THERMODYNAMICS-I : Basic Concepts and Definitions chapter.

I - 1 of 12

BASIC CONCEPTS
AND DEFINITIONS

Thermodynamics is the branch of science which treats of various phenomena of energy, and especially of the laws of
transformations of heat into other forms, and vice versa.
The science that is devoted to understanding energy in all its forms such as, mechanical, electrical, chemical, and how
energy changes forms.
Derived from the Greek words, therme, meaning heat and dynamis, meaning strength, particularly applied to motion.

In engineering, the science of thermodynamics is conventionally divided into two parts:

1) Chemical Thermodynamics, which is devoted largely into reactions and solutions.
2) Thermodynamics concerned with the production and use of work and power

Macroscopic and Microscopic Analysis

BOUNDARY is an imaginary partition that separates the
Macroscopic thermodynamics is the level on which
system from the surrounding environment.
we live in. It is concern on the overall effect of the
individual molecular interaction. The measurements
SURROUNDING is the region outside the boundary or
are large compared with the measurement of events on
anything not in the system.
the molecular levels, such as distance in meter, time in
second, etc.
In many cases, an analysis is simplified if attention is
focused on a particular volume in space into which, or
Microscopic thermodynamics look at every molecule
from which, a substance flows. Such volume is a control
and analyze collective molecular action by statistical
volume. A pump, a turbine, and an inflating or deflating
methods.
balloon are examples of control volume. The surface that
completely surrounds the control volume is called the
System, Boundary and Surrounding
control surface.

SYSTEM (thermodynamic system) is that portion of the Types of System

universe, an atom or a galaxy, or some certain quantity
of matter, which we specifically wish to study. It is a
region enclosed by specified boundaries or by
imaginary but definite mental boundaries.
1)Closed System is a system where matter does not cross
the boundaries.
-energy can pass through boundaries
- examples are piston cylinder assembly, air in a balloon
and mercury in a thermometer and pressure cooker

2) Open System is a system where matter and energy

pass across its boundaries
- examples are pump, turbine, air conditioner, hair
blower, etc.

Flow
through a pipe (Open System)
Piston cylinder assembly (Closed
System)
3) Isolated System is a system where neither mass nor energy passed through its boundaries.
MIT - School of Mechanical Engineering 
THERMODYNAMICS-I : Basic Concepts and Definitions chapter. I - 2 of 12

- example of a partially isolated system is a thermos Fundamental Units in SI

QUANTITY NAME SYMBOL
Property and State Base units
Length Meter M
A pure substance is uniform in chemical Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
composition. It may exist in more than one phase in
Electric current Ampere A
which each phase would have the same composition.
Thermodynamic
The condition when three phases, the solid phase, the Kelvin K
temperature
liquid phase and the gaseous phase, coexist is called
Amount of substance Mole Mol
triple point.
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Supplementary unit
PROPERTY is a characteristic quality of the entire Plane angle Radians Rad
system and depends not on how the system changes Solid angle Steradians Sr
state but only on the final system state.
- are quantities that may be measured or calculated Common Macroscopic Properties
and give meaningful information about the state of the
substance but are independent of the path (or method)
Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in a substance.
taken to achieve their values. Therefore properties are
It is invariant with location: the mass of the body is the
point functions.
same anywhere in the universe.
1 Kgm = 2.2046 lbm
Two Kinds of Properties
1 slug = 32.174 bm
Intensive Properties are properties that are
independent of the mass (extent) of the substance Volume is the amount of space occupied by the mass or
- it is also independent of the size of the system; matter.
example are temperature and pressure 1 m3 = 1000 liters = 35.3147 Ft3
1 gal = 3.7853 liters
Extensive Property are properties that depend on 1 ft3 = 7.481 gal
1 barrel = 42 gal
the size or extent of the system; examples are mass
1 drum = 50 gal
and volume.

