in

t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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FAILURE
 A component looses its “Engineering Functionality”

in
 Need not be a Fracture (fragmentation) always

t s.
en
 CAUSES

ud
st
 Improper materials selection
 Improper processing tu
.k
 Inadequate design of the component
w
w

 Misuse.
w

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FAILURE MODES

in
s.
 Fracture (Simple fracture)- Under static loading

t
en
 Fatigue - Cyclic loading , time dependent

ud
 Creep - Time dependent deformation

st
at higher temperature under
tu static loading
.k
w
w
w

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FRACTURE
 Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or

in
more pieces

s.
 In response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e.,

t
en
constant or slowly changing with time) and

ud
 At temperatures that are low relative to the melting

st
temperature of the material.
tu
 The applied stress may be tensile, compressive, shear, or
.k
torsional
w
w

 Steps in fracture
w

 crack formation
 crack propagation

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TYPES OF FRACTURE
 Depending on the ability of material to undergo plastic

in
s.
deformation before the fracture two fracture modes can

t
en
be

ud
1. Ductile fracture

st
2. Brittle fracture
tu
.k
w
w
w

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 DUCTILE FRACTURE V/S BRITTLE
FRACTURE
DUCTILE BRITTLE

in
1. Extensive plastic 1. There is normally little

s.
deformation ahead of or no plastic

t
en
failure deformation

ud
2. Proceeds slowly 2. Fast propagation

st
3. Crack is “stable”: resists 3. Crack is “unstable”:
further extension unless
tu propagates rapidly
.k
w

applied stress is without increase in

w

increased applied stress

w

4. High energy absorption 4. low energy absorption

before failure. 5. Cleavage type failure
5. Cup and cone type failure
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TENSILE STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOUR FOR BRITTLE AND
DUCTILE MATERIALS LOADED TO FRACTURE

in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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DUCTILE FRACTURE V/S BRITTLE FRACTURE

in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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 in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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 in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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CRACK PROPAGATION

in
 Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip

t s.
en
DEFORMED

ud
PLASTIC REGION
BRITTLE

st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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 TRANSGRANULAR & INTERGRANULAR
FRACTURE

in
s.
 Transgranular Fracture:

t
en
1. Fracture cracks propagation through the grains

ud
2. In metals that have good ductility and toughness-ductile

st
type fracture
 Intergranular fracture: tu
.k
w

 crack propagation is along grain boundaries.

w

 Found in some brittle fractures

w

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TRANSGRANULAR & INTERGRANULAR
FRACTURE

in
TRANSGRANULAR INTERGRANULAR

t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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TRANSGRANULAR & INTERGRANULAR
FRACTURE

in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

TRANSGRANULAR INTERGRANULAR
FRACTUREClick Here to get more> www.ktustudents.inFRACTURE
FRACTURE

in
s.
MECHANICS

t
en
BRITTLE FRACTURE

ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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STRESS CONCENTRATION

in
 Measured fracture strength of materials in brittle fracture

s.
are found less than that of theoretical values

t
en
 Cracks , flaws are responsible for this lower fracture

ud
strength values –STRESS RAISERS

st
 Stress raisers amplify the applied stress values a so that
tu
theoretical cohesive strength is reached at their vicinity-
.k
causes the metal to fail
w
w

 Stress concentration is assumed to be at the crack tip and

w

the magnitude of this amplification depends on crack

orientation and geometry

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STRESS CONCENTRATION

in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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STRESS CONCENTRATION
 Stress amplification depends up on crack orientation and
geometry

in
 If it is assumed that a crack has an elliptical shape and is

s.
oriented perpendicular to the applied stress, the

t
en
maximum stress at the crack tip,σm, may be

ud
approximated by

st
tu
.k
w

 where σ0 is the magnitude of the nominal applied tensile

w

stress,
w

 ρt is the radius of curvature of the crack

 a represents the length of a surface crack, or half of the
length of an internal crack
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STRESS CONCENTRATION

in
 For a relatively long microcrack that has a small tip radius

s.
of curvature, the factor (a/ρt) 1/2 may be very large. This

t
en
will yield a value of σm that is many times the value of σ0

ud
.

st
 Sometimes the ratio σ m/ σo is denoted as the stress
concentration factor Kt :
tu
.k
w
w
w

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 GRIFFITH THEORY OF BRITTLE
FRACTURE
 Quantitative expression for fracture under stress

in
concentration

s.
 Crack will propagate when ,

t
en
decrease in elastic strain energy = surface energy of

ud
crack creation or propagation

st
tu
.k
w

 E modulus of elasticity
w
w

 γs specific surface energy

 a one half the length of an internal crack or length of
external surface crack
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DUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION

in
 Under some circumstances , ductile materials fracture

s.
abruptly with very little plastic deformation (Brittle

t
en
Fracture)

ud
 Reasons may be

st
1. Low temperature tu
.k
2. High strain rate
w

3. Notch induced in the metal

w
w

 Temperature dependent Ductile to Brittle Transition is

more found in BCC metals (eg,steel)

