1

Chapter
Reproduction in
Organisms

NCERT Crisp

Reproduction

• A biological process by which parents/organism give rise to offspring similar to itself.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Binary fission Budding Fragmentation Regeneration

When mother cell divides In this process of asexual When the body of the parent Capacity for generating an
into two equal sized daughter reproduction, new individu- breaks into distinct pieces, entire new individual from
cells. als are formed by mitosis of each of which can produce a fragment of tissue is called
Examples: Amoeba, Par- some cells of the mature in- an offspring. regeneration.
amoecium, Euglena, Vorti- dividual. Examples: Fungi, protonema e.g., Planaria
cella e.g., Yeast, hydra of mosses
Modes of binary fission are: It is of two types True regeneration present
a. Simple binary fission a. External budding in Planaria (Flatworm)
• A small outgrowth of the Types of Regeneration:
• When the plane of
parent’s body develops Morphallaxis and
cytoplasmic division Epimorphallaxis
into a minute individual
passes through any
and later separates from ▪▪ Morphallaxis: It is a type
direction.
the mother to lead a free of regeneration where
• Example: Amoeba reconstruction of whole
life.
body from small fragment
• Example: Hydra takes place. Examples:
Planaria.
b. Transverse binary fission b. Internal budding ▪▪ Epimorphallaxis: It is a
• When buds do not get type of regeneration where
• When the plane of separated from the lost organ once again
cytoplasmic division mother individual.
passes through regenerates. Example: Tail
• Formation of gemmule in lizard
transverse axis of the
in Spongilla & Sycon
individual.
and formation of colony
• Example: Paramoecium in Obelia is an example
of Internal budding.
 3

• Pollination is the method of gamete transfer in higher Zygote

plants as pollen grains are carriers of male gametes. • Formation of the diploid zygote is universal in all
sexually reproducing organisms.
Fertilization
Development of the zygote depends on
• The most vital event of sexual reproduction is the fusion ▪▪ The type of life cycle of the organism
of gametes. The process of fusion of gametes is known
▪▪ The environment it is exposed to.
as syngamy results in the formation of a diploid zygote.
• Zygote is the vital link that ensures continuity of species
External Fertilization Internal Fertilization between organisms of one generation and the next.
Fertilization occurs outside Fertilization occurs inside Embryogenesis
the body (in water) the body of the organism. • The process of development of embryo from the zygote.
Offspring are extremely Offspring are well • During embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell division
vulnerable to predators protected and covered with (mitosis) and cell differentiation. While cell divisions
threatening their survival calcareous shell in case of increase the number of cells in the developing embryo;
up to adulthood. oviparous organisms. cell differentiation helps groups of cells to undergo
certain modifications to form specialized tissues and
Examples: Majority of Examples: Terrestrial organs to form an organism.
algae, bony fishes and frog. organisms (reptiles,
birds, mammals) and in a • Oviparous: The development of the zygote takes place
outside the body of the female parent. These animals
majority of plants (Except
lay eggs. The fertilized eggs have a calcareous shell to
algae)
protect them from harsh environment.
Parthenogenesis • Viviparous: The development of the zygote takes place
inside the body of the female parent. These animals give
• Development of female gamete directly into the new
birth to young ones.
organism without fertilization. This phenomenon is
called parthenogenesis. ▪▪ In flowering plants, the zygote formed inside the
• Charles Bonnet (1745) discovered parthenogenetic ovule.
development in insects (aphids). ▪▪ The zygote develops into embryo after which
the ovule becomes the seed and ovary becomes
• Examples: Rotifers, honeybees and even some lizards
the fruit. The fruit develops a thick wall called
and birds (turkey)
pericarp that is protective in function.
Post Fertilizing Events

