Chapter III Vertical

CHAPTER III
Basic Survey Measurements

Vertical Distance Measurement
Tewodros N.
www.tnigatu.wordpress.com
tedynihe@gmail.com
Introduction
• Leveling is the operation performed in surveying to
determine and establish elevations of points, to
determine differences in elevation between points and
for control in construction works.
• Applications – longitudinal sections, cross-sections of
highways, railways, canals, sewer lines, pipelines,
catchment area, volume of reservoir, area of
impoundment in dams, earth work quantities for
various projects, contouring, setting out, etc.
Definition of terms
• A mean sea level at a location is obtained by averaging the height of
the surface of the sea for all stages of tides for a long period (usually
19yrs). It is used as a reference datum.
• The elevation of a particular point is the vertical distance above or
below a reference datum.
• A level surface is a surface of constant elevation that is perpendicular
to the plumb line (vertical line) at every point. It is best represented by
the surface of a still body of a sea or an ocean if it were unaffected by
tides.
• A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are at
equal elevation. Every element of the level line is perpendicular to the
plumb line.
• A horizontal line is tangential to the level line at one point. For short
distances the level line and the horizontal line are assumed to be the
same.
Definition of terms
• Difference in elevation between two points is the vertical
distance between the level surfaces in which the points lie.
• Benchmark (BM) is a fixed point of known elevation above
the datum. It is set as a survey marker in order to provide a
starting point for the determination of the elevation of other
points. A permanent object is used as a marker.
• Reduced level (RL) of a point is its height with respect to a
datum. The term elevation or altitude is synonymously
used depending on the datum use.
• Tempering benchmark (TBM) is any mark fixed by the
observer for reference purposes.
Equipment
• Level Instrument
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Change plate (German: Frog/Frosch)
• Pole staff bubble (bull eye)
• Marker
Equipment: Level Instrument
• Automated Levels
– Easy to use (not power!)
– Needs experience
– Robust even in hostile environment
• Digital Levels
– Push-button technique
– No reading errors, special staff
– Readings are stored and analyzed digitally
Automated Levels (Compensator)

Pendulum
Bull Eye
Tribrach
Digital Levels
• Uses Barcode staffs

• Internal storage of data
– Download to the computer
– Automated height computation + adjustment
– No feeling for quality anymore
– You frequently need power plugs
Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker
Equipment: Tripod
• Wooden design or aluminum
– From “easy to sit” to “ops, this is high”
Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker
Equipment: Staff/Pole
• Wood, aluminum
• INVAR type for high precision leveling
Conventional (“E”-type) Barcode

for Digital Levels
Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker
Equipment: Change Plate
• For long survey lines
• Allows change of instruments
– Best is a metal change plate
– Screws e.g. at fences
– Sharp stones or nails
• Beware of dark colors
It’s not the Indonesian-

German Dictionary, It’s
the nail!
Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker
Equipment: Bubble
• Keep the pole upright

– Any tilt will disturb your readings
Equipment
• Tripod
• Staff/Pole
• Marker
Survey Markers
• Gives you a fixed point
– Should be of good quality
– Should be long-term
– Preferable in bedrock, settled buildings, or bridges
– Do not use fences or walls
Basic Principle of Leveling
• Measures height differences between points
– Along a line
– Several points from one occupation
Leveling rods
Line of sight
Back sight Fore sight
fs
bs
Dh = bs - fs
Gravity Gradient
Definitions
• Back sight (BS)
– The first reading from a new instrument stand point (i.e.
take the height to the instrument)
• Fore sight (FS)
– The last reading from the current instrument station (i.e.
give the height to a benchmark)
• Intermediate sight (IS)
– Any sighting that is not a back sight or fore sight
• Read the [m], [dm] & [cm]
• Estimate the [mm]
Reading a Staff 1422
• Check yourself for frequent used

numbers (2/3) or (7/8)
Basic Rules for Leveling

• Always start and finish a leveling run on a Benchmark (BM
or TGBM) and close the loops
• Keep fore sight and back sight distances as equal as
possible
• Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m)
• Never read below 0.5m on a staff (refraction)
• Use stable, well defined change points
• Beware of shadowing effects and crossing waters
Differential Leveling
is a type of spirit leveling which requires a series of

instrument set ups to determine the elevations of
points some distance apart. The operation is useful
in profiles, cross sectioning, contouring and other
types of leveling operation.
Differential Levelling
Leveling
• To collect data about topography along a reference
line.
• Mainly to compute volumes of cut and fill for a
proposed linear structure, such as: highways,
railroads, transmission lines, canals. Then the
best route can be chosen.
• The result: elevations at definite points (stations)
along a reference line, usually the center line.
Staking and Stationing the Reference Line

• First, topography is studied, a center line is chosen.
• Second, points (stations) are marked (staked). Stations are
set at starting and ending points, then intermediate stations.
• Distance between the intermediate stations is usually 100m,
could be less if topography is rough.
• Stationing: a system adopted to specify the relative positions
of points along the reference line.
• Distances are written in the form of a sum: A + B.
• A is hundreds of meter, B is meter.
• For example station K is (10+24.5) = 1024.5m

from a certain zero, may not exist.
• First station is usually designated with
arbitrary value: 10+00, 100+00
• To compute distances along the line, erase
the + sign, and subtract the two numbers
• Distance between the stations:(20+68) and
(30+34) = 3034 - 2068 = 966m
• First a backsight at a BM is observed.