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TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT DUCTILE
TO BRITTLE TRANSITION

in
t s.
en
 Due to occurrence of new slip positions at higher

ud
temperatures as KE increases with temperature

st
 at lower temperatures KE decreases and not able to move
to new slip systems tu
.k
 Hence the material behaves Brittle at low temperatures
w
w

and ductile at high temperatures

w

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TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT DUCTILE
TO BRITTLE TRANSITION

in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

Ductile to brittle transition temperature: Temperature at which

material is assumed to change its behaviour from ductile to
brittle
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FATIGUE
 Failure of metal due to due to repetitive stress (under

in
dynamic loading) which may be below the yield

s.
strength

t
en
 Fatigue failure is brittle like in nature even in normally

ud
ductile metals, in that there is very little, if any, gross

st
plastic deformation associated with failure.
 Dynamic or cyclic loading tu
.k
w

 90% of metal failures accounts for fatigue failure

w
w

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CYCLIC STRESS

in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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S-N CURVE
 Fatigue characteristics are represented by S(stress
amplitude) - N(no. of cycles to failure) curve

in
s.
 A series of tests are commenced by subjecting a specimen

t
to the stress cycling at a relatively large maximum stress

en
amplitude (max), usually on the order of two thirds of the

ud
static tensile strength; the number of cycles to failure is

st
counted.
tu
.k
 This procedure is repeated on other specimens at
w

progressively decreasing maximum stress amplitudes.

w

Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the

w

number N of cycles to failure for each of the specimens.

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 in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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S-N CURVE
 Two distinct types of S–N behaviour are observed, which

in
are represented schematically in Figure above.

s.
 As these plots indicate, the higher the magnitude of the

t
en
stress, the smaller the number of cycles the material is

ud
capable of sustaining before failure.

st
 For some ferrous (iron base) and titanium alloys, the S–N
tu
curve becomes horizontal at higher N values; or, there is a
.k
limiting stress level, called the fatigue limit (also
w
w

sometimes the endurance limit), below which fatigue

w

failure will not occur.

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FATIGUE TEST
 Rotating beam test machine (constant load type)
 When specimen is rotated by a motor

in
 Tension on lower side and compression on upper side

t s.
 No of cycles it can withstand depends up on the stress

en
applied

ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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MECHANISM OF FATIGUE
1. Crack initiation

in
2. Crack propagation (ductile manner)

s.
3. sudden fracture-when remaining cross section is too

t
en
small to withstand the load

ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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CREEP :TIME DEPENDENT STRAIN
 Permanent Deformation that occurs under constant

in
load/stress and elevated temperatures which is time-

s.
dependent is known as creep.

t
en
 Creep deformation (at constant stress) is possible at all

ud
temperatures above absolute zero. However, it is

st
extremely sensitive to temperature.
 tu
Hence, creep in usually considered important at elevated
.k
temperatures (temperatures greater than 0.4 Tm, Tm is
w

absolute melting temperature).

w
w

 Creep test data is presented as a plot between time and

strain known as creep curve.
 The slope of the creep curve is designated as creep rate.
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CREEP CURVE

in
t s.
en
ud
st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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 Creep curve is considered to be consists of three
portions.

in
 After initial rapid elongation, ε0, the creep rate decreases

t s.
continuously with time, and is known as primary or

en
transient creep.

ud
 Primary creep is followed by secondary or steady-state or

st
viscous creep, which is characterized by constant creep
tu
.k
rate.
w

 • Finally, a third stage of creep known as, tertiary creep

w

occurs that is characterized by increase in creep rate

w

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CREEP TEST

in
t s.
en
VARIABLES

ud
•STRESS
•STRAIN

st
•TEMPERATURE
tu •TIME
.k
w
w
w

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MECHANISM OF CREEP

in
 Dislocation cross-slip

t s.
 Dislocation climb

en
 Diffusion of vacancies

ud
 Grain boundary sliding

st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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SUPER PLASTICITY
 Superplasticity is the capability to deform crystalline

in
s.
solids in tension to unusually large plastic strains, often

t
en
well in excess of 1000%.

ud
 Under elevated temperatures

st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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TO ACHIEVE SUPERPLASTIC BEHAVIOUR

in
 Material must have very fine grain size

t s.
 It must be highly strain rate sensitive

en
 A high loading temperature (>0.5 Tm)

ud
 A low an controlled strain rate

st
tu
 Presence of a second phase which inhibits the grain
.k
growth
w
w
w

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APPLICATIONS

in
 Thermoforming

t s.
 Blow forming

en
 Vacuum forming

ud
 Deep drawing

st
tu
.k
w
w
w

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