Formula of Volume for Common Solids:

STATE – It completely described how the substance Rectangular parallelepiped V  ABASE * H

exists. Knowing the macroscopic properties, we can 2

determine the state of a substance. Cylinder V  R2 H  H

4
4 1
Sphere V  R3  D3
3 6
Fundamental and Derived Units
Force is defined as the mass times the acceleration.
1N = 2.2046 lbf
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS are units that are postulated
1kgf = 9.8066 N
Length - is the distance between to
points in 1kgf = 2.2046 lbf
space
Time - is the period between two events
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: “the acceleration of
or during which something happens.
a body is directly proportional to the force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.
DERIVED UNITS are units formed from F
fundamental units. a
m
Pressure - is force per unit area
F  ma
Velocity - distance per unit time

MIT - School of Mechanical Engineering 

 d  dv   dm 
F  dtmv  m dt  v 
  W  mgo   g o
   dt  VgcVg c

but, from classical mechanics mass is invariable

with velocity Specific Gravity / Relative Density is the ratio of the
dm density of a substance to the density of a standard substance.
 0
- for liquid the standard substance is water and for gas
dt
dv the standard substance is air at same pressure and
Fm  temperature.
ma dt
Density of Substance
by introducing a gravitational constant, gc S.G. 
Density of Standard Substance
F  ma
gc
For Solid and Liquid : ratio of the weight of substance to
the weight of equal volume of water.

S.G.  Wsubs.  subs.Vsubs.

 Vstd. subs.
Wstd. subs. std. subs.

 subs. g o gcVsubs.
S.G.
  std. subs. go gcVstd. subs.
but

ma 1kgm 2  
1slug 1 Ft 2
Vsubs  Vstd.subs.

1m  s
S.G. 
 subs.subs.
 
subs.
 std. subs.std. subs.Water at 4 deg. Celsius
g  s
c
F 1N 1lbf S.G. subs.subs
g  1 kgm  m  9.8066 kg f 1000kg
For Solids (Using Archimedes 362.4lb m
Principle)
c m ft 3
s2N s2N
 1 slug  Ft  32.174lbm  Ft S.G. Weight in air
Weight in air  Weight in water
s 2  lbf s 2  lbf

Weight is the force due to the gravitational pull of the

earth.
W  mgo
gc

Density is the mass per unit volume. It is a measure

of the size of the molecules and how closely the
molecules are spaced in a material.
m
V

Specific Volume - volume per unit mass.

vV1
m
WF W  BF  F '
Specific Weight / Weight Density is the weight per where:
unit
volume of the material.
F is the weight of F’ is the weight of object in water
object in air
W then the two blocks are said to be in thermal equilibrium
 subs Vsubs
S.G.    WWater and the their temperature are the same.
Water
VWater.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics allows the calculation
But, volume of the liquid displaced equals the volume
of absolute entropy. The Nearest postulate of the third law is
of the object submerged.
V V “The absolute entropy of a pure crystalline
substance in
subs Water
complete internal equilibrium is zero at zero degrees
W F F
S.G.  W   absolute.”
WWater  B WF' FF'
F
S.G. 
Weight in air Since temperature is related to the kinetic energy of
Weight in air  Weight in water the fluid, it is evident that the motion of the molecules will
increase with increasing temperature. At absolute zero there
will be no
For Ideal Gases (ratio of molecular weight of the gas motion, and the molecules will be completely still.
to the molecular weight of air)
gas
S.G.   Pg Temperature
K °C R °F
air RgTg Scale
Pa Steam point
373.15 100 671.67 212
RaTa (Boiling point)
but, Pg = Pa and Tg = Ta
Triple Point of
_ _ 273.16 0.01 491.69 32.02
water
Ra  R R Ice point
an Rg  273.15 0 491.67 32
MW d MWg (Freezing point)
_ a
R MW Absolute zero 0 -273.15 0 -459.67
Ra MWg
S.G.    a  S.G.  Note: ΔC = ΔK , ΔF = ΔR and 1ΔC = 1.8ΔF (ΔC = C°)
_
Rg MWa
MWg
x  FPxy  FPy
R 
BPx  FPxBPy  FPy
MWg
S.G. 
MWa
Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
PF
Temperature is the measure of hotness and coldness A
of a body. It is a measure of the average linear kinetic
energy of the molecules of the substance, that is, the
total kinetic energy of all the molecules divided by the
number of molecules.
Temperature Scale
1) Absolute Temperature Scale (ex. Kelvin & Rankine)
2) Arbitrary or Man-made Temperature Scale (ex. Celsius
& Fahrenheit)

