energies

Article
A Novel Methodology for Evaluating the Impact of
Energy Efficiency Measures on the Cabin Thermal
Comfort of Electric Vehicles
Daniele Basciotti *, Dominik Dvorak and Imre Gellai
AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Giefinggasse 4, 1210 Vienna, Austria; dominik.dvorak@ait.ac.at (D.D.);
imre.gellai@ait.ac.at (I.G.)
* Correspondence: daniele.basciotti@ait.ac.at




Received: 3 June 2020; Accepted: 27 July 2020; Published: 29 July 2020


Abstract: Climate control systems have a largely negative effect on the energy consumption of electric
vehicles and consequently on their real driving range. Improving the efficiency of climate control
systems requires advanced simulation tools for an accurate evaluation of both the energy savings and
thermal comfort of innovative heating and cooling solutions. In this study, the advancements beyond
the state of the art consists primarily of the methodology tackling the reduction of computational costs
of intensive computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and/or time-consuming experimental
investigations and the simultaneous assessment of vehicle cabin thermal comfort and energy flows.
The approach was validated against climatized chassis dyno measurements from the EU Horizon 2020
research project QUIET. Indeed, all the considered locations within the cabin were properly validated,
both in steady state and transient conditions with the largest deviations at steady state below 3 ◦ C.
Additionally, the validation results show a perfect agreement for the average cabin predicted mean
vote (PMV) value and a largest deviation in terms of the PMV for the other locations below 0.3.
Furthermore, the applicability of the methodology is proved with the help of its application on a
parametric study for which various cabin temperature setpoints and heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC) modes were simulated in winter operation.

Keywords: thermal comfort modelling; HVAC system modelling; vehicle climate control; increased
driving range

1. Introduction

1.1. Background and Problem

Electric vehicles (EV), as local zero emissions vehicles, positively address and tackle the
environmental problems, significantly reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, air pollution
and additionally, noise pollution [1]. Moreover, considering the higher energy efficiency well-to-wheel
of battery electric vehicles (BEV), they lead to a substantial reduction in the oil imports dependency for
the mobility sector [2].
Several studies showed the negative impact that the cabin cooling has on energy consumption
for both conventional internal combustion engine (ICE), plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) and battery
electric vehicles (BEV). Shete and Farrington et al. (respectively, in [3] and [4]) highlight the negative
impact of the air conditioning systems of ICE vehicles on CO2 emissions and fuel consumption and
suggest various ways to reduce the amount of energy spent for cabin environment control using parked
car ventilation, recirculated air, and advanced glazing, among others. Li et al. [5] carried out tests for
both indoor chassis dynamometer and on-road tests using PHEV, and concluded that air conditioner
power consumption accounts for a large fraction of the total power. Various studies [6–10] analysed

Energies 2020, 13, 3872; doi:10.3390/en13153872 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17

Energies 2020, 13, 3872 2 of 16

conditioner power consumption accounts for a large fraction of the total power. Various studies [6–
10] analysed the power demand of the auxiliary systems of electric cars and concluded as well that
the power
externaldemand of the auxiliary
air temperature has a systems of electric
significant impact cars andenergy
on the concluded as well that
consumption of the externalcar,
an electric air
temperature has a significant impact on the energy consumption of an electric car, both
both due to the cabin conditioning but also related to the efficiency of the battery at different due to the cabin
conditioning
temperatures.but Onalso related
the other to the
hand, theefficiency of the battery
energy consumption at differentaffected
is drastically temperatures.
in winter On the other
conditions,
hand,
mainlytheforenergy consumptionthat
BEV, considering is drastically affected
ICE vehicles in winter
use waste heatconditions, mainlyand
from the engine for that
BEV,ICE
considering
vehicles
that ICE vehicles use waste heat from the engine and that ICE vehicles provide thermal
provide thermal comfort in winter operation at no additional costs to the vehicle’s propulsion energy comfort in
winter
demands.operation at no additional costs to the vehicle’s propulsion energy demands.
Therefore,
Therefore, the
the developments
developments of new BEVs, due to limited battery battery capacities,
capacities, among
among other
other factors,
factors,
is contributing to the growing interest in decreasing
decreasing heating,
heating, ventilation
ventilation and
and air
airconditioning
conditioning(HVAC)
(HVAC)
systems’ energy consumption, since the large heating and cooling demand of HVAC conventional conventional
systems can drastically decrease
decrease the
the real
real driving
driving range
range [11].
[11].

1.2. Previous Research

1.2. Previous Research on
on the
the Topic
Topic
In
In order
orderto to
improve HVAC
improve systems’
HVAC designdesign
systems’ and control,
and various
control,studies
variousdeveloped
studies and investigated,
developed and
on a simulation base, the climate control loads of EVs. The studies performed
investigated, on a simulation base, the climate control loads of EVs. The studies performed simulations ranging
from 1D to 3D
simulations computational
ranging from 1Dfluidto 3Ddynamics (CFD) [12–16].
computational At the scope
fluid dynamics (CFD)of limiting
[12–16]. and/or
At the reducing
scope of
the
limiting and/or reducing the loads of climate control, the studies tried to optimise themajor
loads of climate control, the studies tried to optimise the systems with limited or no focus
systems on
with
thermal
limited orcomfort
no major[17–19].
focus on thermal comfort [17–19].
On
On the other hand, thermal
the other hand, thermal comfort
comfort has
has been
been studied
studied extensively
extensively (see
(see Figure
Figure 1)1) and
and resulted
resulted in
in
several indices, however disconnected from energy efficiency
several indices, however disconnected from energy efficiency figures. figures.

