA Premium designation (Nadel et al., 2002; NEMA, 2000). Premium-efficiency motors (NEMA premium motor) are more
efficient than higher-efficiency motors (EPAct high-efficiency motor). They offer 4 percent improvement for a 1-hp motor and
2 percent for a 150-hp motor, and in between for motors between 1 hp and 150 hp. Premium-efficiency motors cost around 15
percent to 25 percent more than standard motors. This corresponds to $8/hp to $40/hp. The payback periods are under four
years for premium versus high-efficiency motors and under two years for premium-efficiency versus standard motors,
depending on the number of operating hours in a year (Almeida and Greenberg, 2007). Of course, the larger the number of
operating hours, the shorter the payback period.
Note that the payback periods mentioned are when the existing motor is replaced with a more efficient one. However, if a
standard motor fails, purchasing a higher-efficiency or premium-efficiency motor provides a very cost-effective choice, and the
associated payback period is much shorter. When the standard motor fails, it is recommended to go for a premium-efficiency
motor rather than the higher-efficiency motor. Also, when a higher-efficiency motor fails, it is cost effective to replace it with a
premium-efficiency motor.
The electric power saved by replacing the existing standard motor of efficiency ηstandard with a high-efficiency one (it could be a
high-efficiency or a premium-efficiency motor, but we call it a high-efficiency motor for the sake of convenience) of efficiency
ηefficient is determined from
Ẇ electric,saved = Ẇ electric,standard − Ẇ electric,efficient

Ẇ shaft Ẇ shaft
= −
ηstandard ηefficient
1 1
= Ẇ shaft ( − )
1 1
= Rated power × Load factor × ( − )
(11-2)
where rated power is the nominal power of the motor listed on its label (the power the motor delivers at full load) and theload
factor is the fraction of the rated power at which the motor normally operates. Then, the annual energy and cost savings as a
result of replacing a motor with a high-efficiency motor instead of a comparable standard one is
Energy savings = Ẇ electric,saved × Annual operating hours
(11-3)
Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit cost of energy
(11-4)
The efficiencies of motors used usually range from about 70 percent to over 96 percent. Typical efficiencies of standard
motors and high-efficiency motors are listed in Table 11-1. The values indicate that as the motor gets smaller, the difference
between the efficiencies of standard and high-efficiency motors gets larger. Also, the larger motors have higher efficiencies.
Note that despite the smaller differences between standard and high-efficiency motor efficiencies for larger motors, there is
still huge savings potential associated with using a high-efficiency motor instead of a standard one.
Table 11-1 Efficiencies of Standard- and High-Efficiency Motors* (Nadel et al., 1991)
Nominal motor power Nominal motor power Average efficiency for standard Average efficiency for high-efficiency
(hp) (kW) motor motor
*The values are the average of eight companies and valid for full load operation.
1 0.746 0.825 0.865
1.5 1.119 0.840 0.894
2 1.492 0.840 0.888
2.5 1.865 0.812 0.870
3 2.238 0.875 0.895
Nominal motor power Nominal motor power Average efficiency for standard Average efficiency for high-efficiency
(hp) (kW) motor motor
4 2.984 0.827 0.889
5 3.73 0.875 0.902
7.5 5.595 0.895 0.917
10 7.46 0.895 0.917
15 11.19 0.910 0.930
18 13.428 0.878 0.924
20 14.92 0.910 0.936
25 18.65 0.924 0.941
30 22.38 0.924 0.941
40 29.84 0.930 0.945
50 37.3 0.930 0.950
60 44.76 0.936 0.954
75 55.95 0.941 0.954
100 74.6 0.945 0.958
125 93.25 0.945 0.954
150 111.9 0.950 0.958
200 149.2 0.950 0.958
250 186.5 0.954 0.962
300 223.8 0.954 0.962
The portion of electric energy not converted to mechanical energy is lost. In an induction motor, the losses include friction and
windage losses, core magnetic losses, and resistive or Joule losses. Friction and windage losses are essentially constant at all
loads. Core magnetic losses are higher at low loads. Resistive losses increase with the load, and they are dominant at high
loads. All of these losses appear as heat. The amount of heat generated by the motors may reach high levels, especially at part
load, and it may cause overheating if not dissipated effectively. It may also cause the air temperature in the equipment room to
rise to undesirable levels. For example, a 90-percent-efficient 100-kW motor generates as much heat as a 10-kW resistance
heater in the confined space of the equipment room, and it contributes greatly to the heating of the air in the room.
The efficiency of a 20-hp standard motor is 88 percent. A higher-efficiency motor would have an efficiency of 91 percent, while
the premium-efficiency motor in this power rating would have an efficiency of 93 percent. That is, a standard motor converts 12
percent of the electricity into heat, while the premium-efficiency motors convert 5 percent more of it to mechanical energy and
only 7 percent to waste heat. The lower heat generation allows for cooler operation, extending motor life. The motor can better
resist excessive load and abnormal operation and can tolerate electrical current and voltage irregularities.
If a 20-hp motor with 88.3 percent efficiency is replaced with a 93 percent efficient motor, 4102 kWh electricity will be saved for
an average load factor of 75 percent and an annual 6000 h of operation. Considering that each kWh of electricity production
causes the emission of 0.65 kg of CO2 , this high-efficiency motor will save 3 tons of greenhouse gas emissions into
atmosphere. High-efficiency motors are also highly reliable. They are hardly broken, and as a result there is no significant
production loss. The operating and maintenance expenses are also low compared to standard motors. Energy and money
savings from using high-efficiency motors are calculated for different sizes of motors in Table 11-2.
Table 11-2 Energy and Money Savings Due to Using High-Efficiency Motors (CEMEP, 2011)
Nominal Motor efficiency 1 % Annual energy and money savings due to using premium-efficiency instead of
power standard motor2
kW hp Standard High- Premium- kWh/yr $/yr

efficiency efficiency
1Motor efficiency values are the highest values for premium-efficiency class and the lowest values for standard class. Specific
efficiency values differ depending on the manufacturer.
2Assumptions: Load factor = 1.0, Annual operating hours = 6000 h, Unit cost of electricity = $0.1/kWh
1.5 2.0 < 78.5 78.5–85.0 > 85.0 877 88
3.0 4.0 < 82.6 82.6–87.4 > 87.4 1197 120
7.5 10 < 87.0 87.0–90.1 > 90.1 1780 178
15 20 < 89.4 89.4–91.8 > 91.8 2632 263
30 40 < 91.4 91.4–93.2 > 93.2 3803 380
45 60 < 92.5 92.5–93.9 > 93.9 4352 435
75 100 < 93.6 93.6–94.7 > 94.7 5584 558
90 121 < 93.9 93.9–95.0 > 95.0 6659 666
Most plant managers are unaware of the savings potential associated with the use of high-efficiency motors. They usually
prefer not to pay the price differential between standard- and high- or premium-efficiency motors (usually between 10 and 25
percent) and end up paying much more in electricity costs later. An inexpensive low-efficiency motor could be the most
expensive piece of equipment a facility can buy when its electricity cost is considered (Fig. 11-4).
Figure 11-4 Another useful posting for electric motors.
Having noticed the advantages of using high- or premium-efficiency motors, decision makers of some multinational companies
have already decided to replace their worn-out and aged motors with premium-efficiency ones. Companies that are highly
conscious of energy use pay more attention to obtaining high- or premium-efficiency motors in newly installed systems.
11-2-1. Motor Rewinding

