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Functions of the Digestive System
The functions of the digestive system are to take in food,
break down thefood, absorb the digested molecules, provide
nutrients to the body, and eliminate wastes.
Anatomy and Histology of the Digestive System
The digestive tract is composed of four tunics: the mucosa,
the submucosa, the muscularis, and a serosa or an adventitia.
16.3 Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
Anatomy of the Oral Cavity
1. The lips and cheeks are involved in mastication and
speech.
2. The tongue is involved in speech, taste, mastication, and
swallowing.
3. There are 32 permanent teeth, including incisors,
canines, premolars, and molars. Each tooth consists of a
crown, a neck, and a root.
4. The roof of the oral cavity is divided into the hard and soft
palates.
5. Salivary glands produce serous and mucous secretions.
The three major pairs of large salivary glands are the parotid,
submandibular, and sublingual glands.
Saliva
Saliva helps protect the mouth from oral bacteria, starts
starch digestion, and provides lubrication.
Mastication
Mastication is accomplished by the teeth, which cut, tear, and
crush the food.
Pharynx
The pharynx consists of the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and
laryngopharynx.
Esophagus
The esophagus connects the pharynx to the stomach. The
upper and lower esophageal sphincters regulate movement.
Swallowing
1. During the voluntary phase of swallowing, a bolus of food
is moved by the tongue from the oral cavity to the pharynx.
2. During the pharyngeal phase of swallowing, the soft palate
closes the nasopharynx, and the epiglottis closes the opening
into the larynx. Pharyngeal muscles elevate the pharynx and
larynx and then move the bolus to the esophagus.
3. During the esophageal phase of swallowing, a wave of
constriction (peristalsis) moves the food down the esophagus
to the stomach.
Stomach
Anatomy of the Stomach
1. The stomach connects to the esophagus at the
gastroesophageal
opening and to the duodenum at the pyloric opening.
2. The wall of the stomach consists of three muscle layers:
longitudinal, circular, and oblique.
3. Gastric glands contain mucous neck cells, parietal cells,
endocrine cells, and chief cells.
Secretions of the Stomach
1. Mucus protects the stomach lining.
2. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms and activates
pepsin.
3. Pepsin starts protein digestion.
4. Intrinsic factor aids in vitamin B12 absorption.
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin, and histamine
increase stomach secretions.
2. During the cephalic phase, the stomach secretions are
initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food.
3. During the gastric phase, partially digested proteins and
distention of the stomach promote secretion.
4. During the intestinal phase, acidic chyme in the duodenum
stimulates neuronal reflexes and the secretion of hormones
that inhibit gastric secretions by negative-feedback loops.
Secretin and cholecystokinin inhibit gastric secretion.
Movement in the Stomach
1. Mixing waves mix the stomach contents with the stomach
secretions to form chyme.
2. Peristaltic waves move the chyme into the duodenum.
Increased motility increases emptying.
3. Distention of the stomach increases gastric motility. Neural
and hormonal feedback loops from the duodenum inhibit
gastric motility. Cholecystokinin is a major inhibitor of
gastric motility.
16.5 Small Intestine
Anatomy of the Small Intestine
1. The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum.
2. Circular folds, villi, and microvilli greatly increase the
surface area of the intestinal lining.
3. Goblet cells and duodenal glands produce mucus.
Secretions of the Small Intestine
1. Mucus protects against digestive enzymes and stomach
acids.
2. Chemical or tactile irritation, vagal stimulation, and secretin
stimulate intestinal secretion.
Movement in the Small Intestine
1. Peristaltic contractions occur over the length of the
intestine and propel chyme through the intestine.
2. Segmental contractions occur over short distances and mix
the intestinal contents.
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejunum
16.6 Liver and Pancreas
Anatomy of the Liver
1. The liver consists of four lobes. It receives blood from the
hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein.
2. Branches of the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein
empty into hepatic sinusoids, which empty into a central vein
in the center of each lobe. The central veins empty into
hepatic veins, which exit the liver.
3. The liver is divided into lobules with portal triads at the
corners. Portal triads contain branches of the hepatic portal
vein, hepatic artery, and hepatic duct.
4. Hepatic cords, formed by hepatocytes, form the substance
of each lobule. A bile canaliculus, between the cells of each
cord, joins the hepatic duct system.
5. Bile leaves the liver through the hepatic duct system. The
right and left hepatic ducts join to form the common hepatic
duct. The gallbladder stores bile. The cystic duct joins the
common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. The
common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct and empties into
the duodenum.