Figure 1.1.Publications
Figure Publicationsfrom
from
thethe literature
literature review
review [20] based
[20] based on keywords:
on keywords: vehicle vehicle cabin comfort.
cabin thermal thermal
comfort.
Differently from the building sector, the thermal comfort assessment in vehicle cabins introduces
Differently
various challenges.from Several
the building sector,
studies the thermal
[21–23] reviewed comfort assessment
the most popular in thermal
vehicle cabins
comfortintroduces
models
various
and gave challenges.
an overview Several studies
of the most [21–23]
relevantreviewed
factors thatthe most
affectpopular
thermalthermal
comfortcomfort models
in vehicles’ and
cabins.
gave an
They overview
showed, amongof the mostthat
others, relevant
thosefactors that affect
standardised thermal
models werecomfort
developed in vehicles’
starting cabins.
aroundThey
four
showed,ago,
decades among andothers, that thosechanged
only marginally standardised models
ever since, withwere developed
small modificationsstarting around
such as thefour decades
introduction
ago,
of and only
factors marginallythe
for considering changed ever
effect of since,
solar with small
radiation [24]. modifications such as the introduction of
factors for considering
Experimental the effect
thermal comfortof solar radiation [24].
investigation is probably the most common method used for
Experimental
vehicle cabin comfort thermal comfort
assessment investigation
[25,26] which can is be
probably
costly andthe time
mostconsuming.
common method Zhou etused for
al. [27]
vehicle cabin
conducted comfort
tests under assessment
outdoor driving [25,26] which can
conditions, be costly the
measuring andoutside
time consuming. Zhou et al.
weather conditions, the[27]
air
conducted
and surfacetests under outdoor
temperatures insidedriving conditions,
a car, and the skinmeasuring
temperatures the and
outside weather
thermal conditions,
sensation votesthe air
of the
and surface
driver. temperatures
The results showed inside a car,
that the airand
andthe skin temperatures
surface temperaturesand thermal
in the car weresensation votes ofand
non-uniform the
driver.
did notThe
reachresults showed
a steady statethat
forthe air commutes.
short and surface Thus,
temperatures
a thermalin the car were
comfort studynon-uniform and did
in a car should be
not reach aunder
conducted steady state for
transient short commutes.
conditions. Additionally,Thus,theastudy
thermal
foundcomfort
that thestudy in asensation
thermal car should be
of the
conducted under transient conditions. Additionally, the study found
driver under outdoor driving conditions was different from that when the vehicle was parked. that the thermal sensation of
the driver undereven
However, outdoor
thoughdriving conditions was
the experimental different from
investigation underthatoutdoor
when thedriving
vehicleconditions
was parked. can
depict the real behaviour and performances of the system, and in many cases is mandatory (e.g., for the
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 3 of 16

certification process), the prediction of thermal conditions in the design phase plays an important role
and has been intensively tackled by various studies with CFD methods, among others [28–32]. In this
case, CFD models can be supplementary to the experimental activities and can be a powerful tool
which allows to simulate the environmental conditions in the vehicle cabin and test different strategies
and/or designs of HVAC systems.
In order to reduce the computational costs of intensive CFD simulation, Chen et al. [33]
and Warey et al. [34] proposed to use machine learning approaches to systematically generate a
comprehensive dataset that spans the entire range of boundary conditions, which influence occupant
thermal comfort and apply machine learning algorithms to predict occupant thermal comfort (both
front and rear) for any combination of environmental conditions and HVAC settings (flow rate and
discharge air temperature).
As reported, thermal comfort has been intensively studied, however, studies on the quantification
of energy measures which have an impact on thermal comfort are very limited and they usually study
single measures and/or have focus on indoor air quality [35,36].

1.3. Boundaries of the Current Research Problem

The present work differs from the previous aforementioned studies in several aspects. First,
the vehicle cabin simulation model was created based on a generic and modular CFD approach,
which has made it possible to form a comprehensive dataset of the relevant vehicle cabin and HVAC
system alternative configurations, modes and boundary conditions. Second, the results from the
CFD generic approach were analysed, validated and extrapolated in order to be optimally integrated
in a 1D dynamic model, including the thermal aspects of both the vehicle cabin and HVAC system.
The advancements beyond the state of the art consist primarily of the methodology that spans the entire
range of boundary conditions which influence occupant thermal comfort. Moreover, the advancements
lie in the simplification approach for the implementation of the CFD results in a fast-transient 1D
simulation environment. The approach was validated against measurements from the research project
QUIET [37], and more information is reported in Section 2.2.
The developed methodology tackles a two-fold problem: (a) to reduce the computational costs
of highly intensive CFD simulations and/or time-consuming experimental investigations and (b) to
simultaneously assess both vehicle cabin thermal comfort and the impact of alternative configurations
on the energy efficiency of the HVAC system.

2. Methodology

2.1. Overall Methodology

The developed methodology, presented in the flow chart (Figure 2), includes the definition of the
standardised cases used in the parametrisation of the CFD models, the HVAC system model and the
1D thermal and comfort models integrated in the overall system model.
CFD simulations of the cabin model were performed for 80 standardised cases with variations in
terms of the HVAC settings, ambient temperatures and humidity. The standardised cases are reported
in Table 1 and include the most relevant scenarios for automotive heating and cooling systems. For the
CFD model, only the temperatures and air velocity at distinct locations were evaluated, therefore the
air humidity was neglected and set to 0%.
The simulation results from the CFD model were collected and post-processed for use in the 1D
thermal model, which was implemented in the simulation environment Dymola/Modelica [38,39].
The CFD results were interpolated between the operating points, allowing the usage of detailed results
from CFD while requiring low computational effort. In parallel, a model of the HVAC system was
implemented in Dymola/Modelica. Both the 1D thermal and comfort models and the HVAC system
model were implemented in the simulation platform (overall system model).
 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 4 of 16

Detailed cabin
Thermal model Energy reduction
thermal model -
+ measures
Computational fluid
Comfort model (alternative
dynamics (CFD)
(1D) configurations)
model

Heating, ventilation
Thermal and comfort
Standardised and air conditioning Overall System
investigation of
cases (HVAC) system Model
energy reduction
model (1D)
measures
(1D)

Figure 2. Methodology
Figure 2. flow chart.
Methodology flow chart.