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics state that
“when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with
each other and hence are at the same temperature”. Pabs  Patm  Pgage
Pabs  Patm  Pvacuum
Consider two blocks of material, say, iron; if these two
blocks are brought together and there is no change in
any observable property,
Atmospheric pressure Determine (a) the flow rate in kg/s; (b) the time it takes to
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure associated with fill the tank.
the atmosphere due to the weight of air. Although this
pressure varies according to location and weather Solution:
patterns, an average value at sea level is 101.325 kPa.
a) flow rate
Standard Atmospheric Pressure
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 Bar = 760 m  

V  S.G.Water
 V
mmHg   L  1m3 1min 
kg  kg
= 760 mmHg = 14.7 psi = 29.92 in. Hg    6.0
m  1.21000 3 300 
 m  min 1000L  60s  s
Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure is the amount by which pressure b) time to fill the tank
differs from atmospheric pressure. This is measured with a  V 333m3  1000L  t  90 min or 1.5 hr
V
V t    
gauge that measures the pressure above (or below) L  m3 
 V 300
atmospheric pressure. The gauge pressure below t min

atmospheric is called vacuum.

2.1 Two liquids of different densities (ρ1=1500 kg/m3, ρ2=
500
Absolute pressure
kg/m3) are poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If
Although there is no limit to how high a pressure
the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the
can be, there is a limit to how low it can be. This point
respective amounts of liquids used. Also, find the weight
of absolute minimum is the absolute zero pressure
of the mixture; local go=9.675m/s2.
(no pressure at all). Absolute pressure is pressure
Solution :
measured above this zero point.

mV
Pressure Variation with Liquid
Column VVV   V  0.01V
0.01m3
For a substance of constant density (such as a m 1 2 2 1
liquid), m m m VV
m  m
 1 2
 1 1 22
the pressure at any vertical position due to the self-weight Vm 100L 0.01m3
of
the substance above the datum is dependent of the  V   0.01V   V  0.01   V kg
surface   
2 1
area and is given by the 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 800
m
0.01m3 0.01m m3
equation: 3

Pgage   h 800
kg
m3

0.01m3  0.01m3  
V 
1
1  2 2

800
kg
0.01m  0.01m 500 kg 
3 3


V1  m3  m3   0.003m3
kg
500
1500
m3
V2  0.01 V1  0.01 0.003
 0.007m3

kg
m   V  1500 0.003m  3
 4.5 kg
1 1 1
m3
+h -h
 kg
m   V  500 0.007m  3
 3.5 kg
2 2 2
m3

mm  m1  m2  4.5   8 kg
3.5
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
 m
8kg 9.675 
m g s2
1.1 A pump discharges into a 3 m per side cubical    7.8926N
tank. W  m o

g
The flow rate is 300 liters/min, and the fluid has a m
kg  m
c 9.8066 2
density s N
1.2 times that of water (density of water ρ=1000.0
kg/m3).
a 5gO
FW W W W  mg
1.3The mass of a given airplane at sea level (g=32.10 gO gO 6 g O
6W C

fps2) is 10 tons. Find its mass in lbm, slugs and kg

and its
gravitational weight in lbf and in N when it is travelling m
at a 80kg 9.8066

m 
50,000 ft. elevation. The acceleration of gravity  s 2 
F  4707.168N
(g)decreases by 3.33 × 10-6 fps2 for each foot of 6 kg 
1 m ms 2 
elevation. N
Solution :
a) Mass in lbm, slugs and kg
1.5 Make a conversion formula from Fahrenheit scale to
 2000lb f 32.174 lb  ft
10tons Celsius scale and vice versa.
m 
Wg tons
 s 2  lb 


c   f  Solution :
m 
go ft
32.10
s2
m  20,046.106lbm C  0C F  32F C F  32
  
 1kg 
m  20,046.106lb  m   9,092.854kg 9  0C
100C 212 32F 1005 180
 2.2046lb 
m
F  C  32 and C  F  32
m
 m 
m   slug  623.053slug 5 9
20,046.106lb 32.174lb
 
1.6 At what temp is the Fahrenheit and Celsius
scale has the same reading?
b) Weight lbf and N Solution : (F = C = A)
mg o
W
gc
 