Functions of the Liver
1. The liver produces bile, which contains bile salts that
emulsify fats, and excretory products.
2. The liver stores and processes nutrients, produces new
molecules, and detoxifies molecules.
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by the stomach and pancreas, and peptidases on the surface

Anatomy of the Pancreas
of intestinal epithelial cells.
The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. Its
2. Tripeptides, dipeptides, and amino acids are absorbed into
endocrine function is to control blood nutrient levels. Its
intestinal epithelial cells.
exocrine function is to produce bicarbonate ions and digestive
3. Amino acids are actively transported into cells under the
enzymes.
influence of growth hormone and insulin.
Functions of the Pancreas
4. Amino acids are used to build new proteins or to serve as
1. The pancreas produces HCO3 and digestive enzymes.
a source of energy.
2. Acidic chyme stimulates the release of a watery
Water and Minerals
bicarbonate solution that neutralizes acidic chyme. Fatty
Water can move across the intestinal wall in either direction,
acids and amino acids in the duodenum stimulate the release
depending on osmotic conditions. Approximately 99% of the
of pancreatic enzymes.
water entering the intestine is absorbed. Most minerals are
16.7 Large Intestine
actively transported across the wall of the small intestine.
Anatomy of the Large Intestine
1. The cecum forms a blind sac at the junction of the small 16.9 Effects of Aging on the Digestive System
1. With advancing age, the layers of the digestive tract thin,
and large intestines. The appendix is a blind sac off the
and the blood supply decreases.
cecum.
2. Mucus secretion and motility also decrease in the digestive
2. The colon consists of ascending, transverse, descending,
tract.
and sigmoid portions.
3. The defenses of the digestive tract decline, leaving it more
3. The large intestine contains mucus-producing crypts.
sensitive to infection and the effects of toxic agents.
4. The rectum is a straight tube that ends at the anal canal.
4. Tooth enamel becomes thinner, and the gingiva recede,
5. The anal canal is surrounded by an internal anal sphincter
exposing dentin, which may become painful and affect eating
(smooth muscle) and an external anal sphincter (skeletal
habits.
muscle).
Functions of the Large Intestine
1. The functions of the large intestine are feces production 17.1 Nutrition
and water absorption. Nutrition is the ingestion and use of food.
2. Mass movements occur three or four times a day. Nutrients
1. Nutrients, the chemicals used by the body, consist of
3. Defecation is the elimination of feces. Reflex activity moves
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water.
feces through the internal anal sphincter. Voluntary activity
2. Essential nutrients either cannot be produced by the body
regulates movement through the external anal sphincter.
or cannot be produced in adequate amounts.
16.8 Digestion, Absorption, and Transport
3. The MyPlate icon provides a visual reminder for making
Digestion is the chemical breakdown of organic molecules
choices at mealtime, by selecting healthy foods from five food
into their component parts. After the molecules are digested,
groups. Half the meal should be fruits and vegetables.
some diffuse through the intestinal wall; others must be
Kilocalories
transported across the intestinal wall.
A kilocalorie is the energy required to raise the temperature
Carbohydrates
of 1000 g of water 1°C. A kilocalorie (Calorie) is the unit of
1. Polysaccharides are split into disaccharides by salivary and
measurement used to express the energy content of food.
pancreatic amylases.
Carbohydrates
2. Disaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides by
1. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides,
disaccharidases on the surface of the intestinal epithelium.
and polysaccharides.
3. The major monosaccharide, glucose, is absorbed by
2. Most of the carbohydrates we ingest are from plants.
cotransport with Na+ into intestinal epithelial cells. The
3. Carbohydrates are used as an energy source and for
transport is driven by the Na+ gradient generated by the
making DNA, RNA, and ATP.
sodium-potassium pump.
4. The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR)
4. Glucose is carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver and
for carbohydrates is 45–65% of total kilocalories.
enters most cells in the body by facilitated diffusion. Insulin
Lipids
increases the rate of glucose transport into most cells. 1. Lipids include triglycerides, steroids, phospholipids, and
Lipids
fat-soluble
1. Bile salts emulsify lipids.
vitamins. Triglycerides are a major source of energy.
2. Lipase breaks down lipids. The breakdown products
Eicosanoids are involved in inflammation, tissue repair, and
aggregate with bile salts to form micelles.
smooth muscle contraction. Cholesterol and phospholipids
3. Micelles come in contact with the intestinal epithelium, and
are part of the cell membrane. Some steroid hormones
their contents diffuse into the cells, where they are packaged
regulate the reproductive system.
and released into the lacteals.