Table 1. Standardised heating and cooling cases for the 1D thermal and comfort model.
CFD simulations of the cabin model were performed for 80 standardised cases with variations
in terms of the HVAC settings, ambient temperatures and humidity. The standardised
Standardised Cases cases are
reportedAmbient
in Tabletemperature
1 and include the most relevant scenariosWinter:
for automotive
−10 C, Summer: +40 C cooling
◦ heating and
◦

systems. Ambient
For the CFD model, only the temperatures and air velocity at~0%
humidity distinct locations were
Radiation ~0 W/m 2
evaluated, therefore the air humidity was neglected and set to 0%.
Recirculation FRESH
Table 1.settings Mode VENT, BI-LEV, HEAT, HEAT-DEF
Standardised heating and cooling cases for the 1D thermal and comfort model.
HVAC
Fan 50, 200, 400 m3 /h
Target outlet temperature Winter: 45 ◦ C, Summer:
Standardised Cases5 ◦ C
Ambient temperature Winter: −10 °C, Summer: +40 °C
Ambient humidity ~ 0%
2.2. Case Study
Radiation ~ 0 W/m2
The case study was based on the demonstrator
Recirculationof the EU H2020 research project QUIET, which
FRESH
was the Honda Fit EV. This vehicle was Modefrom the second-generation
derived VENT, BI-LEV, Honda
HEAT, HEAT-DEF
Jazz (called “Fit”
HVAC settings
in Japan, Sri Lanka, China, and the Americas).Fan 50, 200, 400 m3/h
Target outlet temperature Winter: 45 °C, Summer: 5 °C
The Honda Fit EV was derived from the conventionally powered Honda Jazz/Fit and the HVAC
system is a direct conversion from that model. The cabin of the demonstrator vehicle and the location
The simulation results from the CFD model were collected and post-processed for use in the 1D
of the corresponding air outlets can be seen in Figure 3. Five outlets were located on the dashboard:
thermal model, which was implemented in the simulation environment Dymola/Modelica [38,39].
one on the driver0 s left side (VENT side), one on the passenger0 s right side (VENT side), and three in
The CFD results were interpolated between the operating points, allowing the usage of detailed
the middle position (VENT and DEF). An additional four outlets were in the leg space of the driver,
results
Energies from CFD
2020, 13, while
x FOR requiring
PEER REVIEW low computational effort. In parallel, a model of the HVAC system
5 of 17
front passenger (FR HEAT) and back passengers (RR HEAT).
was implemented in Dymola/Modelica. Both the 1D thermal and comfort models and the HVAC
system model were implemented in the simulation platform (overall system model).

2.2. Case Study

The case study was based on the demonstrator of the EU H2020 research project QUIET, which
was the Honda Fit EV. This vehicle was derived from the second-generation Honda Jazz (called “Fit”
in Japan, Sri Lanka, China, and the Americas).
The Honda Fit EV was derived from the conventionally powered Honda Jazz/Fit and the HVAC
system is a direct conversion from that model. The cabin of the demonstrator vehicle and the location
of the corresponding air outlets can be seen in Figure 3. Five outlets were located on the dashboard:
one on the driver′s left side (VENT side), one on the passenger′s right side (VENT side), and three in
the middle position (VENT and DEF). An additional four outlets were in the leg space of the driver,
front passenger (FR HEAT) and back passengers (RR HEAT).

(a) (b)
Figure3.3.(a)
Figure (a)Air
Airoutlet
outletlocations;
locations;and
and(b)
(b)temperature
temperaturesensors’
sensors’position.
position.

The target outlet temperature (Tin) to the vehicle cabin was adjusted by mixing hot and fresh air.
The operational modes nomenclature is defined in Table 2 and defines five different settings for the
air flow distribution.

Table 2. Air flow distribution ratios.

Energies 2020, 13, 3872 5 of 16

The target outlet temperature (Tin ) to the vehicle cabin was adjusted by mixing hot and fresh air.
The operational modes nomenclature is defined in Table 2 and defines five different settings for the air
flow distribution.

Table 2. Air flow distribution ratios.

Mode VENT (side) VENT HEAT DEF

(1) VENT Open each 25% 0% 0%
(2) BI-LEV Open 50% 50% 0%
(3) HEAT Open 15% 75% 10%
(4) HEAT-DEF Open 20% 45% 35%
(5) DEF Open 32% 0% 6%

The methodology includes the development of a dataset of simulations from the CFD generic
approach, in order to be optimally integrated in a 1D dynamic model, including the thermal aspects of
both the vehicle cabin and the HVAC system. In order to validate the methodology, a validation case
was selected, and the settings are reported in Table 3.

Table 3. Validation case for the 1D thermal and comfort models.

Validation Case
Ambient temperature Winter: −10 ◦ C
Ambient humidity ~0%
Radiation ~0 W/m2
Recirculation FRESH
Mode DEF
HVAC settings
Fan 150 m3 /h
Target outlet temperature DEF 60 ◦ C, VENT 55 ◦ C

The validation case measurements were taken in a climatized chassis dyno [37] with K-type
thermocouples to monitor surface temperatures in different locations (head, chest, legs) of the vehicle
cabin. Additionally, comfort measurements were taken with the device FLATMAN, developed by
LumaSense/Innova. The device FLATMAN is a thermal measurement mannequin with an aluminium
frame, equipped with dry heat loss transducers at the representative locations.

2.3. Thermal Comfort Modelling

Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment [40]. The thermal comfort assessment in a confined space, such as a vehicle cabin,
is a complex task since it involves the evaluation of both the physiological and the psychological states
of the person under consideration. A well known index used to estimate the global thermal comfort
of people is the predicted mean vote (PMV) index [40], which gives the thermal comfort response in
steady state for an airconditioned environment, and was originally developed for building applications.
The PMV is a quantitative measure of human warmth, and a graphical representation of it is presented
in Table 4.

Table 4. Thermal comfort scale based on the predicted mean vote index.

−3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 3
cold cool slightly cool thermal neutral state slightly warm warm hot
 Table 4. Thermal comfort scale based on the predicted mean vote index.

−3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 3
thermal slightly
cold cool slightly cool warm hot
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 neutral state warm 6 of 16

The index was developed based on a large statistical research study on a group of individuals
and itThe indexthe
defines wasranges
developed based in
that result onthermal
a large statistical research
satisfaction study
for most of on
thea occupants
group of individuals and
in a confined
it defines the ranges that result in thermal satisfaction for most of the occupants in
space. A PMV value of zero represents the ideal value considered as the thermal neutrality. PMVa confined space.
A PMVinvalue
values of zero
the range represents
between −1.0 the
andideal valueconsidered
+1.0 were consideredacceptable
as the thermal
and neutrality.
recommended.PMVThevalues
PMV in
the range between −1.0 and +1.0
value is calculated based on Equations (1) and (2). The PMV index is a function of four thermalis
were considered acceptable and recommended. The PMV value
calculated based
environment on Equations
variables and two (1) and (2).
human body The PMV index
factors, is a function
see Figure 4. of four thermal environment
variables and two human body factors, see Figure 4.

