2) Closed system: A Closed system is a system in which the transferof energy

1. INTRODUCTION takes place across its boundary with the surrounding, but no transfer of mass
takes place. A closed system is a fixed mass system. The fluid like air or gas
Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships among heat, work, being compressed in the piston and cylinder arrangement is an example of the
temperature, density and energy. Any physical system will spontaneously closed system. In this case the mass of the gas remains constant but it can get
approach an equilibriumthat can be described by specifying its properties. heated or cooled.
Thermodynamics focuses largely on how a heat transfer is related to various
energy changes withina physical system undergoinga thermodynamicprocess.
Such processes usually resultin work being done by the system and are guided
by the laws of thermodynamics.
Gas
Thermodynamicscomes from the Greek words, Therme, means "heat", and
Dynamis, meaning "work". Literally, thermodynamics means heat and work.

There are three principal laws of thermodynamics. Each law leads to the Boundary
definitionof thermodynamicpropertieswhich help us to understand and predict
the operationof a physical system. Thermodynamics also involves with energy Figure 1.3. Closed system (Piston-cylinder)
transformationsuch as conversion•of heat into work, chemical energy to
electrical energy, or of mechanical energy to electrical energy.
3) Isolated system: An Isolated system is a system in which neitherthetransfer
of mass nor that of energy takes place across its boundary with the surroundings.
2. THERMODYNAMICSYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUME While they may be portions of larger systems, they do not communicatewiththe
outside in any way. For example if the piston and cylinder arrangementin which
A Thermodynamicsystem is a certain quantity of matter or the space which is the gas is being compressed or expanded is insulated it becomes isolated
underthermodynamicstudy or analysis. The imaginary outer edge of the system system. There will neither transfer of mass nor that of energy.
is called its boundary. Examples of system are engine,. refrigerator, air-
conditioner,washing machine, heat exchange, a condenser, etC> Control Volume. Control volume is defined as a fixed region in space where
one studies the masses and energies crossing the boundaries of the region and
t out very useful in analyzing fluid flow problems. Control volume is another method of
approach which focused on the observation of flow. The boundaryof a control
Surroundings volume for fluid flowis usually taken as the physical boundary of the part through
which the flow is occurring. The control volume concept is used in fluid dynamics
ap'plications,utilizing the continuity, momentum, and energy principles. Once the
ermodynamic Gas
System control volume and its koundary are established, the various forms of energy
crossing the boundary with the fluid can be dealt with in equation form to solve
the fluid problem. We perform a balance of mass, momentumand energy that
System
Boundary flow across the boundary and deduce the changes that could take place to
Boundary properties of flow within the control volume.
In
Figure 1.1. ThermodynamicSystem Figure 1.2. Open system (Piston-
cylinder)

There are three main types of system: open system, closed system and isolated
system. Control e