 623.053slug 32.10  3.33x106 50,000 
ft
C  0C F  32F C F  32
  
s2
slug  ft
1
s 2  lb 100C  0C 212  100 180
f
32F
W  19,896.263lbf C F  32 A A  32
  9.8066N  100  180  100  180
 1kg A   40 C or F
W  19,896.263lbf      f 
 2.2046lb  1kg  
 f  f 

W  88.503.444 N of earth’s standard gravity. If the take-off is vertical, what force
does he exert on the seat?
1.4 During take-off in a space ship, an 80 kg astronaut
is subjected to an acceleration equal to 5 times the pull
1.7 At what temperature will the Fahrenheit scale be 64°
more that the Celsius scale? F = 64 + C
Solution : C0 F  32F C 64  C   32
  
Solution: 100C  0C 212  32F 100 180
C C  32
5  9
C  40 C or F  104F

1.8A water manometer is connected to the inlet manifold of

an engine and records a height of 300 mm. Convert this
to gage pressure in kilopascal and absolute pressure in psi if
barometer reading is 13.95 psi.
Solution : kg  m
P  h  1000 9.8066
0.3m 1kN   
gage  

 1000N
m 3
s2  
Pgage  2.942
From Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion : Action and kPa
Reaction
 14.7 psi 
Wa
R  gO Pabs  Patm  Pgage  13.95 psi  2.942kPa

101.325kPa
 
 Fv  0  Fup  Fdown  FRW
Pabs  14.3768psia
1.9 Compute for the value of h based on the figure.
EXERCISES

(1) A tank contains a mixture of 20 kg of nitrogen and 20

kg of carbon dioxide. The total tank volume is 20 m3.
Determine the density and specific volume of the mixture.

(2) A spring scale is used to measure force and to

determine the mass of a sample of moon rocks on the
moon’s surface. The springs were calibrated for the
earth’s gravitational acceleration of 9.8 m/s 2. The scale
reads 4.5 kg, and the moon’s gravitational attraction is 1.8
Solution : m/s2. Determine the samples mass. What would the reading
P1   h  P2 be on a beam balance scale? (Ans. 24.5 kg)
8.2lb  lb  1 ft 3.2
3
 0.93 62.4 3    h  2.13 (3) in
Someone proposes a new absolute temperature scale
5.32in
2
 
ft 12in
h  1.1615in which the boiling and freezing points of water at
atmospheric pressure are 500°X and 100°X, respectively.
1.10 For the situation sketched above, the following Develop a relation to convert this scale to degree Celsius.
information is known :
density of water 1000 kg/m3 (4) A vertical column of water will be supported to what
density of mercury 13590.0 kg/m3 height by standard atmospheric pressure?
pressure at point I 500 kPa
local gravity 9.8 (5) A diver descends 100 m to a sunken ship. A
m/s2 Determine the pressure at point II container is found with a pressure gage reading 100 kPa
(gage). Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the
absolute pressure of the gas in the container?
(Ans. 1180.66 kPaa)

(6) Containers A, B and C contains three different liquids

with specific gravities of 1.2, 1.6 and 2.0 respectively. If the
liquids in containers A and B are mixed, the resulting
specific gravity is
1.36. When liquids in containers B and C are mixed the
resulting specific gravity is 1.8. Mixing liquids in
containers A and C result to a specific gravity of 1.52.
Determine the resulting specific gravity when the three
liquids in the containers A, B and C are mixed together.
Solution :
(7) The readings tA & tB of two centigrade thermometer A
& B agree at the ice point (0C) and steam point (100C)
and are
related by a equation tA = l + mtB + ntB2 between these two
PII
 wate  0.5m  wate  points, where l, m, n are constant. When both are immersed
2m
0.4m
r r
Hg
500kPa in

PII 
  gg  500kPa
o
a well stirred oil bath, thermometer A registers 51C while B
0.4m
water water
0.5mHg 2m
c
 m registers 50C. Determine the reading on the thermometer A
9.8
 kg 
2


kg   s  1kN  when B reads 25C. (Ans.25.75°C)
 