Air temperature 3

Radiant temperature 2

Thermal environment
Humidity Thermal 1
variables
Comfort
PMV
Air speed 0
(Predicted
Mean
Clothing insulation Vote) -1

Human body
Metabolism rate -2
variables

-3

Figure 4. Thermal comfort model dependencies and scale.

Figure 4 Thermal comfort model dependencies and scale.
The PMV index [40] includes the factors related to thermal comfort, such as the metabolism rate
The PMV index [40] includes the factors related to thermal comfort, such as the metabolism rate
(M), clothing insulation (Icl ), air humidity (RH), air temperature (Tair ), radiant temperature (Trad ) and
(M), clothing insulation (Icl), air humidity (RH), air temperature (Tair), radiant temperature (Trad) and
air speed (vair ):
air speed (vair):
PMV = (0.303 e0.303 + 0.028 {(M − W) – 3.05 [5.73 – 0.07 (M – W) − pa ] – 0.42 [(M − W) –
PMV = (0.303 e0.303 + 0.028 {(M − W) − 3.05 [5.73 − 0.07 (M − W) − p
−8a
] − 0.42 [(M4− W) − 58.15]
58.15] − −0.0173 M (5.87 − pa) – 0.0014 M (307 − ta)−8– 3.96 104 fcl [(t 4 cl − tmr ] − fcl hc (tcl − (1)
(1)
− 0.0173 M (5.87 − pa ) − 0.0014 M (307 − ta ) − 3.96 10 fcl [(tcl − tmr 4 ] − fcl hc (tcl − ta )]}
ta)]}
where:
where:
tcl = 35.7 − 0.028 (M − W) − Icl {(M − W) −3.05 [5.73 − 0.007 (M − W) − pa ]
tcl = 35.7 −−0.028 (M –W) (2)
0.42 [(M − W)–−58.15]−0.0173
Icl {(M –W) –3.05
M[5.73
(5.87–−0.007 (M –W)M– (307
pa )−0.0014 pa] –−0.42
ta )}[(M –W) – (2)
58.15] –0.0173 M (5.87 – pa)–0.0014 M (307 – ta)}
with:
with:
• M metabolic heat rate (W/m2 );
• M metabolic heat rate (W/m 2);
• W activity level (W/m2 ) removed from the inputs of Figure 4 as assumed negligible;
• tcl temperature at clothes’ level (K);
• pa water vapour pressure (Pa);
• ta air temperature (K);
• Icl thermal insulation of clothes (Clo);
• fcl clothing factor (-);
• tmr mean radiant temperature (K);
• hc convective heat transfer (W/m2 .K).

Table 5 gives an overview of the PMV factors with the typical ranges and the specific factors used
for the case study.
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 7 of 16

Table 5. PMV index factors overview.

Variable Typical Ranges Case Study

M 46 to 232 W/m2 (0.8 to 4 met) 70 W/m2 (1.2 met)
Icl 0 to 0.310 m2 .K/W (0 to 2 clo) 0.186 m2 .K/W (1.2 clo)
Tair 10 to 30 ◦ C 23 ◦ C
Trad 10 to 40 ◦ C equal to air temperature
vair 0 to 1 m/s values from simulation
RH 20–80% <5%

2.4. Cabin CFD Modelling

Geometry data, provided by HONDA, were processed with SpaceClaim 3D [41] in Ansys
Fluent [42]. The geometry model reproduces the physical properties of the vehicle cabin, including the
heating and vent inlet and outlet locations and dimensions, windshield angle, and chassis parameters,
which are influential to the performance of the vehicle cabin heating and cooling system. In this study,
an additional four manikins were modelled. These manikins were designated as the driver and three
passengers and were in a sitting posture. The material properties specified for the car compartment
surfaces and the human body are listed in Table 6. The wall properties were iteratively adapted in
order to obtain comparable heat losses, as for the validation case.

Table 6. Material properties of the vehicle cabin surfaces and the human body.

Reference Material Density Specific Heat Thermal Conductivity

(-) (kg/m3 ) (J/kg.K) (W/m.K)
Windshield [42] Glass 2530 754 1.17
Wall Assumptions Fictive material 996 1480 2.70
Manikin Assumptions Skin 1000 3500 0.21

The fluid flow distribution within the cabin was obtained using the commercial CFD package
ANSYS Fluent [43]. The flow is governed by the conservation equations for mass, momentum and
energy. The effects of turbulence were accounted for using the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) approach (k-w SST) [43], which ensures higher accuracy near the wall, and is therefore
appropriate when simulating the maninkins [43]. The snappyHexMesh utility [44] was used for the
generation of the mesh. Starting from the triangulated surface representation of the geometry (STL), the
polyhedral mesh was generated by snapping the background mesh onto the nearest surface. Figure 5
illustrates the meshed grid of the model for the vehicle cabin. The CFD model includes the heat transfer
phenomena of conduction, convection and radiation, although radiation represents a minor effect due
to the small temperature difference between the surfaces and the assumption of no solar radiation.
The boundary conditions were extrapolated from experimental data.
The cabin supply air flow rate and temperature were specified at the outlet vent surfaces.
The pressure outlet boundary condition used at the outlet vents was at a constant atmospheric pressure
of 101.3 kPa, with the vehicle at rest. Nonslip wall conditions were imposed at the wall surfaces of the
windshield, side window, rear window, dashboard, seats, and floor. The windshield, side window,
and rear window were treated in the radiation equations as semi-transparent walls. To ensure the
reliability of the simulated results, the CFD model was validated against the experimental data and the
validation results are provided in Section 3.
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 8 of 16
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Figure 5. Ansys Fluent computational model of the case study.