1) Open system: An Open system is a system in which the

transfer of mass as
well as energy can take place across its boundary.
One example of an open Control
system is an engine. In this case we provide fuel to engine surface
and it produces power
which is given out, thus there is exchange of mass as well Figure 1.4. Control Volume
as energy. The engine
also emits heat which is exchanged with the surroundings.
 Adiabatic System. In an adiabatic system, mass can cross the controlsurface,
but energy in the form of heat is not allowed to across the control surface of the
system. This is a special case of an open system. Energy in otherforms can
enter and leave the system. Examples Of adiabatic systems are insulated
turbines, throttle valves, water pumps, water turbines, insulated heat exchangers.
3. MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC DESCRIPTION
Microscopic and Macroscopic are terms used to describe size. Macro means
"big" and Micro means "small". Microscopic is a term used for an object which
can only be seen under a microscope. Macroscopic is a term which is used for
objects which can be seen with the naked eye. The microscopic description of a
system is the complete description of each particle in the system.
The macroscopic description, which is in terms of a few properties is thus far
more accessible and useable for engineering applications. The measurement of
distance in meters and time in seconds are examples of macroscopic. The
microscopic point of view will be used only to explain some phenomena that
cannot be understoodby classical means.
4. HOMOGENEOUSSYSTEM AND HETEROGENEOUS
SYSTEM
Homogeneous System is a system that consists of a single physical phase,
either solid, liquid or gas phase only. It is treated as one constituent for its
analysis. Examples are ice, water and steam (three distinct phases of water),
sugar or salt dissolved in water, air, oxygen gas and nitrogen gas.
Heterogeneous System is a system consists of a mixture of two or more than
two phases of matter. Since each constituent present in the system has its own
propertiesindependentof each other, the system cannqt be analysed as a single
constituent,for examples, mixtureof ice and water; mixture of water and steam;
dal, rice and water in a pressure cooker, etc,
5. PROPERTIES AND STATE OF A SYSTEM
Property. Property is a characteristic which can be quantitatively evaluated or a
characteristic quality of the system which depends on the final system state.
Pressure, temperature,velocity, energy, etc. are all properties. Things that are
done, like work or heat flow, are not properties.
Thermodynamic properties are divided into two general classes, intensive and
extensive properties.
a). An intensive property is the propertythatdoes not on the mass of
the system or is any property that exist at a point independ
space. Temperature,
pressure, specific volume, and density are examples of intensive
b). An extensive property is any propertythat depends on properties.
the size of the
system. The value of an extensive propertyvaries directlywiththe mass. Mass,
volume and specific volume are examples of extensive properties.
State. The state of an object is its conditiondescribedor measuredby a list Of
properties. For example, temperatureand pressure may describe the state of a
gas. When a gas expands in the cylinder, the piston moves outward,the
propertiesof a system change and the system reaches to the new state 2. It is
called a change of state.
6. PATH AND PROCESS
Path is a locus of series of states throughwhich a system passes betweeninitial
and final states. A series of states in which a system passes during a process is
called the path of the process.
Process is the transformationof a thermodynamicsystem from one
thermodynamic state to another.
Classification of Processes:
1. Non-flow process - a process undergone by a fluid in a closed system.
2. Flow process - a process undergone by a fluid in open system.
3. Quasi-static process - when a process proceeds in such a manner that the
system remains almost infinitesimally close to equilibriumstate at all times.
4. Reversible process - when a process can be reversedto restorethe system
to initialsconditions without leaving any effect on the surroundings. It passes
througha series of equilibrium states.
5. Irreversible process is a process which cannot be reversed by the same
path, and follows in one direction only. It passes through a series of non
equilibriumstates,
6. Adiabatic process - when a system does not experience any heat exchange
betweenthe system and its surroundingswhileenclosed by an ideal insulator.
Types of Processes:
(The Prefix iso- is Often used to designate a type of process for which a particular
propertyremains constant.)
the temperatureremains constant during the
Isothermal Process
process.
 2. Isobaric Process - the pressure remains constant during the process. 10. DIMENSIONS OF UNITS
3. Isochoric (Isometric) Process - the volume remains constant during the There are two widely used systems of units:
process. I). InternationalSystem, S.l. units
2). English System
4. Isentropic Process - the entropyremains constant during the process.
Base Units for Length, Time, Mass and Force:
5. Isenthalpic Process - the enthalpy remains constant during the process.
Unit S.l. En lish
Len th meter m foot ft
7. CYCLE Time second s second s
Mass kilo ram k slu slu
A thermodynamiccycle is a series of processes that begins and ends at the Force newton N ound 1b
same state or a system that undergoes a series of processes in such a way that
its initial and final states are identical. The force unit is derived using Newton's 2 ndLaw:

m = 1 kg
8. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC PROPERTIES F = ma = Ikg 1—
2
m/s