PII  2.4m1000   
  
 0.5m13590
 m 3   kg  m  1000 N 
  m3   2
 s N 
 500k Pa (8) A beer barrel has a mass of 10 kg and a volume of
PII  456.929kPa 20 liters. Assuming the density of beer is 1000kg/m3,
determine
the total mass and weight of the barrel when it is filled 75cm2. The spring exerts a downward force of 100 N on the
with beer. (Ans.294N) piston, and atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. Determine the
pressure of the gas. (126.4 kPa)
(9) A certain thermometer is calibrated using ice and
steam points as fixed points designating them as being
temperature 0C & 100C respectively, then the
thermodynamic function chosen to establish the scale
is t
= alnx + b; instead of the line scale t=ax+b. (a)
Determine the constant a & b and (b) Developed a
relation to express t = f (x,xi,xs).

(10) If the total length of the tube containing mercury

is 1.5m, what should be the value of height x so that
the difference in pressure between points 1 and 2 is
78.743kPag? Assume the following specific gravity: for
water=1.0, mercury=13.59 and oil = 0.80. (Ans. 0.5 m)

(11) Find the area of the piston on which the 45 kN

force act.

(12) The vertical frictionless piston-cylinder shown below

contains a gas at an unknown pressure. The piston
has a mass of 10 kg and a cross-sectional area of