Some plant managers have the old and broken motors rewound instead of buying a new motor. They repeat this as often as
necessary because rewinding is a relatively inexpensive procedure. However, the efficiency of these old and already inefficient
motors decrease after each rewinding. The efficiency of a motor decreases by about 1 percent each time the motor is rewound.
Improper rebuilding by rewinding can cause larger drops in efficiency. Some savings are achieved by rewinding instead of
replacing motors, but the increased electricity costs of lower-efficiency motors evaporates the initial savings in a short time. If
an old and broken motor is replaced by a high-efficiency motor, the electricity savings will pay for its additional cost in a short
time while providing savings for the remaining lifetime of the motor.
Most motors are packages with the equipment they are set to operate. Customers usually do not question the type of motor
used with a piece of equipment. In the competitive business environment, the cost of a motor comes before its efficiency, and
standard motors with 10 to 25 percent lower prices are often selected. This practice should be questioned; only high-efficiency
motors or equipment packaged with high-efficiency motors should be purchased. When a standard motor is broken and
considered for rewinding, a high- or premium-efficiency motor should be considered instead. High- or premium-efficiency
motors should replace old standard motors. If an existing motor was previously rewound or much larger than needed, buying a
high- or premium-efficiency motor is even more important.
11-2-2. Motor Efficiency vs. Load and Motor Oversizing

Important considerations in the selection of a motor are the operating profile of the motor (i.e., the variation of the load with
time), and the efficiency of the motor at part-load conditions. The part-load efficiency of a motor is as important as the full-load
efficiency if the equipment is expected to operate at part load during a significant portion of the total operating time. A typical
medium-capacity or large-capacity motor has a nearly flat efficiency curve between half load and full load, and peak efficiency
is usually at about 75 percent load. Efficiency falls off pretty steeply below about 40 percent load, and thus operation below 40
percent load should be avoided as much as possible. For example, the efficiency of a 1-hp motor may drop from 75 percent at
full load to 68 percent at half load and 45 percent at quarter load (Fig. 11-5). The efficiency of another motor of similar
specifications, on the other hand, may drop from 75 percent at full load to 55 percent at quarter load. The second motor is
obviously better suited for a situation in which the equipment is expected to operate at quarter load during a significant portion
of the time.
Figure 11-5 Motor efficiency as a function of load for three different sizes of standard motors.
(Adapted from Nadel et al., 2002.)
For a medium-capacity motor (say 10 hp), the motor efficiency is almost constant at loads greater than 50 percent and drops
sharply at loads lower than 30 percent. On the other hand, for a large-capacity motor (say 100 hp), the efficiency reaches
maximum values at 50 to 100 percent load and drops sharply when load is reduced below 20 percent (Fig. 11-5). Note that the
motor efficiency drops with decreasing load because the magnetic losses, friction, and windage losses are practically constant
at all loads, and these losses make up higher percentages of the electricity consumed as the load is reduced. The drop in motor
efficiency with decreasing load is more significant for small motors and for standard motors.
It should be clear that oversizing a motor just to be on the safe side and to have some excess power just in case is a bad
practice since this will usually cause the motor to operate at part load and thus at a lower efficiency. Besides, oversized motors
have a higher initial cost. Motors should be selected depending on the expected load most of the time. It is sometimes cost
effective to replace a grossly underloaded motor with a correctly sized motor, especially when the number of operation hours is
large. Many facilities house a number of electric motors, and an exchange scheme may provide replacement of underloaded
motors with correct ones with little investment. The efficiency at part-load conditions can be improved greatly by installing
variable-speed drives, as discussed in the next section.
11-2-3. Operating Temperature of Motors

Motors perform at higher efficiency in cooler environments. Therefore, the motor should be placed in a cooler space if
appropriate. Dirt and dust collected on the motor casing introduce additional resistance in heat flow from the motor to the
surroundings, and the operating temperature of the motor increases. For example, an increase of 25°C in the motor temperature
increases the resistance of windings and the corresponding resistive Joule losses by 10 percent. At lower loads, more of the
electrical energy is converted to heat. This increases the possibility of improper operation due to overheating of the motor and
decreases the lifetime of the motor.
11-2-4. Mechanical Transmission

11-2-4. Mechanical Transmission
The transmission subsystem transfers the mechanical power from the motor to the motor-driven equipment. Direct shaft
coupling, gearboxes, chains, and belts can be used for transmission. Belts are commonly used, and they can be V-belts, cogged
V-belts, or synchronous belts. V-belts have efficiencies in the range of 90 to 96 percent. Cogged V-belts are more efficient (2 to
3 percent more) than ordinary V-belts. The efficiencies of synchronous belts are about 98 percent when the load is not too low.
They have no slippage and low flexing losses. They also last twice as long as V-belts, which saves on replacement costs. The
efficiency of all belts decreases at low loads, but synchronous belts provide better efficiency characteristics at part-load
operation except for very small torques (Nadel et al., 2002; Almeida and Greenberg, 2007). The losses due to mechanical
transmission and the resulting heating of belts can be minimized by replacing V-belts with cogged V-belts or preferably with
synchronous belts. For example, when a V-belt with an efficiency of 93 percent is replaced with a synchronous belt with 99
percent efficiency, the electricity consumption decreases by about 6 percent for the same output from the equipment.
11-2-5. Motor Management

For better management of motors in a facility, the following measures are recommended:
List all the motors used in the facility along with their specifications, such as nominal power, rotational speed (rpm), and
efficiency. Pay special attention to the standard motors with power ratings of greater than 25 hp which are used for more
than 2000 h per year. Measure voltage and current drawn by motors in service.
Examine all motors with their specifications to identify an exchange scheme for better matchup between motors and loads
to minimize part-load operation.
Prepare a motor repair/change policy for maximum energy efficiency. Label motors according to this policy. For example,
label as "replace with premium-efficiency motor immediately or when stops working properly" or "rewind it when worn out."
Example
EXAMPLE 11-1 Savings Due to Selecting Premium-Efficiency Motor
In a manufacturing facility, a 150-hp electric motor is to be replaced with a new one. One option is a standard motor with
94.0 percent efficiency with a purchase price of $9050. Another option is a 96.2 percent-efficient premium-efficiency motor
with a price of $11,200. The motor operates 4500 h a year at an average load of 85 percent. Taking the unit price of
electricity to be $0.11/kWh, determine annual energy and money savings when the premium-efficiency motor is selected.
Also, determine how long it will take for the premium-efficiency motor to pay for its price differential from the energy it
saves.
SOLUTION The annual energy and money savings due to using the premium-efficiency motor are
1 1
Energy savings = Rated power × Load factor × Operating hours × ( − )
0.746 kW 1 1
= (150 hp) ( ) (0.85)(4500 h/yr) ( − )
1 hp 0.940 0.962
= 10,413 kWh/yr ≅ 10,400 kWh/yr
Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit cost of energy = (10,413 kWh/yr) ($10.11/kWh) = $1145/yr
Additional cost of premium-efficiency motor is
Price differential = $11,200 − $9050 = $2150
Then the payback period of this investment becomes
Price differential $2150

