Chapter ( 13 )

Reproduction
and
Development

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 Reproduction and Development

Asexual reproduction

- results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parents. This is an advantage
when environmental conditions are stable.

1- Fission is the separation of an organism into two new cells. (Amoeba, bacteria)

2- Budding involves the splitting off of new individuals from existing ones. (Hydra)

3- Fragmentation and regeneration occur when a single parent breaks into parts that
regenerate into new individuals. (Sponges, planaria, sea star)

4- Parthenogenesis involves the development of an egg without fertilization. The resulting

adult is haploid. (Honeybees, some lizards).

- Advantages of asexual over sexual reproduction:-

1- It enables animals living in isolation to reproduce without a mate.

2- It creates numerous offspring quickly
3- There is no expenditure of energy maintaining elaborate reproductive systems or
hormonal cycles.
4- asexual reproduction is advantageous when the environment is stable and favorable .

Sexual Reproduction

- Hermaphrodites : organisms with both male and female sex organs .

- The Main Advantage of sexual reproduction is increasing variation within population

Sperm + Egg Zygote Gastrula Organogenesis

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 The Human Male Reproductive System

• Testes (testis, singular)—male gonads; the site of sperm formation

• Vas deferens : the duct that carries sperm during ejaculation from the epididymis to
the penis
• Prostate gland : the large gland that secretes semen directly into the urethra
• Scrotum : the sac outside the abdominal cavity that holds the testes; the cooler
temperature there enables sperm to survive
• Urethra : the tube that carries semen and urine

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 The Human Female Reproductive System

• Ovary : where meiosis occurs and where the secondary oocyte forms prior to birth

• Oviduct or Fallopian tube : where fertilization occurs; after ovulation, the egg moves
through the oviduct to the uterus

• Uterus : where the blastula stage of the embryo will implant and develop during the
nine-month gestation, should fertilization occur

• Vagina : the birth canal; during labor and delivery, the baby passes through the cervix
and into the vagina

• Cervix : the mouth of the uterus

• Endometrium : lining of the uterus

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 - The Menstrual Cycle of the Human Female

1- Follicular Phase :

Several tiny cavities called follicles in the ovaries grow and secrete increasing

amounts of estrogens in response to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the

anterior pituitary.

2- Ovulation :

The secondary oocyte ruptures out of the ovaries in response to a rapid increase
in luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary. Ovulation occurs on or
about the 14th day after menstruation.

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3- Luteal Phase :

After ovulation, the corpus luteum (the cavity of the follicle left behind) forms
and secretes estrogen and progesterone that thicken the endometrium (lining) of
the uterus.

4- Menstruation :

If implantation of an embryo does not occur, the buildup of the lining of the
uterus breaks down and is shed. Tissue and some blood are discharged from the
vagina. This bleeding is commonly called the period.

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle

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 Spermatogenesis
- the process of sperm production, is a continuous process that begins at puberty and can
continue into old age.
1- luteinizing hormone (LH) induces the testes to produce testosterone.

2- FSH and testosterone stimulate sperm production in the testes.

3- Spermatogonium cell (2n) divides by mitosis to produce two primary spermatocytes (2n)

4- Spermatocytes undergo meiosis I to produce two secondary spermatocytes (n)

5- Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis II, which yields four spermatids (n).

6- Spermatids differentiate and move to the epididymis where they become motile.

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 Oogenesis

- Oogenesis, the production of ova, begins prior to birth. A female baby is born
with all the primary oocytes she will ever have.

1- Within the embryo, Each oogonium cell (2n) undergoes mitosis to produce two
primary oocytes (2n) that remain inactive until puberty.

2- After puberty meiosis I occurs, producing secondary oocytes (n) that are released
monthly at ovulation.

3- During meiosis I and meiosis II the cytoplasm divides unequally. Almost all the
cytoplasm remains in the egg, leaving two tiny polar bodies that have very little
cytoplasm and which will disintegrate.

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 EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

- A small, flagellated, haploid sperm (n) fertilizes a larger, nonmotile, haploid egg (n)
to form a diploid (2n) zygote.

1- Cleavage :-

- the rapid mitotic cell division of the zygote that begins immediately after
fertilization.
- the end of cleavage to be characterized by the production of a fluid-filled ball of
cells called a blastula.
- The individual cells of the blastula are called blastomeres, and the fluid-filled center
is a blastocoel.

2- Gastrulation :-

- involves differentiation; the rearrangement of the blastula two produces a three

layered embryo called a gastrula.
- These three germ layers are the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

• The ectoderm will become the skin and the nervous system.

• The endoderm will form the viscera, including the lungs, liver, and digestive organs.

• The mesoderm will give rise to the muscle, blood, and bones.

3- Organogenesis :-

- the process by which cells continue to differentiate, producing organs from the three
embryonic germ layers.

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 Extraembryonic Membranes of the Bird Embryo

1- Chorion :- a membrane that lies under the shell and allows for
diffusion of respiratory gases between the outside environment and the
inside of the shell

2- Yolk sac :- Store The Food Needed By Embryo

3- Amnion :- It encloses the embryo in protective amniotic fluid.

4- Allantois :- It is in mammals. It is the conduit for respiratory gases to

and from the embryo. It is also the place where the nitrogenous waste uric
acid accumulates until the chick hatches

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