(13) A pressure cooker operates by cooking food at
a higher pressure and temperature that is possible at
atmospheric conditions. Steam is contained in the
sealed pot, with a small vent hole in the middle of the
cover, allowing steam to escape. The pressure is
regulated by covering the vent hole with a small
weight, which is displaced slightly by the escaping
steam. Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, the vent hole
area is 7 mm2, and the pressure inside should be 250
kPa. What is the mass of the weight? (Ans.
0.107kg)
(14) Steam is held in two compartments (A and B)
separated by a membrane. The total volume is 777
ft3, and the volume of compartment B is 280 ft3. The
specific volume of the steam in B is 9.5 ft3/lbm. The
membrane breaks, and the resulting specific volume is
12.75 ft3/min. Determine the original specific volume in
that of the centigrade reading. What is the temperature
of the fluid in Rankine and Kelvin scale? (Ans. 433)
(19) A 3 kg plastic tank has a volume of 0.2m3 is filled
with liquid water. Assuming the density of water is
1000kg/m3. Determine the weight of the combined
system.
(20) What is the net force acting on the car cruising at
constant velocity of 70 km/hr (a) on a level road and
(b) on an uphill road?
(21) Determine the mass and weight of air contained
in a room whose dimensions are 6m x 6m x 8m.
Assume the density of air is 1.16kg/m3. (Ans. 334.1
kg, 3277N)
compartment A.
(15) A tank has a vacuum gage attached to it indicating
25 in Hg (vacuum) where atmospheric pressure is 14.5
psia. Determine the tank. (Ans. 2.22 psia)
(16) A hiker is carrying a barometer that measures
29.92inHg absolute at the base of the mountain. The
barometer reads 25.5inHg absolute at the top of the
mountain. The average air density is 0.076 lbm/ft3, the
gravitational acceleration remains constant at 32.174 ft /s2.
What is the mountain’s height? (Ans. 4114.6 ft)
(17) An inhabitant of another planet weighs 50 lb on a
spring type of scale in the planet atmosphere, where the
local gravity acceleration is g = 6.0 fps 2. This inhabitant
appears in St. Michael, Alaska, where the local gravity
acceleration is g=32.22 fps2. For this outer-space being,
determine (a) his mass in lb in slugs on his native planet,
(b) his mass in lb and slugs on earth
(c) his weight as indicated by a spring type scale on earth.
(Ans. a. 268lb, b. 8.33 slugs, c. 268.4 lb)
(18) A Fahrenheit and a centigrade thermometer are
both immersed in a fluid. The Fahrenheit numerical reading
is twice
(22) A manometer containing water (density = 62.1 lb/ft3) and
mercury (specific gravity = 13.55) connects two pressure
regions A and B as shown in the figure. The local gravity
acceleration is g = 32 fps2. If the pressure at point B is 50
psig, find the pressure in A.
(23) At 24° latitude, the gravitational acceleration as a
function of elevation z above sea level is given by g=a-bz,
where a=9.807 m/s2 and b=3.32x10-6 s-2. Determine the
height above sea where the weight of an object will
decrease by 1 percent. (Ans. 29,539m)
(24) A 150 lbm astronaut took his bathroom scale (a spring
scale) and a beam scale (compares masses) to the moon
where the local gravity is g=5.48 ft/s2. Determine how much he
will weigh (a) on the spring scale and (b) on the beam
scale. (Ans. 25.5 lb, 150 lb)
(25) The acceleration of high-speed aircraft is sometimes
expressed in g’s (in multiples of the standard acceleration of
gravity). Determine the net upward force, in N that a 90 kg
man would experience in an aircraft whose
acceleration is 6 g’s.
(26) Consider a 70 kg woman who has a total foot
imprint area of 400cm2. She wishes to walk in the
snow, but the snow cannot withstand pressure greater
than 0.5 kPa. Determine the minimum size of the snow
shoes needed (imprint area per shoe) to enable her
to walk on the snow without sinking.
(27) The gage pressure in a liquid at a depth of 3m
is read to be 28 kPa. Determine the gage pressure in
the same liquid at depth of 12m.
(28) The absolute temperature in water at a depth of
5m is read to be 145 kPa. Determine (a) the local
atmospheric pressure, and (b) the absolute pressure
at a depth of 5m in a liquid whose specific gravity is
0.85 at the same location.
(29) A vacuum gage connected to a tank reads 30
kPa at a location where the barometric reading is 755
mmHg. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank.
Take ρHg=13,590kg/m3. (Ans. 70.6 kPa)
(30) A pressure gage connected to a tank reads 50
psi at a location where the barometric reading is 29.1
force of 60 N on the piston. If the atmospheric pressure is
95 kPa, determine the pressure inside the cylinder.
(36) A cubic meter of water at room temperature has a
weight of 9800 N at a location where g=9.8m/s2. What
is its specific weight and its density at a location where
g=9.77m/s2?
(37) The acceleration of gravity is given as a function
of elevation above sea level by the relation g=9.81-
3.32x10-6h, with h measured in meters. What is the
weight of an airplane at 10km elevation when its weight at
sea level is 40 kN? (Ans. 39.86kN)