• Then, a number of intermediate foresights are
observed at the stations needed, do not have
to be at equal distances.
• When the distance becomes too long, or
readings become hard to observe, a turning
point is constructed.
• You cannot keep the backsight distance equal
to the foresight distance.
Profile Leveling
Inverted sights Occasionally successive FS and BS readings are
taken on an overhead point such as a point in the roof of a tunnel
or the girder of bridge or a crossway road. The FS taken at such
point is added to the HI to obtain the elevation of the overhead
point. The BS taken on that point is subtracted from the elevation
of the overhead point to obtain the HI for the next instrument set
up.
Height of Instrument (HI) method - consider the readings taken in the
operation shown above.
• Rise and fall (RF) method – the rise or fall of the ground between
successive rod stations is considered. For the same instrument set up,
• If 2nd red reading > first rod reading ⇒ fall
• If 2nd rod reading < first rod reading ⇒ rise
• Then RL of 2nd station = RL of first station - fall or
• RL of first station + rise

BS IS IS IS FS
BS FS
1 2 4 5
3 6
A LEVELING PROCESS THAT INCLUDED 6 POINTS AND 7 READINGS.
Drawing and Using Profiles

• Drawn using a software now.The following is for reference only, will
not be in exams.
• To manually draw a profile and compute earthwork:
{the following is for reference only, will not be included in exams}
– Assume the horizontal axis is the distance and the vertical axis is the elevation.
– Use a larger scale for the elevation than the distance scale, usually 10 times
larger.
– Draw the design line at the proposed grade.
– Compute the areas of cut and fill.
– Multiply area by width to get volumes.
– Gradient (percent grade) is the rise or fall in ft per 100 ft, or meter per 100
meter.
Plot of profile.
Trigonometric Levelling
Trigonometric Levelling
Curvature Correction
• For long sights the curvature of earth can effect staff readings.
The line of sight is horizontal but the level line is curved and
parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth.
• The vertical distance between the line of sight and level line at
particular place is called the curvature correction
• The effect of curvature is to cause the object sighted to appear
lower than they really are.
• Curvature correction is always Subtractive(-)
• True staff reading=(Observed staff reading- 0.0785D2)m
• Where D= distance in Km.
Curvature Correction
Refraction
• The ray of light pass through layers of air of different
densities and refractor bent down. The effect of
refraction is to make the object appear higher then
they really are. Refraction varies considerably with
climate conditions.
However it is taken as,
• Cr=0.0112 D2m(+)
• Refraction is always additive
• True staff reading
• =Observed staff Reading+ Refraction correction.
Refraction
Reciprocal levelling
• Reciprocal Levelling:-
• This method is adopted to accurately determine the difference
of level between two points which are far apart. It is also used
when it is not possible to setup level in midway between two
points
• Let A and B be the two points on opposite banks of a river. It is
required to find out the level difference between A&B
• Setup the level very near to A and take the reading at A and B let
the reading be a1 and b1
• Shift the level and setup very near to B and observe A and B to get
reading a2 and b2
• Let d is the true difference of level between A and B, and e=error
due to curvature, refraction and imperfect adjustment.
Reciprocal levelling
Reciprocal Levelling
• Thus to eliminate the error take an average of the
difference in elevation taken from 2 points
• i.e. from A the true difference will be
• =(b1-e)-a1
• Or d= (b 1- a1)-e
• From B the difference will be= b2-(a2-e)
• Or d= (b2-a2)+ e
• Adding these two eqn to eliminate e, we get
• Therefore d={(b1-a1)+ (b2-a2)}/2
The two – peg test
• This is based on the fact that if the BS and FS distances are equal,
the true difference in level between the two stations is obtained.
• Assuming the line of sight is elevated by α ; e1 = d sin α and e2 = d
sin α
The two – peg test
• Now move the instrument to x at a distance l from B and set it up.
• Let XA = kXB where k is a multiplying factor depending on the ratio of AX/BX
Since the collimation error is cumulative with respect to distance, therefore,
Adjustment of Level Circuits
Adjustment of intermediate BMs on a level line
• If care is exercised in leveling, most of the errors tend to be random. The error in any one
line can be expected to be proportional to the number of set ups or to the distance.
• When a line of levels makes a complete circuit, almost invariably there is a difference
between the established elevation of the initial BM and its elevation as computed from the
level notes.
• The difference is the error in running the circuit and is called error of closure. The
elevations of intermediate points established during running the circuit are also in error in
proportion to their distance or number of set ups from the initial BM.
• If Ec is the error of closure of a level circuit of length L and if Ca, Cb, …Cn are the
respective corrections to be applied to observed elevation of BMs A, B, ...N, while respective
distances from the initial BM are a, b,….. n, then
Adjustment of Level Circuits
Adjustment of Levels over different routes
• When differential levels are run over several different routes from a fixed BM to
establish a BM, there will be as many observed elevations as there are lines
terminating on that point.
• In comparing different lines of levels to the same point, the shorter a particular
route, the greater will be the importance of the weight given to its results.
• The shorter the line, the more accurate its results should be. Thus the weight of
an observed elevation is inversely proportional to its length or the number of
instrument set-ups.
Thank You!

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Chapter III Vertical

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CHAPTER III

Basic Survey Measurements

Equipment: Level Instrument

Automated Levels (Compensator)

• Uses Barcode staffs

Conventional (“E”-type) Barcode

It’s not the Indonesian-

• Keep the pole upright

Reading a Staff 1422

• Check yourself for frequent used

Basic Rules for Leveling

is a type of spirit leveling which requires a series of

Staking and Stationing the Reference Line

• For example station K is (10+24.5) = 1024.5m

• First a backsight at a BM is observed.

• If 2nd red reading > first rod reading ⇒ fall

• If 2nd rod reading < first rod reading ⇒ rise

• Then RL of 2nd station = RL of first station - fall or

• RL of first station + rise

Drawing and Using Profiles

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