Intrinsic Properties are the basic properties, and cannot be defined terms of The mass unit is derived using Newton's 2ndLaw:
other properties.Their values can be assigned independently for example,
length, mass, time, area volume, pressure, temperature, electric current, etc. F 11b
1 lbs 2/ft
Extrinsic Properties are the properties whose values cannot be assigned
independently.These are characteristics of the motion or position of a system
and are measured in reference to certain datum such as velocity, acceleration, L = 1 slug = 32.174 lbm
potentialenergy, kinetic energy, enthalpy, entropy, etc.
Units in the English System:
9. THERMODYNAMICEQUILIBRIUM AND PROCESSES Quantit Unit
Len th
Thermodynamic equilibrium is a condition or state of a thermodynamic system,
the propertiesof which do not change with time and that can be changed to Mass Lbm
another condition only at the expense of effects on other systems. For a Time Sec
thermodynamicequilibriumsystem with given energy, the entropy is greater than Force Lbf
that of any otherstate with the same energy. For attaining a state of equilibrium, Tem erature
the three types of equilibrium must be attained. Acceleration ft/sec
Area
For example,if the gas that comprises a system is in (1) thermal equilibrium, Densi lbm/ft
the temperaturewill be the same throughoutthe entire system, (2) mechanical Ener ft-lbf
equilibrium, the pressure will be the same at all points and does not change with Power ft-lbf/sec
time, (3) chemical equilibrium, the chemical composition will be the same Pressure lbf/in si
throughout the system. Volume ft
 S.l. Units Specific Weight. Specific Weight of a substance is a substance weight per unit
volume. The specific weight for water at 4 0C (39 0F) is 9.81 kN/m3 (62.4 lb/ft3).
Quanti Unit
Len th Meter m eight
Kilo ram k Specific Weight, 0) = kN/m3
Mass Volunv
Time Second s
Force Newton N specific Gravity (Relative Density). Specific gravity of a liquid is a
Tem erature dimensionless unit and is the ratio of density of the liquid to the density of water
Acceleration m/s at a specified temperature. The density of water commonlyused is 1000 kg/m
3
Area m or 62.4 lb/ft
Densi k 1m
Ener Density of Liquid
Power J/s Specific Gravity of a liquid
N/m pa Density of Water
Pressure
Volume m
An ular acceleration rad/s Specific Gravity (Relative Density). Specific gravity of a gas is ä
rad/s dimensionless unit and is the ratio of density of air to the density of water at0a
An ular veloci
JFK specified temperatureand pressure. The density of air commonly used at 20 C
Entro 3
IIS Hz and 1 atm (101.325 kPa) is 1.205 kg/m
Fre uenc
Heat N-mJ
Stress N/m Pa Densityof a Gas
Specific Gravity of a Gas
Thermal conductivi W/m-0K Densityof Air
Veloci m/s
D namic viscosi Pa-s Example 1.1
Kinematic viscosi m Is
a
Work N-mJ A cylindrical vessel is 60 cm in diameterand 80 cm high. It contains 5 kg of
S ecific heat gas. The pressure measured with manometerindicates 650 mm of Hg above
atmosphere when barometerreads 760 mm of Hg. Find
(a) The absolute pressure of the gas in the vessel in bar.
11. DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND SPECIFIC WEIGHT (b) Specific volume and density of the gas.

Density. Density is a substance mass per unit volume. The higher the density, Solution.
the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density can help 3
identifya substance and is a physical property constant at a given temperature. Volume of the vessel = —d x (0.80) = 0.2261 m
4 4

Mass
Density, p - kg/m3 = 1410 mm of Hg
(a) Total pressure in the vessel = 760 + 650 2
Volune = 1410x 133.4 = 1.8809 x 105 N/m
= 1.8809bar (ans)
Specific Volume.Specific volume of a substance is 2
divided the substance volume (1 bar = 105 N/m )
by its mass. Specific volume is the reciprocal
substance. of the density of the
0.2261= 0.04522 m3/kg (ans)
(b) Specific volume = 5
Specific Volume, v Volune 1
mg/kg
Mass
Density =
5
— 22.11 kg/m3 (ans)
0.2261
 12. TEMPERATURE The relation between a temperaturedifference on Celcius scale and Fahrenheit
scale is:
the warmth or coldness of a
Temperature. Temperatureis a measure ofvalue. The temperature of a
standard
substance with reference to some 9
energy. The instruments for or A OF = -A OC
substance is proportionalto the stored molecular as thermometers and for -9 5
measuring ordinary temperatures are knownpyrometers.
measuring high temperatures are known as The fixed points for these temperaturescales are:
temperatures are Celcius and
The two commonly used scales in measuring respectively used to denote the Temperature Celsius Scale FahrenheitScale
Fahrenheit scales. The symbols oc and OF are Boiling Point of water 100 212
were based on the boiling
readings on these two scales. The temperaturescales Freezing Point of water • 32
freezing point of water.
pointof water at standard atmosphericpressure and the Difference 100 180
The Celsius scale has 100 units betweenthese points, and the Fahrenheit scale
has 180 units. The zero points on the scales are uncertain. The freezing point of
water was selected as the zero point of the Celsius scale. The coldest Absolute Temperature. Absolute temperature is the temperaturemeasured
temperatureachievable with a mixtureof ice and salt water was selected as the using a scale beginning at zero, with that zero being the coldest theoretically
zero pointof the Fahrenheitscale. The temperatureat which water boils was set attainable temperature in nature. It is also commonly defined that an absolute
at 100 on the Celsius scale and 212 on the Fahrenheit scale. temperature scale is a temperaturescale having only positive values.