(38) The force of attraction between two masses m1 and
inHg. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. Take
ρHg=848.4 lb/ft3. (Ans. 64.29 psi)
(31) The barometer of a mountain
hiker reads 930 mbars at the beginning of a hiking trip and
780 mbars at the end. Neglecting the effect of altitude on
the local gravitational acceleration, determine the vertical
distance climbed. Assume an average air density of 1.20
kg/m3. (Ans. 1274m)
(32) Determine the pressure exerted on a diver at 30m
below the free surface of the sea. Assume a barometric
pressure of 101 kPa and a specific gravity of 1.03 for
seawater. (Ans.
404.0 KPa)
(33) Determine the force necessary to accelerate a mass of
20 lbm at a rate of 60 ft/s2 vertically upward. (Ans.53.3 lbf)
(34) The weight of a10 lb mass is measured at a location
where g=32.1 ft/s2 on a spring scale originally calibrated in
a region where g=32.3 ft/s2. What will be the reading?
(35) A gas is contained in a vertical, frictionless piston
cylinder device. The piston has a mass of 4 kg and a
cross sectional area of 35 cm2. A compresses spring above
the piston exerts a
m2, having dimensions that are small compared with their
separation distance R, is given by Newton’s third law,
F=Gm1m2/R2, where G=6.67259x10-11 N-m2/kg2. What is
the total gravitational force that the sun (1.97x1030 kg) and the
earth (5.95x1024 kg) exert on the moon (7.37x1022 kg) at an
instant when the earth, moon, and sun form a 90° angle? The
earth-moon and sun-moon distances are 380x10 3 km and)
150x106 km, respectively
(39) A bell jar 250mm in diameter sits on a plate and is
evacuated until a vacuum of 700mmHg exits. The local
barometer reads 760mmHg. Find the absolute pressure
inside the jar, and determine the force required to lift the jar
off the plate. Neglect the weight of the bell jar. (Ans.
8005 Pa, 4584 N)
(40)Assume the acceleration of gravity on a celestial body to
be given as a function of altitude by the expression g=4-
1.6x10 – 6h m/s2, where h is in meters above the surface of
the planet. A space probe weighed 100 kN on the earth sea
level. Determine (a) the mass of the probe. (b) Its weight
on the surface of the planet (c) Its weight at an elevation
of 200 km above the surface of the planet. (Ans.
10197.2141 kg, 40.79 kN, 37.53 kN)
(41) A 20 ft3 tank of air separated by a membrane
into section A with an initial specific volume of
0.80ft3/lbm and section B with a mass of 12.0 lbm. The
membrane is broken, and the resulting density is
1.350lbm/ft3. Find the initial specific volume in section
B. in ft3/lbm. (Ans. 0.667)
(42) A horizontal 2m diameter gate is located in the
bottom of a water tank. Determine the force required to
just open the gate.
5m F (46)A submarine is cruising at a depth of 280 m in
Hinge
(43) A vertical storage tank initially contains water
(ρ=1000kg/m3) at a depth of 4m. Immiscible oil with a
specific gravity of 0.88 is added until the total liquid
height is 10m. If the barometer pressure is 97.2kPa
and g=9.80m/s2, determine the absolute pressure at
the bottom of the water, in kPa and bars. (Ans.
188.1, 1.88)
(48) A constant volume gas thermometer is brought
into contact with a system of unknown temperature T
and then into contact with the triple state of water. The
mercury column attached to the thermometer has
readings of 14.6 and -2.6 in, respectively. The barometer
pressure is 29.80 in Hg, and the specific gravity of
mercury is 13.6. Find the value of the unknown
temperature in degrees Rankine.
(49) The average atmospheric pressure on earth is
approximated as a function of altitude by the relation
Pat  101.325 1
0.02256z 
m 5.256
where Patm is the atmospheric pressure in kPa and z
is the altitude in km with z=0 at sea level. Determine
(44) The gage pressure of a gas inside a tank is 25kPa.
Determine the vertical height, in meters, of liquid within a
manometer attached to the system if the fluid at room
temperature is (a) water, (b) mercury (ρ=13,600kg/m3), and
(c) an oil with a specific gravity of 0.88 and g=9.75 m/s2.
(45) A pilot notices that the barometer pressure outside
his aircraft is 800 mbars. The airport below the plane
reports a barometric pressure of 1020 mbar. If the air density
averages
1.15 kg/m3 and the local gravity is 9.70 m/s2, determine
the height of the aircraft above the ground, in meters.
(Ans. 128, 188)
seawater with a specific gravity of 1.03. If the inside of the
submarine is pressurized to standard atmospheric,
determine the pressure difference across the hull in (a) kPa,
(b) bars. The average local gravity is 9.70m/s2. (2700, 28)
(47) If the atmosphere is assumed to be isothermal at 60°F
and follows the relationship Pv=RT (an ideal gas),
compute the pressure, in psia, and density, in lbm/ft3, at
(a) 5000ft and (b) 2000 ft above sea level. The pressure
and density at sea level are taken to be 14.7psia and
0.077lbm/ft3, respectively.
where Tatm is the temperature of the atmosphere in Kelvin and
z is the altitude in kilometer with z = 0 at sea level.
Determine the average temperature of the atmosphere