Reproduction in Organisms

Exine Intine
Outer layer of pollen grain. Inner layer of pollen grain.
Made up of sporopollenin. Made up of cellulose and
pectin.
It is very hard layer. It is thin and continuous
layer.
▪▪ Sporopollenin is one of the most resistant organic
material known. It can withstand high temperatures
and strong acids and alkali. No enzyme that
degrades sporopollenin is so far known.
Pollen grain (Microspore)
A matured pollen grain contains two cells:
Vegetative cell Generative cell
It is bigger and has a large It is small and has a spindle
irregularly shaped nucleus. shaped nucleus with dense
cytoplasm.
It has abundant food re- It floats in the cytoplasm of
serve. vegetative cell.
• In over 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at
the 2-celled stage.
• In other angiosperms, the generative cell divides
mitotically to give rise to the two male gametes before
pollen grains are shed (3-celled stage).
• When once they are shed, pollen grains have to land on the
stigma before they lose viability. The period for which
pollen grains remain viable is variable and depends on the
prevailing temperature and humidity.
• Viability of pollen grains of some cereals (rice, wheat
etc) is 30 minutes.
• Some members of Leguminoseae, Rosacceae &
Solanaceae have viability for months.
• Pollen grains of some plants (e.g., Parthenium or carrot
grass) are allergic for some people. It leads to chronic
respiratory disorders - asthma, bronchitis, etc.
• Pollen grains are rich in nutrients.
• Pollen consumption (as tablets & syrups) increases
performance of athletes and race horses.
• It is possible to store pollen grains of a large number
of species for years in liquid nitrogen (-1960C). This
process is known as cryopreservation.
• Such stored pollen can be used as pollen banks, similar to
seed banks, in crop breeding programmes.
• Viability test of seeds can be performed with the help of
0.1% solution of triphenyltetrazolium chloride.
25
The Pistil, Megasporangium (ovule) and
Embryo sac
Gynoecium (Pistil)
• Single pistil (monocarpellary)
• More than one pistil (multicarpellary)
When there are more than one, the pistils may be fused
together (syncarpous) or may be free (apocarpous).
Each pistil has three parts:
• Stigma: It is a landing platform for pollen grains.
• Style: It is an elongated slender part beneath the stigma.
• Ovary: It is the basal bulged part of the pistil.
The ovarian cavity is present inside the ovary (locule)
in which the placenta is located.
Ovules are raised from the placenta.
The number of ovules in an ovary may be one (wheat,
paddy, mango etc) to many (papaya, water melon,
orchids etc).
Megasporangium (Ovule):
• It is a small structure attached to the placenta by means
of stalk (funicle).
• The junction where the body of ovule and funicle fuse
is called hilum.
• Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called
integuments.
• Integuments encircle the ovule except at the tip where a
small opening (micropyle) is organized.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• Caruncle: An outgrowth of the integument near
microphyle/hilum of the seed. Example: Castor
Types of Ovules
On the basis of the relative position of funiculus, chalaza
and micropyle, the ovules are classified into following
six main types:
1. Atropous or Orthotropous: It is the simplest and the
most primitive type of an ovule, in which micropyle,
chalaza and funiculus lies in one vertical plane, e.g.
all gymnosperms, Piper nigrum, P. betel and Rumex
polygonum.
2. Anatropous or Inverted: It is the most common type
of ovule, occurring in more than 80% of angiospermic
families. The body of the ovule is rotated by 180° and
micropyle comes near to the funiculus. Chalazal and
micropyle are in straight line but hilum is at 90° to the
micropyle.
 27

There are two main types of pollination - self pollination and cross pollination.
Self pollination
It is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of either the same flower or another flower borne
on the same plant.

Advantages of self-pollination
• Chances of pollination are more.
• Self-pollination maintains purity of the race and avoids mixing.
• It need not produce a large number of pollen grains.
• Flower need not possess devices such as large and showy petals, presence of scent and nectar, etc., to attract pollinators.
Disadvantages of self-pollination
• Progeny continuously gets weaker after every generation.
• Less chances of the production of new species and varieties.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Adaptations in flowers for Pollination
• Pollination by wind is more common amongst abiotic
pollinations.
• Both wind and water pollinated flowers are not colourful
and do not produce nectar.
Water Pollination
Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Algae
• Pollen grains: protected by mucilaginous covering
• E.g., Fresh water plants: Vallisneria, Hydrilla

Wind Pollination Sea grass- Zostera

• Pollen grains: light, non- sticky, winged (easily • Produce pollen grains in large no.
transported)
• Do not produce nectar
• Stamen: well-exposed (so that pollen grains are easily
dispersed) • Female flower remains submerged