Payback period = = = 1.88 yr = 22.5 months
Cost savings $1145/yr
That is, the premium-efficiency motor will pay for its price differential in less than two years from the energy it saves. It will
save $1145 every year, and the savings will increase as the electricity price increases. It will also prevent the emission of
about 6.5 tons of CO2 into the atmosphere, helping to combat global warming. The electricity cost of the standard motor in
a year is
1
Annual energy use = Rated power × Load factor × Operating hours × ( )
ηstandard
0.746 kW 1
= (150 hp) ( ) (0.85)(4500 h/yr) ( )
1 hp 0.940
= 455,338 kWh/yr
The corresponding annual cost is
Annual cost = Energy savings × Unit cost of energy = (455,338 kWh/yr)($0.11/kWh) = $50,087/yr
That is, the motor with a purchase price of $9050 costs the facility about $50,000 in electricity consumption a year, which is
5.5 times its price. The life of a 150-hp motor is about 25 years, and the total electricity cost during its lifetime would be
about $1.25 million. This example shows that even a small difference in motor efficiency can produce significant energy
and money savings and that the additional investment in a high-efficiency motor pays for itself in a short time.
Example
EXAMPLE 11-2 Comparison of Standard and Premium Motors at Part-Load Operation
The following operational data are from the week-long operation (168 h) of two motors of the same capacity with the same
operating hours at each load. Determine the ratio of the amount of electricity consumed by the standard motor to that
consumed by the premium-efficiency motor.
Load Operating hours, h Standard 30 kW motor, Efficiency, % Premium-efficiency 30 kW motor, Efficiency, %
100% 30 85 93
75% 38 80 94
50% 52 70 89
25% 48 55 82
SOLUTION The amount of electricity consumed is determined from
Rated power × Load factor × Operating hours
Electricity consumption =
ηmotor
(1)
Applying this equation to each period of motor operation for the standard motor gives
(30 kW)(1)(30 h) (30 kW)(0.75)(38 h) (30 kW)(0.50)(52 h)

Electricity consumption = + +
0.85 0.80 0.70
(30 kW)(0.25)(48 h)
+ = 3896 kWh
0.55
The amount of electricity consumed during the same period for the premium-efficiency motor is
(30 kW)(1)(30 h) (30 kW)(0.75)(38 h) (30 kW)(0.50)(52 h)

Electricity consumption = + +
0.93 0.94 0.89
(30 kW)(0.25)(48 h)
+ = 3192 kWh
0.82
Their ratio is
3896 kWh
Ratio = = 1.22
3192 kWh
That is, the standard motor consumes 22 percent more electricity during the week-long operation as described. If we did not
consider the part-load operation with the associated efficiencies and just used full-load efficiency to compare the motors,
this ratio would be determined using Eq. (1) as
Electricity consumption for standard motor 1/ηmotor, standard 1/0.85

Ratio = = = = 1.094
Electricity consumption for premium motor 1/ηmotor, premium 1/0.93
This would represent 9.4 percent more electricity consumption by the standard motor. Of course, this result is misleading
because it falsely assumes operation at full-load efficiency at all times.
11-3. MOTORS WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE

The first thing that comes to mind for energy efficiency in motors is replacing low-efficiency, rewound motors with high-
efficiency or premium-efficiency motors. This measure offers an electricity savings of 2 to 7 percent, depending on the rating of
the motor. For applications such as fans, pumps, and compressors where the load is variable, the installation of a variable-
speed drive (VSD) to the motor can decrease the power consumption by up to 50 percent or more. The cost of a VSD can be a
few times that of the motor itself, but these systems usually pay for themselves within two years from the energy they save.
The most commonly used motor types are AC induction and synchronous motors, and they are both constant-speed motors.
Flow control in equipment using electric motors is normally managed by throttling devices such as valves, dampers, and vanes.
The use of these devices causes the system to operate at lower efficiencies. This can be corrected by the use of variable-
speed drives (VSDs), also called adjustable-speed drives. These systems use an inverter to first convert the three-phase
variable current at 50 Hz (or 60 Hz) to direct current, and then convert it to alternating current at the desired frequency and
voltage (Fig. 11-6). They are also called adjustable-speed drives, frequency converters, variable-frequency drives, or inverter
systems.
Figure 11-6 Working principle of electronic variable-speed drives. (Adapted from Almeida and
Greenberg, 2007.)
Types of speed control drives include mechanical and eddy-current drives, multispeed motors, and electronic variable-speed
drives. Mechanical and eddy-current drives have limited flexibility, bulk, and low efficiency compared to other speed controls.
They have found very limited use. Multispeed motors are suitable when only a few operating speeds are needed. They are
available for a variety of torque-speed characteristics and speed combinations. Some fan and pump systems essentially
operate at two speeds, and multispeed motors can be conveniently used to provide high efficiency at both speeds. In electronic
variable-speed drives, the speed is continuously varied by changing the frequency of the AC motor. Electronic speed drives are
very reliable because they have no moving parts. They provide high efficiency at all speeds. This is the most commonly used
speed control technology.
11-3-1. Flow Control in Current Systems

For variable-load applications, the flow rate is controlled by using valve or bypass control in pumps and by using dampers or
vanes in fans. A motor is directly fed from the grid at a constant frequency of 50 Hz (or 60 Hz). The motor has to operate at full
rotational speed at all times under these conditions. Following are some flow rate control mechanisms.
Valve or Damper Control: A pump is powered by a motor running at full speed. It pumps the maximum rate of water. When
there is less water demand, a valve is partially closed (in other words, a resistance is added to the system) to reduce water
flow and decrease its flow rate. If the fluid is a gas, the flow rate is controlled by using a damper or a vane.
Bypass Control: This control is often used on farms where water is extracted from a well by a pump. Bypass control sends
the extra water back to the well while the pump continues to operate at full speed. Pumping extra water requires extra
energy. This energy consumed to pump extra water is the energy to be saved by a VSD.
When a VSD is used in a pump or a fan system, all load changes are managed by changing the motor speed. Valves, dampers,
and vanes are no longer used.
11-3-2. Why VSD?

11-3-2. Why VSD?
If VSDs are not magic devices and do not create energy, how could they save up to 50 percent or more in energy consumption
by motors they control? The short answer is, "by preventing the waste." The speeds of AC motors are proportional to frequency,
and they remain essentially constant as they are connected to the electric grid at a constant frequency of 50 Hz (or 60 Hz). The
speeds and flow rates of the pump and fan systems powered by these motors are also constant. However, except for a small
number of systems operating at maximum flow rate in a continuous manner, most pump and fan systems operate at variable
flow rates, depending on required loads. In conventional systems, the flow rate is controlled by adding a resistance to piping
systems such as a by-pass valve, vane, or damper. This is like closing the valve of a faucet in a home to decrease the water flow
or adding a resistance to an electrical line to decrease electric current. It is possible to respond to the variation in flow rate by
changing the amount of resistance. However, this is not preferable because the power used to overcome the resistance
(electrical energy consumed by pump, fan, or compressor) is wasted and converted to heat by friction.
The ideal solution is to address the load variation in pump and fan systems by changing the motor speed, which in turn
decreases electricity consumption. This is done by changing the frequency between 0 and 50 Hz (or 60 Hz), depending on the
load. This is the principle behind variable-speed drives (VSDs). Electric motors equipped with VSDs can change their speed to a
desired level between zero and the maximum value, and they can change motor speed instantaneously depending on the load,
and this can be implemented automatically based on feedback from the system. For example, this is done by keeping the
pressure at a pump or fan outlet constant. This modern solution provides significant energy and cost savings.
Controlling the speed of a motor with a VSD is analogous to controlling the speed of an automobile with a gas pedal. A good
driver adjusts the engine speed, and thus the speed of the car, by using the gas pedal continuously, depending on the variable
road conditions. The driver saves fuel by reducing the speed of the car, thus reducing the motor speed, rather than using brakes.
The VSD does the same thing in electric motors subjected to variable loads. In a sense, a VSD functions as a gas pedal by
eliminating brakes. Electric motors without a VSD are like a car without a gas pedal, where the engine always runs at full speed
and speed is reduced by braking.
11-3-3. Application Areas of VSDs