The cabin supply air flow rate and temperature were specified at the outlet vent surfaces. The
pressure outlet boundary condition used at the outlet vents was at a constant atmospheric pressure
of 101.3 kPa, with the vehicle at rest. Nonslip wall conditions were imposed at the wall surfaces of
the windshield, side window, rear window, dashboard, seats, and floor. The windshield, side
window, and rear window were treated in the radiation equations as semi-transparent walls. To
ensure the reliability of the simulated results, the CFD model was validated against the experimental
data and the validation results are provided in Section 3.
Figure 5. Ansys
Figure 5. Ansys Fluent
Fluent computational
computational model
model of
of the
the case
case study.
study.
2.5.HV
2.5. HVAC SystemModelling
AC System Modelling
The cabin supply air flow rate and temperature were specified at the outlet vent surfaces. The
TheHVAC
The
pressure HVACsystem
outlet system
boundary 1D1D model
model
condition was
was useddeveloped
developed based
at thebased
outlet on on models
models
vents of
wasofatthe the Modelica
Modelica
a constant Standard
Standard
atmospheric Library
Library [39]
pressure
[39]
and and
of 101.3 TIL
TIL Suite Suite [45].
[45]. the
kPa, with The
Thevehicle parameters
parameters for
for Nonslip
at rest. each
each of the of the
sub-models
wall sub-models
conditionswere
werederivedwere
imposed derived
either from
at the either from
thesurfaces
wall the
availableof
available
measurement measurement
the windshield, data data
or window,
side or from
from a technical a technical datasheet.
datasheet.
rear window, The
The system
dashboard, system
seats,depicteddepicted
and floor. in
in Figure Figure 6 consisted
6 consistedside
The windshield, of
of three
three
window, different
different loops:
loops:
and rear (1) were
refrigerant
(1) refrigerant
window propane
propane
treated in R290,R290, (2) coolant
(2) coolant
the radiation with with
equations as asemi-transparent
water–glycol
a water–glycol 50%
50% mixture mixture
walls. and
To
and
(3) (3) air
air cycle.
ensure cycle.
the reliability of the simulated results, the CFD model was validated against the experimental
data and the validation results are provided in Section 3.

2.5. HVAC System Modelling

The HVAC system 1D model was developed based on models of the Modelica Standard Library
[39] and TIL Suite [45]. The parameters for each of the sub-models were derived either from the
available measurement data or from a technical datasheet. The system depicted in Figure 6 consisted
of three different loops: (1) refrigerant propane R290, (2) coolant with a water–glycol 50% mixture
and (3) air cycle.

(a) (b)
Figure6.6.Case
Figure Casestudy
studyHVAC
HVACsystem
systemmodel
modelin:
in:(a)
(a)heating
heatingmode;
mode;and
and(b)
(b)cooling
coolingmode.
mode.

The HVAC system is built up in an indirect topology, which means that the thermal power provided
by the refrigerant cycle is transmitted to the coolant cycle via plate heat exchangers. The coolant
cycle, based on a 50% water–glycol mixture, is connected to MPET (multi-port extruded tube) heat
exchangers for the condenser and evaporator, which transmit the thermal power to the air side, either
to the ambient at the vehicle front or to the cabin air. The coolant valves can be used to switch between
the heating or cooling operation (connecting the condenser heat exchanger to the heater core for the
(a) (b)
heating operation or the evaporator heat exchanger to the low-temperature radiator for the cooling
Figurethough
operation). Even 6. Casedirect
study refrigerant
HVAC system model
cycles canin: (a) heating
achieve mode;
higher and efficiencies,
system (b) cooling mode.
a coolant-based
heat exchangers for the condenser and evaporator, which transmit the thermal power to the air side,
either to the ambient at the vehicle front or to the cabin air. The coolant valves can be used to switch
between the heating or cooling operation (connecting the condenser heat exchanger to the heater core
for the heating operation or the evaporator heat exchanger to the low-temperature radiator for the
cooling operation). Even though direct refrigerant cycles can achieve higher system efficiencies, a
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 9 of 16
coolant-based system is easier and safer to install due to the lower pressure. The refrigerant cycle,
consisting of the compressor, condenser, expansion valve (TXV), internal heat exchanger (IHX) and
evaporator,
system is easieris based
and on propane
safer as due
to install a refrigerant.
to the lower pressure. The refrigerant cycle, consisting of the
compressor, condenser, expansion valve (TXV), internal heat exchanger (IHX) and evaporator, is based
2.6. Thermal and
on propane as a Comfort Model and HVAC System Integration
refrigerant.
The cabin 1D thermal model was used to calculate the cabin temperature. It was based on two
2.6. Thermal and Comfort Model and HVAC System Integration
thermal masses: the cabin air (assumed 2.5 m3) and the solid cabin parts. The total thermal mass of
The cabin parts
the solid 1D thermal model
(such as was
doors, used to
steering calculate
wheel, theetc.)
seats, cabin
wastemperature.
an estimatedIt120 waskgbased
withon two
a total
thermal capacity
masses: the cabin airwhile
(assumed 3
2.5 m ) and thetransfer
solid cabin parts.the
The
thermal of 5000 J/K, the convective heat between airtotal
andthermal mass
solid parts of
was
the to
set solid
260cabin
W/K.parts (such
The 1D as doors,
thermal steering
model wheel,
considers anseats, etc.)
overall wastransfer
heat an estimated 120 kg
from cabin towith a total
outside of
thermal
about 36capacity
W/K. Aofschematic
5000 J/K, while the convective
overview heat transfer
of the thermal cabin between
model isthe air and solid
provided parts was
in Figure set
7. The
to 260 W/K. The 1D
aforementioned thermal model
parameters for theconsiders
model werean overall
derivedheat
fromtransfer from cabin to
the measurement outside of about 36
data.
W/K. A schematic overview of the thermal cabin model is provided in Figure 7. The aforementioned
parameters for the model were derived from the measurement data.

Figure 7. Schematic overview of the thermal cabin model.

Figure 7. Schematic overview of the thermal cabin model.
The cabin model exchanges data with the HVAC model and the sub-model “flowDistribution” in
which thecabin
The results of theexchanges
model CFD simulations are derived
data with the HVAC andmodel
implemented,
and theFigure 8. The“flowDistribution”
sub-model “flowDistribution”
model
in whichimplements the of
the results temperature
the CFD and air-velocity
simulations are distribution
derived and at distinct locations
implemented, in the8.cabin,
Figure The
i.e., the head, chest and legs of each of the four passengers (driver, co-driver, behind
“flowDistribution” model implements the temperature and air-velocity distribution at distinct driver, behind
co-driver),inconstituting
locations the mean
the cabin, i.e., value
the head, of the
chest entire
and legscabin andof
of each the comfort
the model based
four passengers on theco-driver,
(driver, equations
presented
behind in Section
driver, behind 2.3.co-driver), constituting the mean value of the entire cabin and the comfort
model based on the equationsispresented
The “flowDistribution” derived in
from the parametric
Section 2.3. variation with the various boundary
conditions as presented in Table 7 (80 CFD simulation results).

Table 7. Parametric variation of the CFD simulations.