• Stigma: large and feathery • Pollen grains - long, ribbon like

• Flower: one ovule, arranged as inflorescence • Released inside water

• Examples: Corn cob • Carried by water currents to reach female flower
 29

stigma usually wither and fall off • Seed consists of seed coat, cotyledon and an embryo
• The calyx may persists (e.g., tomato, brinjal) and even
axis.
show growth (e.g. Physalis) • In a maize seed, scutellum is considered as cotyledon
Ovary Fruit because it absorbs food materials and supplies them to
th embryo.
Ovary wall Pericarp
Ovule Seed • In legumes, the cotyledons of the embryo are simple
structures, generally thick and swollen due to storage of
Funicle Stalk of the seed
food reserves.
Hilum Hilum
• Non albuminous seeds: Non-albuminous seeds have
Nucellus Perisperm no residual endosperm as it is completely consumed
Outer integument Testa - Seed coat during embryo development (e.g., pea, groundnut,
Inner integument Tegmen - Seed coat sunflower).
Micropyle Micropyle • Albuminous seeds: Albuminous seeds retain a part of
Fertilized Egg Endosperm endosperm as it is not completely used up during embryo
development (e.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor).
Synergids Degenerate
• Remnants of nucellus in the matured seed is called
Fertilized Secondary nucleus
perisperm. E.g., black peeper, beet.
Antipodal cells Degenerate
• The wall of the ovary develops into the wall of fruit called
Monocot Embryo vs. Dicot Embryo pericarp.
• An aggregate fruit develops from a single flower, with
Dicot embryo
multicarpellar, apocarpous, superior ovaries and each of
• A typical dicotyledonous embryo consists of an them develops into simple fruit lets.
embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
• Multiple or composite fruit is formed by all the flowers
• Embryonal axis above the cotyledon is the epicotyl. of a whole inflorescence grouped together to give a single
• Terminal part of the epicotyls is the plumule (gives rise big fruit. In a sense, multiple fruits are false fruits.
to the shoot). • Fruit developed from the ovary is called true fruit. e.g.,
• Embryonal axis below the cotyledon is the hypocotyl. Mango

• The terminal part of the hypocotyl is called the radicle • In apple, strawberry, cashew, the thalamus contributes
(root tip). in the fruit formation is called false fruit. E.g., Apple,
strawberry, cashew

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

• The root tip is covered by the root cap.
Monocot embryo
• Possesses only one cotyledon.
• In grass family, the cotyledon is called scutellum.
• Scutellum situated towards one side of the embryonal
axis.
• Radicle and the root cap enclosed by a sheath called
coleorrhiza.
• The portion of the embryonal axis above level of
attachment of scutellum is called epicotyl.
• The oldest viable seed of a lupine, Lupinus arcticus
excavated from Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and
flowered after an estimated record of 10,000 years of
dormacy.
• A recent record of 2000 years old viable seed is of the
date palm, Phoenix dactylifera discovered during the
archeological excavation at King Herod’s palace near
the Dead sea. Parasite species such as Orobanche and
Striga.
Parthenocarpy

• Epicotyl has the shoot apex or plumule enclosed by
hollow foliar structure called coleoptile.
Seed
• Seed is the final product of the sexual reproduction.
• Parthenocarpy means “maiden fruit”.
• The development of fruit in an unfertilized flower,
resulting in a seedless fruit. It may occur naturally, as
in certain varieties of pineapple, grapes, apple, pear and
banana.
 Chapter
3 Human
Reproduction
NCERT Crisp
The Male Reproductive System
• Located in the pelvis region.
• Male reproductive system includes:
◊ A pair of testes. (primary sex-organ)
◊ Accessory ducts. (rete testis, vas a efferentia
epididymis, vas deferens)
◊ Accessory glands. (paired seminal vescile, a prostate
and paired bulbourethral gland)
◊ External genitalia (Penis)
Testes:
• Situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch
called scrotum.
• The scrotum helps in maintaining the low temperature
of the testes (2–2.5°C lower than the normal internal
body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
• Testes are enclosed in an outer tough capsule of
collagenous connective tissue, the tunica albuginea.
• Each testis has around 250 testicular lobules which
contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules
in which sperms are produced.
• The seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two
types of cells called male germ cells (spermatogonia)
and Sertoli cells.
• The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions finally
leading to sperm formation, while sertoli cells provide
nutrition to the germ cells.
The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called
interstitial spaces contain:
▪▪ Small blood vessels
▪▪ Interstitial cells or Leydig cells
▪▪ Other immunocompetent cells
• Leydig cells synthesize and secrete testicular hormones
called androgens, also called as male sex hormones.
• The condition in which the testes do not descend into
the scrotum is called Cryptorchidism. If it remains
untreated, it can lead to infertility and cancer.
Accessory ducts:
• Seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia through
rete testis.
• The vasa efferentia leaves the testis and open into
epididymis located long posterior surface of testis. Each
epididymis consists of a single convoluted tube, about
6 meter long, which is highly coiled and leads into a
sperm duct, the ductus deferens or vas deferens.
• The epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends to
the abdomen through inguinal canal and loops over the
urinary bladder.
• Vas deferens receives a duct from seminal vesicle and
opens into the urethra as the ejaculatory duct, that
stores and transport sperm from testis to outside via
urethra.
• Urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends
through the penis to its external opening called urethral
meatus.
Seminiferous tubules unite to form straight tubules →
open into rete testis (irregular cavities) → Vasa effer-
entia (series of fine tubules that conduct sperms) →
epididymis (stores sperms temporarily) → vas defer-
ens → join with a duct from seminal vesicle to form
common ejaculatory duct → opens into urethra →
urethral meatus (external opening).
Accessory glands:
• Includes
◊ Paired seminal vesicle: The seminal vesicles are
long pouches with muscular wall; they secrete
 55