2. The AMDR for lipids is 20–35%.
4. Lipids are stored in adipose tissue and in the liver, both of
Proteins
which release the lipids into the blood when energy sources 1. Proteins are chains of amino acids.
are needed elsewhere in the body. 2. Animal proteins tend to be complete proteins, whereas
Protein
plant
1. Proteins are split into small polypeptides by enzymes
proteins tend to be incomplete.
secreted

3. Proteins are involved in structural strength, muscle
contraction, regulation, buffering, clotting, transport, ion
channels, receptors, and the immune system.
4. The AMDR for protein is 10–35% of total kilocalories.
Vitamins
1. Most vitamins are not produced by the body and must be
obtained in the diet. Some vitamins can be formed from
provitamins.
2. Vitamins are important in energy production, nucleic acid
synthesis, growth, and blood clotting.
3. Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble or water-
soluble.
4. Recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) are a guide for
estimating the nutritional needs of groups of people on the
basis of their age, their gender, and other factors.
Minerals
Minerals are essential for normal metabolic functions. They
are involved with establishing the resting membrane
potential; generating action potentials; adding mechanical
strength to bones and teeth; combining with organic
molecules; and acting as coenzymes, buffers, or regulators of
osmotic pressure.
Daily Values
1. Daily Values are dietary references that can be used to plan
a healthful diet.
2. Daily Values for vitamins and minerals are based on
Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs), which are generally the
highest 1968 RDA value of an age category.
3. Daily Values are based on Daily Reference Values. The
Daily Reference Values for energy-producing nutrients
(carbohydrates, total fat, saturated fat, and proteins) and
dietary fiber are recommended percentages of the total
kilocalories ingested daily for each nutrient.
The Daily Reference Values for total fats, saturated fats,
cholesterol, and sodium are the uppermost limits considered
desirable because of their link to diseases.
4. The % Daily Value is the percentage of the recommended
Daily Value of a nutrient found in one serving of a particular
food.
17.2 Metabolism
1. Metabolism consists of catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism, the breakdown of molecules, gives off energy.
Anabolism, the synthesis of molecules, requires energy.
2. The energy in carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins is used to
produce ATP.
3. The energy from ATP can be used for active transport,
muscle
contraction, and the synthesis of molecules.
Regulation of Metabolism
1. A biochemical pathway is a series of chemical reactions,
some of
which release energy that can be used to synthesize ATP.
2. Each step in a biochemical pathway requires enzymes.
3. Enzyme synthesis is determined by DNA. Enzyme activity
is
modified by receptor-mediated and end-product processes.
Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to two pyruvic acid
molecules. Two ATP molecules are also produced.
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2. Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the
absence ofoxygen to two lactate molecules and two ATP
molecules.
3. Lactate can be converted to glucose using aerobically
produced ATP; the necessary oxygen contributes to the
oxygen deficit.
4. Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the
presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and 38
molecules of ATP. The first phase of aerobic respiration is
glycolysis; the second phase is the conversion of pyruvic
acid to acetyl-CoA; the third phase is the citric acid cycle;
and the fourth phase is the electron transport chain, which
uses carrier molecules, such as NADH, to synthesize ATP.
Lipid Metabolism
1. Lipids are broken down in adipose tissue, and fatty acids
are released into the blood.
2. Fatty acids are taken up by cells and broken down into
acetyl-CoA, which can enter the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA
can also be converted into ketones by the liver. Ketones
released from the liver into the blood are used as energy
sources by other cells.
Protein Metabolism
1. Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins.
2. Amino acids can be used for energy, yielding ammonia as
a by-product. Ammonia is converted to urea and excreted by
the kidneys.
Metabolic States
1. In the absorptive state, nutrients are used as energy, with
the remainder being stored.
2. In the postabsorptive state, stored nutrients are used for
energy.
Metabolic Rate
1. The metabolic rate is the total energy expenditure per unit
of time.
2. Metabolic energy is used for basal metabolism, muscular
activity, and the assimilation of food.
17.3 Body Temperature Regulation
1. Body temperature is a balance between heat gain and
heat loss.
2. Heat is produced through metabolism.
3. Heat is exchanged through radiation, conduction,
convection, and evaporation.
4. The greater the temperature difference, the greater the rate
of heat exchange.
5. Body temperature is maintained around a set point by
neural circuits in the hypothalamus.
6. Dilation of blood vessels in the skin and sweating increase
heat loss from the body.
7. Constriction of blood vessels in the skin and shivering
promote heat gain by the body.