11-3-3. Application Areas of VSDs
In general, variable-speed drives are suitable for variable-load applications. Some of the applications where VSDs should be
seriously considered include:
Adjustable-speed drives can be applied in fans, pumps, centrifugal compressors, and chillers when the load is variable. They
are also suitable for conveyors where the load (material flow) continuously changes in most applications.
The demand on a district's water distribution system powered by pumps varies, depending on the water consumption of
users. The demand may vary greatly by day and night and even by hours during the day.
The air demand in the fan of a cooling tower varies, depending on the temperature of water entering the tower, ambient
temperature, the number of machines operating at a given time, etc.
The demand on a pump used to extract water from a well on a farm varies, depending on the farming area, its elevation, and
the distance to the well.
The demand on a water circulation pump varies, depending on the number of machines operating, the amount of water
consumed, and the instantaneous temperature of the cooling water.
The fresh air demand on a compressor varies, depending on the amount of compressed air needed throughout the day.
Variable-speed drives are effective in horizontal and inclined conveyors. Speed is varied to match material flow. Noting that
Power = Torque × Speed, when speed is reduced according to the load, the power consumption is reduced as the friction
torque is essentially constant.
There are many other possible examples. In applications where the demand does not vary, the use of VSDs is not economical
(like a pump charging water to a tank at a high elevation or a pump with no need for flow rate adjustment).
11-3-4. An Application of Variable-Speed Drive

11-3-4. An Application of Variable-Speed Drive
A variable-speed drive was installed on a 90-kW motor in a tap water pumping station in a major city. For the same rate of water
pumped, the electricity consumption has decreased from 1370 kWh in a day to 690 kWh, a drop of 49.6 percent (Fig. 11-7). This
corresponds to 248,000 kWh of electricity saved in a year. At an electricity price of $0.10/kWh, the annual savings are $24,800.
This also prevents the emission of about 16 tons of CO2 to the atmosphere per year. The VSD system paid for itself in a few
months from the energy it saved. The VSD provided smooth start-up and stoppage, preventing mechanical knock. This
minimized the stress, wear, and the risk of cracks that might cause water leakages.
Figure 11-7 Daily electricity consumption in a pumping station before and after the use of variable-
speed drive (VSD). The nominal power of motor is 90 kW.
11-3-5. Another Application of Variable-Speed Drive

11-3-5. Another Application of Variable-Speed Drive
A variable-speed drive is installed in a chiller unit with 377 kW of cooling capacity. The VSD works with the compressor and
helps reduce compressor power consumption when the cooling requirements vary in the facility. The chiller is estimated to
have a load factor of 65 percent, and therefore the average cooling provided by the chiller is 245.1 kW. Comparative testing of
this chiller with and without the variable speed drive indicates that the chiller operates at an average COP of 2.73 with VSD and
2.44 without VSD. This corresponds to an 11.9 percent increase in the COP of the chiller with the installation of a VSD.
The electricity consumption of the chiller with and without VSD is determined from
Q̇L Q̇L 245.1 kW

COPno VSD = → Ẇ in = = = 100.5 kW
Ẇ in COPno VSD 2.44
Q̇L Q̇L 245.1 kW
COPVSD = → Ẇ in = = = 89.8 kW
Ẇ in COPVSD 2.73
The difference between these values is 10.7 kW. For continuous operation throughout the year (365 × 24 = 8760 h/yr), the
electricity saved by using a VSD is 93,700 kWh/yr. At a local electricity price of $0.12/kWh, the annual cost savings becomes
$11,250. The investment cost of a VSD is $14,000. Then the simple payback period of this investment is
$14,000
Payback period = = 1.24 yr = 15 months
$11,250/yr
That is, the installation of VSD provides an annual savings of 93,700 kWh of electricity worth $11,250, and the VSD pays for
itself in 15 months from the electricity it saves.
The experience with the operation of the chiller equipped with the VSD indicates that the chiller can respond to the changes in
load in a fast and effective manner. The compressor start-up is smoother, which helps minimize compressor wear. The
electricity drawn during start-up is also reduced.
11-3-6. Operating Principle of VSDs

11-3-6. Operating Principle of VSDs
In centrifugal pumps and fans, power is proportional to the third power of motor speed (or fluid flow rate). That is,Ẇ ∼ n 3.
Because of this cubical relationship, even small changes in motor speed or flow rate result in significant decreases in power
consumption, as shown in Fig. 11-8. For example, when the motor speed or fluid flow rate decreases from 100 to 50 percent, the
motor power will decrease to 12.5 percent (0.53 = 0.125) of the original value. In other words, when the speed or flow rate
decreases by half, the electricity consumption will decrease to one-eighth of the original value. As a result, a 100-kW fan
equipped with a VSD will draw only 12.5 kW of electricity from the grid when the cold air requirement decreases by half in
winter.
Figure 11-8 Power consumption as a function of motor speed or fluid flow rate in centrifugal
pumps and fans.
Decreasing the speed of a pump or a fan by 10 percent would require 27 percent less energy (Fig. 11-8). For this reason, all the
pump and fan systems in a facility should be examined from an energy savings point of view. If these systems involve bypass
valves, vanes, dampers, or similar conventional control devices, there is a potential for energy savings. The savings potential
associated with VSD systems varies depending on operating conditions. However, the amount saved can turn out to be much
greater than expected due to the cubical relation of power to motor speed.
11-3-7. Savings Due to VSDs