Variable Value
Mode (5) VENT, BI-LEV, HEAT, HEAT-DEF, DEF
Recirculation mode (2) on, off
Cabin supply temperature (2) 10 ◦ C, 45 ◦ C
Cabin supply volume flow rate (4) 0, 50, 200, 400 m3 /h

Steady state results from the CFD simulations are implemented in the “flowDistribution” model
as lookup tables (I = 1.10) and depending on the values of “Mode” and “Recirculation mode”, the
corresponding (table) is retrieved:

table(i) = f (HVAC mode, recirculation mode) (3)

Energies 2020, 13, 3872 10 of 16
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Figure8.8.Scheme
Figure Schemeintegration
integrationCFD
CFDsimulation
simulationin
in1D.
1D.

Temperature (Tss ) and the

The “flowDistribution” is velocity
derived (v)
fromat the
steady state conditions
parametric variationfor all positions
with (j =boundary
the various 1.3) are
obtained, linearly
conditions interpolating
as presented the7 values
in Table (80 CFDwith respect toresults).
simulation the cabin supply volume flow rate (Vin ) and
the cabin supply temperature (Tin ):
Table 7. Parametric variation of the CFD simulations.
Tss = f (table(i), Vin , Tin ), at location j
Variable Value (4)
v = f (table(i), Vin , Tin ), at location j
Mode (5) VENT, BI-LEV, HEAT, HEAT-DEF, DEF
Recirculation mode (2) on, off
As a next step, the actual temperature (Tactual ) is calculated based on the factor (k) which is
Cabin supply temperature (2) 10 °C, 45 °C
obtained from the 1D thermal model (Tcabin ), the steady state mean cabin temperature (Tcabin,ss ) from
Cabin supply volume flow rate (4) 0, 50, 200, 400 m3/h
the CFD simulations and the ambient temperature (Tambient ):
Steady state results from the CFD simulations are implemented in the “flowDistribution” model
k = (Tcabin − Tambient )/(Tcabin,ss − Tambient ), (5)
as lookup tables (I = 1.10) and depending on the values of “Mode” and “Recirculation mode”, the
corresponding (table) is retrieved:
As the temperature (T ) from the 1D thermal model has a transient behaviour, the actual
cabin
temperatures for the various locations
table(i) =of the cabin
f (HVAC will inherit
mode, the behaviour,
recirculation mode) and namely: (3)
Temperature (Tss) and the =
velocity
(Tss − T(v) at steady state conditions for all positions (j = 1.3) (6)
are
Tactual ambient ) k + Tambient , at location j
obtained, linearly interpolating the values with respect to the cabin supply volume flow rate (Vin) and
the cabin supply temperature
The approach (Tin): results from the CFD steady state conditions, contributing to a
provides transient
large simulation time and computational effort savings.
Tss = f (table(i), Vin, TinThe
), at calculated
location j temperatures (Tactual ) and air
velocities (v) at the various locations (j) were then used as inputs for the PMV model implemented in (4)
Dymola/Modelica. As a result, the PMV v = f model
(table(i), Vin, the
gives Tin),response
at location
to aj change from an equilibrium or
a steady
As state,
a nextthus resulting
step, in thetemperature
the actual capability of(Tpredicting the transient
actual) is calculated basedbehaviour
on the for the (k)
factor PMV index.
which is
obtained from the 1D thermal model (Tcabin), the steady state mean cabin temperature (Tcabin,ss) from
3. Results
the CFD simulations and the ambient temperature (Tambient):
Section 3.1 reports the models’ validation, and Section 3.2, the application of the methodology on
k = (Tcabin − Tambient)/(Tcabin,ss − Tambient), (5)
a selected case study.
As the temperature (Tcabin) from the 1D thermal model has a transient behaviour, the actual
temperatures for the various locations of the cabin will inherit the behaviour, and namely:
Tactual = (Tss − Tambient) k + Tambient, at location j (6)
 index.

3. Results
Section 3.1 reports the models’ validation, and Section 3.2, the application of the methodology
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 11 of 16
on a selected case study.

3.1.Models
3.1. ModelsValidation
Validation
Thefollowing
The followingsections
sectionsdemonstrate
demonstratethethevalidity
validityofofthe
thedeveloped
developedmethodology,
methodology,andandnamely
namely
validate the CFD model, the 1D thermal (results are reported in Section 3.1.1) and the comfort
validate the CFD model, the 1D thermal (results are reported in Section 3.1.1) and the comfort model model
(resultsare
(results arereported
reportedininSection
Section3.1.2).
3.1.2).

3.1.1.CFD
3.1.1. CFDand
and1D
1DThermal
ThermalModel
Model
The1D
The 1Dthermal
thermalmodel,
model,which
whichwaswasbased
basedon onthe
theinterpolation
interpolationofofthetheCFD
CFDsimulation
simulationresults,
results,was
was
validated against experimental data in terms of cabin temperature
validated against experimental data in terms of cabin temperature distribution. distribution.
Figure9a9shows
Figure a shows the model
the CFD CFD model validation
validation results
results for for locations
the four the four in locations in steady
steady state state
conditions,
conditions,
with with
satisfactory satisfactory
accuracy from the accuracy from the
model. Indeed, model.
for the Indeed,
different regions,forthe
the different distribution
temperature regions, the
temperature
accurately fits distribution
the measurementsaccurately
with fits
the the measurements
largest deviation inwith theregion
the leg about +2.7
largestofdeviation in ◦the leg region
C. Figure 9a
of about
also +2.7 that
highlights °C. Figure 9a also highlights
the temperature differencesthat the temperature
between leg and head differences between
were adequately leg and and
simulated head
were
the erroradequately simulated
of the difference leg–headandisthe
abouterror
3.2 ◦of the difference
C. Cabin temperature,leg–head is about at
the temperature 3.2the°C. Cabin
location
temperature, the temperature at the location which is typically used from the
which is typically used from the HVAC control system, was satisfactorily simulated with an error ofHVAC control system,
was
0.1 satisfactorily
◦ C. simulated
Figure 9b presents the with an error
transient of 0.1 °C.
behaviour forFigure 9b presents
the cabin the transient
temperature, which wasbehaviour
based on forthe
the
cabin temperature, which was based on the results of the 1D thermal model.
results of the 1D thermal model. The comparison shows the appropriateness of the thermal capacity The comparison shows
the appropriateness
models and highlightsofthe thevalidity
thermal ofcapacity
CFD resultsmodels
and and highlights
the further the validity of
implementation in CFD
the 1D results
thermaland
the further
model for theimplementation in theassessment.
transient conditions 1D thermal model for the transient conditions assessment.