Temperaturesexpressedby the Fahrenheitscale can be convened to CeJcius There are two common absolute temperature scales derived from the
scale using the equation: Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius (or Centigrade scale) namely: the Rankine
5 scale, and the Kelvin scale. The absolute temperature scale that corresponds to
-9 ( OF -32) the Celsius scale is called the Kelvin (K) scale, and the absolute scale that
corresponds to the Fahrenheit scale is called the Rankine (R) scale.
Temperaturesexpressed by the Celcius scale can be converted to the The relationships between the absolute and relative temperature scales are:
Fahrenheit scale using the equation:
9
= o c + .32
5
The relation between a temperaturedifferenceon Kelvin and Rankine scales are:
0K OF OR

100 373 212 6/2

Triple Point - It is a state of equilibrium,where all three phases (solid, liquid
and gas) of a substance coexist simultaneously. The triple point of water is
32 0
0.01 C (271.16K).

of
Boiling Point - it is a state of equilibrium,where liquid and gaseous phases a
substance coexist simultaneously.
of a
Melting Point - it is a state of equilibrium,where solid and liquid phases
substance coexist simultaneously.

-2/3 -460

Figure 1.5. Comparison of

Temperature Scales
 Example 1.2
o
The temperature of a substance is 800F.' Find its temperaturein c, K, and Gauge
Pressure (Pgage)
Solution:

— (80-32) = 26.60C (ans) Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)

5
(101.325 kPa, 14.7 psi, 760 mm Hg) Absolute
9
Pressure (Pabs)
Negative Gauge
n = 26.6 + 273 = 299.6K (ans) Pressure (Pvacuum
TR = 80 + 460 = 5å00R (ans) Absolute
Pressure (Pabs)
13. PRESSURE Absolute zero (-101.325 kPag, -14.7 psig)
Pressure. Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The Sl unit for pressure is Figure 1.6. Pressure Relations
the Pascal (Pa), which is a Newton per square meter (N/m2). Pressure is
measured in any unit of force divided by any unit of area. A pressure of 1 Pa is
small; it approximately equals the pressure exerted by a dollar bill resting flat on Example 1.3
a table. Everyday pressures are often stated in kilopasca's (1 kPa = 1000 Pa).
Convert a pressure gage reading of 50 psi in absolute pascals. Assume
When pressure is measured relativeto atmosphericpressure (101.325 kpa or atmospheric pressure equal to 101.325 kPa.
14.7 psi), it is called gauge pressure (psig) and when pressure is measured
relative to a perfect vacuum, it is called absolute pressure (kpaa or psia) The Solution:
latter pressure scale was developed because almost all pressure gauges register
zero when open to the atmosphere. Therefore, pressure gauges measure the
lbf 101.325 kPa
difference between the pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and that 50— = 344.64 kPa gage
of the surrounding air. in 14.7lbf/in2
If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, it is designated as a vacuum.
P = 344.64 + 101.325= 445.96kPa abs (ans)
A perfect vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure. Gauge pressures
are positive if they are above atmospheric pressure and negative if they are
below atmospheric pressure.
Example 1.4
Figure 1.6 shows the relationships between absolute, gauge,
atmospheric pressures. Atmospheric pressure is the force per
vacuum, and The pressure at a given pointis 60 mm Hg absolute. Find the pressure in kPa,
exerted against a surface by the weight of the air above unit area kPa gage, and m of H20 abs if Patm= 100 kPa. Note: Mercury is 13.6 times
that surface. Pressure heavier than water.
atmospheric is also called the barometric pressure.
Values of 1 Pressure
atmosphericare 101.325kPa, 1.033 kg/cm2, 29.92 in Hg,
psia.
760 mm Hg or 14.7 Solution:

The pressure in kPa is:

au e ressure+
pabs = pgage+ p
kPaa = kPag + 101.325
psia = Psig + 14.7
s en ressu
P = = 8004.96 Pa or 8 kPa (ans)
The gage pressure is
p gage Pabs — P atm 100= - 92 kPa gage (ans)
The negative gage pressure indicates that this is a vacuum.

The pressure in meters of water is:

P 80049= 0.816 m of 1-120(ans)

9810