The difference between conventional mechanical speed controls and VSD in a fan is shown inFig. 11-9. For a given flow rate,
the difference between the two curves represents the difference in electricity consumption when flow rate is controlled by a
vane or a damper at the fan exit versus when it is controlled by a VSD. The difference is a measure of energy savings.
Figure 11-9 Energy savings in a fan when a VSD is used in place of a damper.
Example
EXAMPLE 11-3 Savings Due to Using a VSD in a Fan
Consider a fan that draws 106 kW at the 100 percent flow rate. Assuming that this fan operates at 50 percent of full flow
rate 24 h a day, 365 days a year, determine the energy and cost savings in a year if a VSD is used in place of a damper for
flow control. Use Fig. 11-9, and take the unit cost of electricity to be $0.12/kWh.
SOLUTION The electricity consumption decreases from 78 kW for a conventional system (damper) to 13 kW for the
system equipped with a VSD at 50 percent load (Fig. 11-9). Then the energy and cost savings are determined to be
Energy savings = (78 kW − 13 kW) (24 h/day) (365 day/yr) = 569,400 kWh/yr
Cost savings = (569,400 kWh/yr) ($0.12/kWh) = $68,330/yr
If the fan operates at 80 percent of full flow rate, the power savings will be 98 − 54 = 44 kW. This represents an annual
energy and cost savings of 385,000 kWh and $46,200, respectively, considering continuous operation throughout the year.
Note that at 80 percent load, fluid flow decreases by 20 percent, but the power consumption decreases almost by half when
a VSD is used. As the load changes, the power consumption, and thus the energy savings, change.
In light of this example, if a VSD is considered for pump and fan systems in a facility, the following questions should be
answered: How many days in a year and how many hours in a day will these pump and fan systems operate at flow rates
other than full load? If a VSD were used, how much energy and cost savings would be achieved? What would be the payback
period of the investment? The answer to these questions and other advantages of VSDs will be the determining factors for
making a decision.
11-3-8. Other Advantages of VSDs

Because of the significant savings associated with VSDs, other advantages associated with the use of VSDs are often
overlooked. Additional advantages of VSD may be summarized as follows:
The VSD system first applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor during start-up. This way, the start-up current
decreases by a factor of 8 to 10 in motors with a VSD compared to direct start-up with the grid voltage in conventional
motors. The motors that start up at grid voltage draw 300 percent of their nominal current while producing less than 50
percent of their nominal moment. The motors controlled by VSD speed up slowly, drawing only 50 percent of nominal power
while producing 150 percent of the nominal moment. VSDs reduce frequency and voltage in a slow and orderly manner,
allowing for smooth stops. Also, the smooth start-up due to a VSD eliminates most of the stress that otherwise takes place.
This allows the system to turn off the motor and saves energy as a result.
Another advantage of controlling the motor speed is that motor speed can be increased 5 to 20 percent above the nominal
speed when the high speeds are tolerable. This enables additional capacity needs to be met by the existing motors without
additional investment.
Pumps and fans controlled by VSDs can respond to changing conditions in a very fast and reliable manner compared to the
use of valves and dampers. When the flow rate is particularly high or low, this response is more crucial.
The start-up and stoppage period of motors controlled by VSDs can be adjusted by minutes and even by seconds. This
eliminates mechanical knocks and sudden impacts on the electrical grid. The smooth start-up and stoppage is particularly
crucial in large systems such as fans.
The so-called water chewing effect that takes place in a pump when a valve is partially closed does not happen in pumps
with VSDs. This makes the system more economical and silent.
As a result of a feedback signal (e.g., instantaneous pressure, flow rate, temperature, etc.), the motor speed of a VSD is
automatically adjusted and the process parameter is kept at the desired value. For example, when a pressure transmitter is
installed at the exit pipe in a pump application, and the signal is transmitted to the VSD, the VSD will keep the output
pressure at the desired value (say at 5 bar) all the time by changing the motor speed accordingly. A convenient water
system is supplied to the user as a result.
When a process parameter (e.g., pressure) is automatically controlled, the control system can react to sudden changes and
impacts in a fast and reliable manner compared to a mechanical control system, thus reducing the risk of breaks and cracks
in the equipment.
The wear and aging caused by mechanical knocks are less common in systems with VSDs. The system's life is extended
because the motor speed is less than the maximum value during a significant period of operation, depending on the
demand.
Example
EXAMPLE 11-4 An Immersion Pump
A 130-kW immersion pump equipped with a variable speed drive (VSD) has an efficiency of 80 percent. The cost of the VSD
system including its control panel is $10,500. The field measurements indicate that the VSD provides 40 percent savings
compared to no VSD operation. Calculate the annual energy and cost savings and the payback period. Take the unit cost of
electricity to be $0.090/kWh. Assume that the pump operates at an average 65 percent load 3000 h a year.
SOLUTION Noting that the load factor is 0.65, the energy and cost savings are determined to be
Rated power × Operating hours
Energy savings = fsaved × fload ×
ηpump
(130 kW)(3000 h/yr)
= (0.4)(0.65) = 126,750 kWh/yr ≅ 127,000 kWh/yr
0.80
Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit cost of electricity
= (126,750 kWh/yr) ($0.0090/kWh)
= $11,408/yr ≅ $11,400/yr
This system will save $11,400 every year, and the savings will increase as the electricity price increases. It will also prevent
the emission of about 83 tons CO 2 into the atmosphere, helping to combat global warming, assuming that 0.65 kg of CO2 is
emitted per kWh of electricity produced. The payback period of this investment is
Investment cost $10,500

Cost savings $11,408/yr
That is, the VSD system will pay for its investment in about 11 months from the energy it saves.
Example
EXAMPLE 11-5 A Pump Station
The pump of a pump station powering a city's water distribution system draws 110 kW of power at full load. The pump
operates 5 h at 50 percent flow rate, 10 h at 80 percent flow rate, and 9 h at 95 percent flow rate in an average day while
consuming 85, 102, and 107 kW, respectively. A VSD with a total cost of $19,000 is installed on this pump, which operates
300 days a year. Calculate the annual energy and cost savings and the payback period. Take the unit cost of electricity to be
$0.105/kWh.
SOLUTION Considering that the flow rate is proportional to pump speed and the motor power is proportional to the third
3
power of speed Ẇ 2/Ẇ 1 = (n 2/n 1)
3
= (V˙2/V˙1) , the power consumed and the savings achieved may be calculated as
follows:
50 percent flow rate:
Ẇ 50 = Ẇ 100(0.5)3 = (110 kW)(0.125) = 13.8 kW

Savings = 85 − 13.8 = 71.2 kW
Ẇ 80 = Ẇ 100(0.8)3 = (110 kW)(0.512) = 56.3 kW

Savings = 102 − 56.3 = 45.7 kW
Ẇ 95 = Ẇ 100(0.95)3 = (110 kW)(0.8574) = 94.3 kW
Savings = 107 − 94.3 = 12.7 kW
The daily and annual energy savings are
Daily energy savings = (71.2 kW)(5 h) + (45.7 kW)(10 h) + (12.7 kW)(9 h) = 927 kWh/day
Annual energy savings = (927 kWh/day)(300 days/yr) = 278,100 kWh/yr
The annual cost savings is
Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit cost of electricity = (278,100 kWh/yr)($0.105/kWh) =$29,200/yr
Then the payback period of this investment becomes
Investment cost $24,000