(a) (b)

Figure9.9. One-dimensional
Figure thermal
One-dimensional model
thermal validation:
model (a) the (a)
validation: steady
the state conditions;
steady and (b) transient
state conditions; and
behaviour.
(b) transient behaviour.

3.1.2.
3.1.2.One-Dimensional
One-DimensionalComfort
ComfortModel
Model
The
The1D1Dcomfort
comfortmodel
modelused
usedininthis
thiswork
workwas
wasvalidated
validatedagainst
againstexperimental
experimentaldatadataininterms
termsofof
PMV
PMVvalues.
values.The
Thevalidation
validationcompared
comparedthe themeasurements
measurementsandand1D1Dcomfort
comfortmodel
modelininthree
threelocations
locations
(head,
(head, chest, legs) of the FLATMAN mannequin (positioned at the co-driver side) andininterms
chest, legs) of the FLATMAN mannequin (positioned at the co-driver side) and termsofof
average
average cabin PMV value. Figure 10a presents the steady state values at the different locationsand
cabin PMV value. Figure 10a presents the steady state values at the different locations and
Figure 10b the transient behaviour for the average cabin PMV value. As it can be seen, small differences
between the measurements and the model occur in the leg, chest and head region, respectively, of
−0.02, −0.29 and +0.17. For the average cabin, the PMV values from the measurements and 1D comfort
model are identical with an error close to 0. Moreover, Figure 10b shows the transient behaviour of the
1D comfort model, which accurately follows the measurements. Indeed, the PMV value reaches the
comfort zone (PMV value above −1) for the measurements at about 1400 s and for the model at about
1100 s. The difference can be attributed to a small difference in the air velocities distribution, since on
the other hand, the transient behaviour of the cabin temperature is correctly pictured.
behaviour of the 1D comfort model, which accurately follows the measurements. Indeed, the PMV
value reaches the comfort zone (PMV value above −1) for the measurements at about 1400 s and for
the model at about 1100 s. The difference can be attributed to a small difference in the air velocities
distribution, since on the other hand, the transient behaviour of the cabin temperature is correctly
Energies 2020, 13, 3872
pictured. 12 of 16

(a) (b)

Figure 10. One-dimensional

Figure 10. One-dimensionalcomfort
comfort model
model validation:
validation: (a)steady
(a) the the steady state;
state; and and (b) behaviour.
(b) transient transient
behaviour.
3.2. Parametric Variations on the Case Study
3.2. Parametric Variationsand
The applicability on the Case Study
objective of the proposed methodology was proven with the help of
its application on the case study, including
The applicability and objective of the proposed a parametric study with
methodology was various
provenboundary
with the conditions.
help of its
The application focuses on HVAC system design and optimisation from a technical
application on the case study, including a parametric study with various boundary conditions. and thermal comfort
The
perspective,focuses
application aiming on at exploiting
HVAC systemoptimum
designsolutions for the efficient
and optimisation from heating andand
a technical cooling of ancomfort
thermal electric
vehicle. Hence,
perspective, no monetary
aiming optimisations
at exploiting were applied,
optimum solutions i.e.,
for the neitherheating
efficient investment nor operational
and cooling costs
of an electric
were considered. However, the proposed application of the methodology is not
vehicle. Hence, no monetary optimisations were applied, i.e., neither investment nor operationallimited, and alternative
applications
costs such as system
were considered. design
However, thevalidation
proposedcan be considered.
application of the Figure 11 shows
methodology the limited,
is not PMV forand the
three main
alternative positions
applications (head,
such chest and legs), both for the driver and the co-driver
as system design validation can be considered. Figure 11 shows 13for a parametric
the
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 17
variation
PMV in terms
for the three of HVAC
main mode.(head, chest and legs), both for the driver and the co-driver for a
positions
parametric variation in terms of HVAC mode.

Figure
Figure 11.11.
PMVPMV value
value vs.vs. HVAC
HVAC mode:
mode: (left)
(left) driver;
driver; (right)
(right) co-driver.
co-driver.

The results highlight that at at

thethe
considered outdoor temperature condition (−10 ◦ C) and indoor
The results highlight that considered outdoor temperature condition (−10 °C) and indoor
temperature condition (+24 ◦
temperature condition (+24 C),
°C),thetheoverall
overallPMV PMVfor forthe
thecabin
cabinis isinin
ananadequate
adequate range
range (PMV
(PMV ininthe
the
range between +1.5 and −1.5). For Mode 1 (VENT) and Mode 5 (DEF) the head
range between +1.5 and −1.5). For Mode 1 (VENT) and Mode 5 (DEF) the head position for the driver position for the driver
and
andco-driver
co-driver have
havePMV
PMV values
values above
above +1+1 andandforfor
the legleg
the location
location PMV
PMV values
values below
below −1.−1.However,
However,
this is is
this inin
line with
line the
with position
the position ofofthe flaps
the flapsforfor
the
theMode
Mode 1 (VENT)
1 (VENT) and andMode
Mode 5 (DEF),
5 (DEF),andand is is
therefore
therefore
adequate. Figure 12 shows the PMV for the three main positions (head,
adequate. Figure 12 shows the PMV for the three main positions (head, chest and legs), both chest and legs), both forfor
the
the
driver
driver and
andthethe
co-driver, forfor
co-driver, a parametric
a parametric variation
variationin terms
in termsof cabin
of cabintemperature
temperaturesetpoint, for MODE
setpoint, for MODE 3.
3.
Energies
Energies2020, 13,13,
2020, 3872
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1313
ofof
1617

FigureFigure 11. value

12. PMV PMV vs.
value
thevs. HVAC
cabin mode: (left)
temperature: driver;
(left) (right)
driver; co-driver.
(right) co-driver.