outside an airplane that is cruising at an altitude of 11,000
m.
(52) Two liquid streams are pouring in a container, 8 in.
diameter and 15in. high. The mass flow rate of stream A
is 1.2 lb/sec and the volume flow rate of B is 0.035 ft3/s. If
the specific gravities of A and B are 1.1 and 0.9,
respectively, in how many seconds will the container be
filled? What is the gage and
absolute pressure at the bottom of the filled tank in psia.
(Ans.
8.31s, 15.22 psia)
the approximate atmospheric pressure at Atlanta ( z = 306m ).
At what height above the sea level will the barometer read
14 psia?
(50)A pressure cooker cooks a lot faster than an ordinary
pan by maintaining a higher pressure and temperature
inside. The lid of a pressure cooker is well sealed, and
steam can escape only through an opening in the middle of the
lid. A separate piece of certain mass, the petcock, sits
on top of this opening and prevents steam from
escaping until the pressure force overcomes the
weight of the petcock. The periodic escape of the
steam in this manner prevents any potentially dangerous
pressure buildup and keeps the pressure inside at a
constant value. Determine the height (H) and diameter
(D) of the petcock of a pressure cooker whose operating
pressure is 105 kPa gage and has an opening cross-
sectional area of 4.5 mm2 (steam opening for pressure
relief). Assume an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa and
the density of the metal used is 4625 kg/m3.
(51) The average temperature of the atmosphere in
the world is approximated as a function of altitude by
the relation
Tatm  288.15  6.5z
neglected. Determine the acceleration of the mass if
the external vertical force is (a) downward, (b) upward
in ft/s2. (Ans. 67.9, 5.65)
(58)An 9-m3 tank of nitrogen is separated by a
membrane into two sections. Section A has an initial
density of 1.667 kg/m3 and section B has a mass of 6
kg. After the membrane is broken, the density is found to
be 1.778kg/m3. Find the initial density of the gas in
section B in kg/m3. (Ans. 0.667)
(53)Assume the acceleration of gravity on a celestial
body to be given as a function of altitude by the expression
g=4-1.6x10
– 6h m/s2, where h is in meters above the surface of the
planet. A space probe weighed 100 kN on the earth sea
level. Determine (a) the mass of the probe. (b) Its weight
on the surface of the planet (c) Its weight at an elevation
of 200 km above the surface of the planet. (Ans.
10197.2141 kg, 40.79 kN, 37.53 kN
(54) A bell jar 250mm in diameter sits on a plate and is
evacuated until a vacuum of 700mmHg exists. The local
barometer reads 760mmHg. Find the absolute pressure
inside the jar, and determine the force required to lift the
jar off the plate. Neglect the weight of the bell jar. (Ans.
8005 Pa, 4584 N)
(55) The resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor
can be described by an equation of the form R=Ke/t
where R is the resistance at temperature t, with K, and 
being constant. Test results from calibration are:
Trials Resistance in kΩ Temperature in
°C
1 210 27
3 90 39
Approximate (a) the temperature when the resistance is
190Ω.
(b) the resistance of the thermistor at 40°C. (Ans. a.
28.02°C and b. 85.81)
(56) A small experimental rocket which has a mass of 70
kg is accelerated at a rate of 6.0 m/s2. What total force is
required, in Newton, is (a) the rocket is moving horizontally
and without friction and (b) the rocket is moving vertically
upward and without friction at a location where local
gravity is 9.45 m/s2. (Ans. 420, 1082)
(57)A 7 lbm piece of steel is subjected to a vertical force
of 8 lbf. The local gravity is 31.1 ft/s2, and frictional effects
are
(59)A vertical piston-cylinder device has a piston diameter of
11 cm and piston mass of 40 kg. the atmospheric pressure
is 0.10Mpa and the local gravity is 9.79 m/s 2. Determine the
absolute pressure of the gas within the device.
(60) A vertical storage tank initially contains water (density =
1000kg/m3) at a depth of 4 m. immiscible oil with a specific
gravity of 0.88 is added until the total height is 10 m. If the
barometric pressure is 97.2 kPa and local gravity is 9.80
m/s2, determine the absolute pressure at the bottom of entries of 2.667 (at 150°F) and 3.819 (at 200°F). Assume a
the water, in kPa and bars. (Ans. 188.1, 1.88)
linear relation between the two.

(61)Convert a chromel-alumel thermocouple

(62) Determine the pressure at point A for the inclined
measurement of 3.100 millivolts (mV) to degress
manometer shown in the figure below.
Celsius. For a chromel- alumel type K thermocouple,
3.100 mV is between the
Open to atmosphere

Air A
Reservoir

5"
B
Mercury (SG=13.59)

30°

(63)Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave

as a single mixture. These data apply at the entrance
sections: For one gas, A1 = 70 in2, v1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10
ft3/lb; for the other gas, A2 = 60 in2, ρ2 = 0.120 lb/ft3 and a
mass flow rate of 60,000 pounds per hour. At the exit, v3 =
350 fps, v3 = 7 ft3/lb. Find (a) the velocity at section 2 (b)
the flow rate, area at the exit section.