Cost savings $29,200/yr
That is, the VSD system will pay for its investment in about 10 months from the energy it saves. It will save $29,200 every
year. It is worth noting that even when flow rate decreases by 20 percent, the VSD can save almost 50 percent energy.
11-4. REFERENCES
Almeida AT and Greenberg S, Electric Motor Systems Efficiency, in Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Edited by Frank Kreith and D. Yogi Goswami, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2007.
CEMEP, European Committee of Manufacturers of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics, Electric Motors and Variable
Speed Drives, Standards and Legal Requirements for the Energy Efficiency of Low-Voltage Three-Phase Motors,
www.cemep.org, Frankfurt, Germany, 2011.
Nadel S, Elliot RN, Shepard M, Greenberg S, Katz G, and Almeida A,Energy Efficient Motor Systems: A Handbook on
Technologies, Programs, and Policy Opportunities, 2nd ed., American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington
D.C., 2002.
Nadel S, Shepard M, Grenberg S, Katz G, and Almeida A, Energy Efficient Motor Systems: A Handbook on Technology,
Program, and Policy Opportunities, American Council for Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington D.C., 1991.
NEMA, NEMA Standards Publication MGI-1998, Revision 1, Motors and Generators, National Electrical Manufacturers'
Association, Washington D.C., 2000.
11-5. PROBLEMS
INTRODUCTION
11-1 List five energy systems or applications that involve energy input primarily in the form of electricity.
11-2 List five energy systems or applications that involve energy input primarily in the form of fuel or heat.
11-3 What is a motor? How does it work? What type of motor is most common and why?
11-4 What are the important characteristics of a motor? What is likely the most important characteristic of a motor?
11-5 A motor draws 60 kW of electricity when running at full load. If the motor operates throughout the year at full load,
how much electricity and money are consumed by this motor per year? The unit price of electricity is $0.12/kWh.
11-6 A 40-hp motor draws 33 kW of electricity at full load, 26 kW at 75 percent load, 19 kW at half load. The motor
operates at full load 25 percent of the time, at 75 percent load 50 percent of the time, and at half load 25 percent of the time.
The motor is on 6000 h a year. Determine the amount of electricity and money consumed by this motor during its 10-year
life. The unit price of electricity is $0.09/kWh.
11-7 A 30-hp motor that is purchased for $4500 operates at an average 75 percent load. The motor consumes 19 kW of
electricity at this average load. The motor operates 16 h a day for 5 days a week throughout the year. How many weeks
does it take for the electricity consumption of the motor to be equal to its purchase price? The unit price of electricity is
$0.14/kWh.
11-8 Which energy system or application involves energy input in the form of electricity?
a. Heat recovery
b. Cogeneration
c. Motor
d. Boiler
e. Turbine
11-9 Which one is not normally considered an electrical system or application?
a. Lighting
b. Home appliance
c. Motor
d. Boiler
e. Compressor
11-10 Which one is likely the least important characteristic of a motor?
a. Reliability
b. High efficiency
c. Low cost
d. Controllable power factor
e. Size
11-11 Which one is likely the most important characteristic of a motor?
a. Reliability
b. Efficiency
c. Cost
d. Controllable power factor
e. Size
11-12 Which statement is not correct?
a. The cost of electricity consumed by an average motor in a few years is equal to its purchase price.
b. About half of the total electricity produced is consumed by electric motors.
c. About two-thirds of electricity used in industry is consumed by electric motors.
d. The cost of electricity consumed by motors is about $100 billion a year in the United States.
e. The initial cost of a motor is typically less than 2 percent of its total cost over its lifetime.
11-13 Which statement is not correct?
a. Motors convert electricity to rotational shaft work.
b. Permanent-magnet motors and switched-reluctance motors yield higher efficiencies than induction motors.
c. The most common type of motor is the induction motor.
d. Synchronous motors are suitable for applications requiring constant speed, high efficiency, and a controllable power
factor.
e. Motors have a rotor and stator, and only the rotor produces magnetic fields.
HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS
11-14 What is motor efficiency? What happens to the part of electricity that is not converted to shaft work?
11-15 How do you compare the efficiencies of high-efficiency and premium-efficiency motors? How does the difference
between the efficiencies of high-efficiency and premium-efficiency motors change with motor capacity? Give some typical
values.
11-16 What does the payback period depend on when two motors are compared? What are the typical payback periods
for premium versus high-efficiency motors and premium-efficiency versus standard motors?
11-17 A plant manager has to choose between replacing five 4-hp standard motors and replacing one 20-hp standard
motor with high-efficiency counterparts. Which option provides more electricity savings? Why?
11-18 Compare the electricity consumption of five 10-hp standard motors to that of one 50-hp standard motor. For which
case will the electricity consumption be greater? Why?
11-19 What are the types of losses in an induction motor? How do these losses change with load? What happens to these
losses?
11-20 When a motor is old and broken, do you recommend rewinding the motor? Explain.
11-21 How does the motor efficiency change with load?
11-22 Why does the motor efficiency drop with decreasing load? For what type of motor does the efficiency drop more
dramatically with decreasing load?
11-23 Is it a good idea to oversize a motor just to be on the safe side and to have some excess power just in case? Why?
How should motors be selected?
11-24 Is it recommended to operate motors in high- or low-temperature environments? Why? Why is it important to clean
dirt and dust collected on motor casing? Is a motor more likely to overheat at lower or higher loads? Why? What is the effect
of overheating on a motor?
11-25 What are the common mechanical transmission systems that transfer mechanical power from a motor to the
motor-driven equipment? Describe their characteristics, and explain how their performances compare.
11-26 A 30-hp motor operates at an average 75 percent load while consuming 19 kW of electricity. What is the average
efficiency of this motor?
11-27 A 25-hp compressor in a facility that operates at full load for 2500 h a year is powered by an electric motor that has
an efficiency of 93 percent. If the unit cost of electricity is $0.095/kWh, what is the annual electricity cost of this
compressor?
11-28 A facility has five 10-hp standard motors and one 50-hp standard motor. The small motor has an efficiency of 0.90
and the large one has an efficiency of 0.93. The motors operate 7000 h a year at full load, and the unit price of electricity is
$0.12/kWh. Determine the amounts of electricity consumed by the five 10-hp motors and by the 50-hp standard motor.
11-29 A 40-hp motor draws 33 kW of electricity at full load, 26 kW at 75 percent load, 19 kW at half load. The motor
operates at full load 20 percent of the time, at 75 percent load 35 percent of the time, and at half load 45 percent of the time.
(a) Determine the motor efficiencies at full load, 75 percent load, and half load. (b) Determine the average motor efficiency
and the average load factor of this motor.
11-30 The manufacturer of a 10-kW motor lists the motor efficiencies to be 93 percent at full load and 88 percent at half
load. The motor operates at full load 30 percent of the time and at half load 70 percent of the time. Determine the annual
amount of electricity and money consumed by this motor if it operates 7500 h a year. If the purchase price of this motor is
$8000, how many such motors can be purchased from the cost of the electricity consumed by this motor in a year? The unit
price of electricity is $0.15/kWh.
11-31 A 5-kW motor operates at an average efficiency of 92 percent. The motor and the equipment driven by the motor
are both located in the same room. (a) Determine the rate of heat dissipated to the room by the motor-equipment assembly.
(b) Now assume that the motor is located in room A and the equipment driven by the motor is located in room B. Determine
the rates of heat dissipated to room A and room B.
11-32 An exercise room has eight weight-lifting machines that have no motors and four treadmills each equipped with a
2.5-hp motor. The motors operate at an average load factor of 0.7, at which their efficiency is 0.77. During peak evening
hours, all 12 pieces of exercising equipment are used continuously. Determine the rate of heat gain of the exercise room
from the equipment at peak load conditions.
11-33 A plant manager has to choose between replacing five 4-hp standard motors and replacing one 20-hp standard
motor with high-efficiency counterparts. The existing efficiency of the small motor is 0.83 and its replacement has an
efficiency of 0.89. The efficiencies of the existing large motor and its replacement are 0.91 and 0.94, respectively. (a)
Determine the annual electricity and cost savings for each replacement option. The motors operate 4500 h a year and the
unit price of electricity is $0.105/kWh. (b) If the costs of the new small motor and the new large motor are $520 and $1250,
respectively, determine the simple payback period of each replacement option.
11-34 A 75-hp motor that has an efficiency of 91.6 percent is worn out and is replaced by a high-efficiency 75-hp motor
that has an efficiency of 95.2 percent. Determine the reduction in the heat gain of the room due to the higher efficiency
under full-load conditions.
11-35 A 30-kW motor that has an efficiency of 90.4 percent is worn out and is replaced by a high-efficiency 30-kW motor
that has an efficiency of 92.8 percent. The unit price of electricity is $0.11/kWh. (a) Determine the reduction in the amount
of electricity and money per year due to the higher efficiency if the motor operates at full load 4000 h a year. (b) If the motor
is replaced by a premium-efficiency motor that has an efficiency of 94.5 percent, determine the reduction in the amount of