The ◦ C) there is a
Theresults
resultshighlight
highlightthat
thatatatthe
theconsidered
consideredoutdoor
outdoor temperature
temperature condition
condition (−10
(−10 °C) and indoor
linear dependency between all the PMV values and the cabin temperature setpoint
temperature condition (+24 °C), the overall PMV for the cabin is in an adequate range (PMV between +20 in◦ the
C
and +26between
range ◦ C, and +1.5
that and
the PMV
−1.5).for
Forthe cabin
Mode varies between
1 (VENT) and Mode −0.5 and about
5 (DEF) +1. The
the head parametric
position for thestudy
driver
can
andbeco-driver
used for control
have PMVstrategies
valuesduring
abovethe +1 development
and for the legof location
a new HVAC
PMVsystem
values for electric
below vehicles,
−1. However,
balancing between
this is in line with thermal comfort
the position and
of the energy
flaps efficiency
for the Mode 1targets.
(VENT) and Mode 5 (DEF), and is therefore
Additionally,
adequate. Figure Figure
12 shows13 the
shows PMV thefor
electric loadmain
the three frompositions
the compressor at steady
(head, chest state conditions
and legs), both for the
driver and the co-driver, for a parametric variation in terms of cabin temperature setpoint, for◦ CMODE
(after 1 h) for the parametric variation in terms of cabin temperature setpoint between +20 and
+26 ◦
3. C. The results highlight that a considerable amount of energy is required when increasing the
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
cabin temperature from +20 ◦ C to +26 ◦ C, and specifically about +35◦ %.

Figure
Figure
Figure 13.Electrical
12.13.
PMV Electrical
value vs. load
loadtheofof thecompressor
the
cabin compressorvs.
vs.
temperature: thecabin
the
(left) cabintemperature.
driver; temperature.
(right) co-driver.

AsAs
The ititcan
canbebeseen
results seenininFigure
highlight that14,
Figure atthe
14, thebest
the best compromise
compromise
considered between
outdoorbetween thermal
thermalcomfort
temperature comfortand
conditionand energy°C) demand
energy
(−10 demand
there is a
isis
with a cabin temperature setpoint of about 22 ◦ C, which results in a PMV of about 0 and an electrical
with a cabin temperature setpoint of about 22 °C, which results in a PMV
linear dependency between all the PMV values and the cabin temperature setpoint between +20 °C of about 0 and an electrical
load ◦ kW. Indeed, on the other hand, when increasing the
andof
load ofthe
+26 the
°C,compressor
compressor
and that theatataPMV
asteady
forstate
steady state
the ofof1.75
cabin 1.75°kW.
varies Indeed,−0.5
between on the
andother
abouthand, when
+1. The increasing
parametric the
study
cabin temperature to 26 ◦ C, the resulting PMV for the head, chest and legs is about 0.8, which is still
cabin temperature to 26 °C, the resulting PMV for the head, chest and legs is about
can be used for control strategies during the development of a new HVAC system for electric vehicles, 0.8, which is still
experienced
experienced
balancing betweenasascomfortable,
thermal but
comfortable, butthe
theelectrical
comfort electrical
and energyload
load ofofthe
thecompressor
efficiency compressor
targets. atatsteady
steadystate
stateisisincreased
increasedtoto
2.15 ◦ kW or +23◦ %.
2.15°kW or +23°%. Figure 13 shows the electric load from the compressor at steady state conditions
Additionally,
(after 1h) for the parametric variation in terms of cabin temperature setpoint between +20 °C and +26
°C. The results highlight that a considerable amount of energy is required when increasing the cabin
temperature from +20 °C to +26 °C, and specifically about +35°%.
 is with a cabin temperature setpoint of about 22 °C, which results in a PMV of about 0 and an electrical
load of the compressor at a steady state of 1.75°kW. Indeed, on the other hand, when increasing the
cabin temperature to 26 °C, the resulting PMV for the head, chest and legs is about 0.8, which is still
experienced as comfortable, but the electrical load of the compressor at steady state is increased to
Energies 2020, 13, 3872 14 of 16
2.15°kW or +23°%.

Figure 14.Electrical
Figure14. Electricalload
loadofofthe
thecompressor
compressorvs.
vs.the
thePMV
PMVvalue:
value:(left)
(left)driver;
driver;(right)
(right)co-driver.
co-driver.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
4. Discussion and Conclusions
This work presents a novel methodology for the thermal and comfort assessment of energy
Thismeasures
reduction work presents a novel
in electric methodology
vehicles. for addresses
The approach the thermal
theand comfort
technical assessment
challenges of energy
of integrating
reduction measures in electric vehicles. The approach addresses the technical challenges
complex CFD models within 1D thermal and comfort models, at the scope of exploiting unused synergies
of
integrating complex CFD models within 1D thermal and comfort models, at the scope of exploiting
in thermal and comfort modelling. As such, this approach is a significant extension of the established
unused synergies in thermal and comfort modelling. As such, this approach is a significant extension
tools for the optimisation of HVAC systems for electric vehicles and offers significant computational
of the established tools for the optimisation of HVAC systems for electric vehicles and offers
time and effort savings. The methodology offers the capability of assessing the performance of different
significant computational time and effort savings. The methodology offers the capability of assessing
scenarios which would otherwise require an extensive measurement campaign. The applicability of
the performance of different scenarios which would otherwise require an extensive measurement
the methodology is proved with the help of its application on a use case. Indeed, the optimal cabin
campaign. The applicability of the methodology is proved with the help of its application on a use
temperature setpoints of 22 ◦ C was selected, which would reduce on the one hand the electrical load of
case. Indeed, the optimal cabin temperature setpoints of 22 °C was selected, which would reduce on
the compressor by about 23% (compared to the case with cabin temperature setpoint of 26 ◦ C), and
the one hand the electrical load of the compressor by about 23% (compared to the case with cabin
on the other hand would guarantee the necessary thermal comfort in the cabin with a PMV index of
temperature setpoint of 26 °C), and on the other hand would guarantee the necessary thermal comfort
around 0.
in the cabin with a PMV index of around 0.
Moreover, with this approach, advanced algorithms of the control system can be tested before the
hardware implementation, offering an impulse for the HVAC control system development. Future
developments will be linked to find integration possibilities to enhance the control of the HVAC system
for electric vehicles to couple the control of physical components (e.g., compressor, valve opening, etc.)
with the thermal comfort assessment based on the limited number of sensors in the cabin.

Author Contributions: D.B. for the concept; D.B. and D.D. for the methodology; D.B., D.D., I.G. for the modelling
work; D.B. for the investigation; D.B., D.D., I.G. for writing the draft; D.B. for reviewing and editing the final draft
version. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The QUIET project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programme under grant agreement No. 769826. The content of this publication is the sole responsibility
of the QUIET consortium partners and does not necessarily represent the view of the European Commission or
its services.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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