electricity and money consumed per year.
11-36 A 90-hp electric car is powered by an electric motor mounted in the engine compartment. If the motor has an
average efficiency of 92 percent, (a) determine the rate of heat supply by the motor to the engine compartment at full load.
(b) This motor is to be replaced by a premium-efficiency motor that has an efficiency of 96.5 percent. Determine the
reduction in the rate of heat supply to the engine compartment at full load.
11-37 A 75-hp motor with an efficiency of 91.0 percent is worn out and is to be replaced with a high-efficiency motor
having an efficiency of 94.0 percent. The machine operates 4368 h a year at a load factor of 0.75. Taking the cost of
electricity to be $0.12/kWh, determine the amount of energy and money saved as a result of installing the high-efficiency
motor instead of the standard one. Also, determine the simple payback period if the purchase prices of the standard and
high-efficiency motors are $12,500 and $13,600, respectively.
11-38 Repeat Prob. 11-37 if the standard motor is replaced by a premium-efficiency motor that has an efficiency of 95.6
percent. The purchase price of the premium-efficiency motor is $14,400. Also, determine the payback period of the premium-
efficiency motor compared to the high-efficiency motor.
11-39 A 90 percent efficient motor consumes 1 kW of electricity when running. The motor and the equipment driven by the
motor are both located in the same room. The amount of heat dissipated to the room from the motor-equipment assembly
during a 2-h operation is
a. 2 kWh
b. 1.8 kWh
c. 1 kWh
d. 0.2 kWh
e. 0.1 kWh
11-40 A 90 percent efficient motor consumes 1 kW of electricity when running. The motor is located in room A and the
equipment is located in room B. The rates of heat dissipated to room A and room B, respectively, are
a. 0.1 kW, 0.9 kW
b. 0.9 kW, 0.1 kW
c. 0.1 kW, 1 kW
d. 1 kW, 0.1 kW
e. 0.1 kW, 0.1 kW
11-41 A motor consumes 1 kW of electricity while dissipating 0.05 kW of heat to the surroundings. The amount of
mechanical energy supplied by the motor during a 2-h operation and the motor efficiency are
a. 2 kWh, 100%
b. 1.9 kWh, 95%
c. 1 kWh, 95%
d. 1.9 kWh, 100%
e. 0.1 kWh, 90%
11-42 A standard motor is to be replaced by a more efficient motor. Which one does not affect the payback period?
a. Number of operating hours
b. Initial cost
c. Motor efficiency
d. Unit price of electricity
e. None of these
11-43 Which statement is not correct regarding motors?
a. Premium-efficiency motors are more efficient than high-efficiency motors.
b. The payback periods are under four years for premium-efficiency versus high-efficiency motors.
c. The larger the number of operating hours, the longer the payback period.
d. Premium-efficiency motors offer 4 percent improvement over high-efficiency motors for a 1-hp motor.
e. Premium-efficiency motors cost around 15 to 25 percent more than standard motors.
11-44 Which one is not a type of loss in an induction motor?
a. Windage
b. Friction
c. Core magnetic
d. Stator
e. Resistive
11-45 Which loss is dominant at high loads in an induction motor?
a. Windage
b. Heat
c. Core magnetic
d. Friction
e. Resistive
11-46 For what type of motor does the efficiency drop most with decreasing load?
a. Small, standard
b. Small, premium-efficiency
c. Medium, high-efficiency
d. Large, standard
e. Large, premium-efficiency
11-47 Consider a motor that is expected to operate at full load 50 percent of the time and at half load 50 percent of the
time. Motor efficiency at full load and half load, respectively, are specified. Which motor is best suited for this application?
a. 90%, 80%
b. 85%, 83%
c. 92%, 80%
d. 83%, 77%
e. 94%, 74%
11-48 Consider a motor that is expected to operate at full load 25 percent of the time, at half load 25 percent of the time,
and at quarter load 50 percent of the time. Motor efficiency at full load, half load, and quarter load, respectively, are
specified. Which motor is best suited for this application?
a. 85%, 80%, 60%
b. 82%, 78%, 70%
c. 84%, 82%, 55%
d. 80%, 77%, 50%
e. 75%, 70%, 45%
11-49 Which mechanical transmission system is most efficient?
a. V-belt
b. Cogged V-belt
c. Synchronous belt
d. Gearbox
e. Chain
MOTORS WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE
11-50 For what kinds of systems and applications is the use of a variable-speed drive (VSD) to the motor recommended?
11-51 How are the flow and load controlled in equipment driven by constant-speed motors?
11-52 How does a variable-speed drive work?
11-53 List the types of speed control drives, and describe their characteristics. Which speed control drive is most
commonly used?
11-54 Describe how valve or damper control and bypass control are used to control the flow rate of water in a pump.
11-55 Describe how a variable-speed drive responds to load variation in a pump or fan system without adding resistance
to the system.
11-56 Describe how a VSD saves energy compared to a bypass control in a well pump.
11-57 Both a compressor and a pump are driven by electric motors. The compressor consumes 20 kW of electricity at full
load, while the pump consumes 5 kW of electricity at full load. The compressor operates at full load almost all the time,
while the pump operates at full load 20 percent of the time and at varying part load at other times. For which equipment do
you recommend installing a variable-speed drive? Why?
11-58 List five applications of variable-speed drives with a description of load variation.
11-59 What are the other advantages of a variable-speed drive besides saving energy and money?
11-60 A variable-speed drive (VSD) is installed in the compressor of a chiller unit with 60-ton cooling capacity. The testing
of this chiller with and without the variable-speed drive indicates that the chiller operates at an average COP of 2.75 with the
VSD and 2.40 without the VSD. The cost of the VSD is $11,000. The chiller operates 5500 h a year at an average load factor
of 70 percent. Taking the unit price of electricity to be $0.13/kWh, determine the amount of electricity and cost savings per
year and the payback period of this investment.
11-61 Consider a fan that draws 106 kW at 100 percent flow rate. Assuming that this fan operates at 60 percent of full
flow rate 8 h a day, 5 days a week throughout the year, (a) determine the energy and cost savings in a year if a VSD is used
in place of a damper for flow control. (b) Also, determine the simple payback period if the cost of installing the VSD is
$19,000. Use Fig. 11-9 and take the unit cost of electricity to be $0.085/kWh.
11-62 Consider a fan that draws 20 kW of electricity at 100 percent flow rate. This fan is estimated to operate at full load
20 percent of the time, at 80 percent load 30 percent of the time, and at 40 percent load 50 percent of the time. The fan
operates 3000 h a year. Taking the unit price of electricity to be $0.11/kWh and using Fig. 11-9, determine the electricity and
cost savings in a year if a VSD is used in place of a damper for flow control.
11-63 A 60-kW immersion pump equipped with a VSD has an efficiency of 85 percent. The field measurements indicate
that the VSD provides 25 percent savings compared to no VSD operation. Assume that the pump operates at an average 75
percent load 5000 h a year. Take the unit cost of electricity to be $0.12/kWh.
a. Calculate the annual energy and cost savings.
b. Determine the annual emission of carbon dioxide prevented if 1.45 lbm of CO2 is emitted per kWh of electricity
produced.
c. Determine the simple payback period if the cost of the VSD system including its control panel is $9000.
11-64 The air compressor of a manufacturing facility has an efficiency of 78 percent at its rated power of 75 hp. The
compressor operates at full flow rate 20 percent of the time, at half flow rate 45 percent of the time, and at quarter flow rate
35 percent of the time. The compressor consumes 56 kW at half flow rate and 42 kW at quarter flow rate. A VSD is installed
on this compressor that operates 8 h a day, 5 days a week throughout the year. Taking the unit cost of electricity to be
$0.15/kWh, calculate the annual energy and cost consumption before and after the installation of the VSD.
11-65 The pump of a pump station powering a city's water distribution system draws 50 kW power at full load. The pump
operates 8 h at 40 percent flow rate, 8 h at 70 percent flow rate, and 8 h at 90 percent flow rate in an average day while
consuming 38, 48, and 54 kW, respectively. A VSD with a total cost of $33,000 is installed on this pump, which operates 330
days a year. Calculate the annual energy and cost savings and the simple payback period. Take the unit cost of electricity to
be $0.125/kWh.
11-66 Which one is not another name for VSDs?
a. Adjustable-speed drive
b. DC converter drive
c. Frequency converter
d. Inverter system
e. Variable-frequency drive
11-67 Which speed control drive provides high efficiency at all speeds?
a. Electronic speed drive
b. Mechanical drive
c. Eddy-current drive
d. Multispeed motor
11-68 Some fan and pump systems essentially operate at two speeds. Which speed control drive is particularly suitable
for these applications?
a. Electronic speed drive
b. Mechanical drive
c. Eddy-current drive
d. Multispeed motor
11-69 Which flow control device or method is commonly used for controlling water flow in a well pump without changing
motor speed?
a. Valve
b. Damper
c. Vane
d. Bypass control
e. Inverter system
11-70 Which equipment is least likely to be suitable for the application of a VSD?
a. Pump
b. Compressor
c. Conveyor
d. Fan
e. Condenser
11-71 Which application is least likely to be suitable for a VSD?
a. A pump charging water to a tank at a high elevation
b. Pumps used in a district's water distribution system
c. A circulation pump serving multiple units
d. The fan of a cooling tower
e. The compressor of a chiller
11-72 The motor of a pump equipped with a VSD consumes 10 kW of electricity at a given water flow rate. If the water
flow rate is reduced by half by the VSD due to load change, how much power does the pump consume?
a. 10 kW
b. 5 kW
c. 2.5 kW
d. 1.25 kW
e. 1 kW
11-73 Which one is not an advantage of a VSD?
a. Smooth start-up and stoppage
b. Less stress, wear, and cracks in the equipment
c. No mechanical failure of equipment
d. Fast and reliable response to changing load
e. No water chewing in a pump

Introduction To Energy Efficiency - UNIT 3

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Introduction To Energy Efficiency - UNIT 3

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Source: Energy Efficiency and Management for Engineers, 1st Edition

11. Electric Motors

Figure 11-1 A useful posting for electric motors.

11-2. HIGH-EFFICIENCY MOTORS

Ẇ electric,saved = Ẇ electric,standard − Ẇ electric,efficient

Energy savings = Ẇ electric,saved × Annual operating hours

Cost savings = Energy savings × Unit cost of energy

1 0.746 0.825 0.865

1.5 1.119 0.840 0.894

2 1.492 0.840 0.888

2.5 1.865 0.812 0.870

3 2.238 0.875 0.895

4 2.984 0.827 0.889

5 3.73 0.875 0.902

7.5 5.595 0.895 0.917

10 7.46 0.895 0.917

15 11.19 0.910 0.930

18 13.428 0.878 0.924

20 14.92 0.910 0.936

25 18.65 0.924 0.941

30 22.38 0.924 0.941

40 29.84 0.930 0.945

50 37.3 0.930 0.950

60 44.76 0.936 0.954

75 55.95 0.941 0.954

100 74.6 0.945 0.958

125 93.25 0.945 0.954

150 111.9 0.950 0.958

200 149.2 0.950 0.958

250 186.5 0.954 0.962

300 223.8 0.954 0.962

kW hp Standard High- Premium- kWh/yr $/yr

1.5 2.0 < 78.5 78.5–85.0 > 85.0 877 88

3.0 4.0 < 82.6 82.6–87.4 > 87.4 1197 120

7.5 10 < 87.0 87.0–90.1 > 90.1 1780 178

15 20 < 89.4 89.4–91.8 > 91.8 2632 263

30 40 < 91.4 91.4–93.2 > 93.2 3803 380

45 60 < 92.5 92.5–93.9 > 93.9 4352 435

75 100 < 93.6 93.6–94.7 > 94.7 5584 558

90 121 < 93.9 93.9–95.0 > 95.0 6659 666

Figure 11-4 Another useful posting for electric motors.

11-2-1. Motor Rewinding

11-2-2. Motor Efficiency vs. Load and Motor Oversizing

11-2-3. Operating Temperature of Motors

11-2-4. Mechanical Transmission

11-2-5. Motor Management

EXAMPLE 11-1 Savings Due to Selecting Premium-Efficiency Motor

Additional cost of premium-efficiency motor is

Then the payback period of this investment becomes

Price differential $2150

The corresponding annual cost is

EXAMPLE 11-2 Comparison of Standard and Premium Motors at Part-Load Operation

Load Operating hours, h Standard 30 kW motor, Efficiency, % Premium-efficiency 30 kW motor, Efficiency, %

SOLUTION The amount of electricity consumed is determined from

(30 kW)(1)(30 h) (30 kW)(0.75)(38 h) (30 kW)(0.50)(52 h)

(30 kW)(1)(30 h) (30 kW)(0.75)(38 h) (30 kW)(0.50)(52 h)

Electricity consumption for standard motor 1/ηmotor, standard 1/0.85

11-3. MOTORS WITH VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVE

11-3-1. Flow Control in Current Systems

11-3-2. Why VSD?

11-3-3. Application Areas of VSDs

11-3-4. An Application of Variable-Speed Drive

11-3-5. Another Application of Variable-Speed Drive