◊ Perimetrium: External thin membranous. • The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
◊ Myometrium: Middle thick layer of smooth muscles • Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary
◊ Endometrium: Inner glandular layer. It consist of lamina ampulla.
propria and surface epithelium. The surface epithelium is • Mammary ampulla connected to lactiferous duct,
a single layer of ciliated columnar epithelium. through which milk is sucked out.
• Endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during • Gynaecomastia: Enlarged functional mammary glands
menstrual cycle. in a male.
• Myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery Gametogenesis (Formation of Gametes)
of the baby in response to oxytocin.
• Hysterectomy: The surgical removal of the uterus, is Spermatogenesis:
the most common gynecological operation. • The primary sex organs – the testis in the males and
the ovaries in the females – produce gametes, i.e.,
External genitalia / Vulva
sperms and ovum, respectively, by the process called
• It includes following structures: gametogenesis.
◊ Mons Pubis: Pad of subcutaneous adipose connective • Formation of sperm from the germ cell in the testes
tissue lying in front of the pubis and in the adult female is spermatogenesis.
covered by pubic hairs.
• The process begins at puberty.
◊ Labia majora: It is the fleshy folds of tissue which
extends down from the mons pubis,contains hair
follicles, sebaceous glands and modified sweat glands
(apocrine glands) and surrounds the vaginal opening.
It is homologous to the scrotum in male.
◊ Labia minora: They are two thick folds of skin,
devoid of fat, lying within the labia majora.
It is analogous to the ventral aspect of the penis.
◊ Hymen: A membrane that partially covers the opening
of vagina.
◊ Clitoris: A tiny finger-like structure lies at the upper
junction of two labia minora above the urethral
opening.
◊ Vestibule: Triangular space bounded anteriorly by the
clitoris, posteriorly by the fourchette, and on either
side by the labia minora.
Accessory glands: FSH and testosterone both are required for spermiation.
But testosterone is the main hormone for spermiation.
◊ Bartholin’s glands: Homologus to Cowper’s gland /
bulbourethral glands in males. Function of the gland

Human Reproduction
is to produce abundant alkaline mucus during sexual
excitement.
◊ Skene’s tubules: Paraurethral glands equivalent to
prostrate in males.

Mammary Glands
• Mammary gland are paired (breasts) and they consists of
glandular tissue and fat (variable in amount). Structure of Sperm
• Glandular tissue of each breast divided into 15-
20 mammary lobes. • Ultrastructure of sperm consists of a head, neck, a middle
piece and a tail.
• Mammary lobes contain clusters of cells called alveoli.
• Whole body of sperm surrounded by plasma membrane.
• The cells of alveoli secrete milk, stored in the lumen or
cavity of alveoli. • The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus.

• The alveoli open into mammary tubules. • Above the nucleus, a cap like structure present

Menstrual  Cycle has Following Phases
I. Menstrual phase ( 1-5th II. Follicular (Proliferative)
day) phase: 5-13th day
Last 3-5 days. It starts from 5th day after Both LH and FSH attain a Corpus luteum secretes
menstruation and completed peak level.
It only occurs when ovum is
within 8-13 days.
not fertilized by sperm.
Lack of menstruation is the Level of both LH & FSH
increases.
indication of pregnancy.
It stimulates follicular
Predominant ovarian development as well as
hormone: Transition from secretion of oestrogen.
progesterone to estrogen Predominant ovarian
hormone: Estrogen
Fertilization
• During copulation (coitus), semen is released by the penis
into the vagina is called insemination.
Fertilisation and Implantation
• The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called
fertilisation.
• Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are
transported simultaneously to the ampullary region.
Events during fertilisation:
• Sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida
• Induces changes in membrane that block entry of
additional sperms
• Secretions of acrosome help sperm enter into the
cytoplasm of ovum
• Meiotic division of secondary oocyte
• Haploid ovum and 2nd polar body formed in the second
meiotic division.
• Formation of diploid zygote (Haploid sperm nucleus +
ovum)
Cleavage and Implantation
• The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through
the isthmus of the oviduct called cleavage towards the
uterus and forms daughter cells called blastomeres.
• Morula: The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres.
• The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an
outer layer called trophoblast and an inner group of cells
attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.
• The trophoblast layer attached to the endometrium and
the inner cell mass gets differentiated as the embryo.
• After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and
cover the blastocyst. As a result, the blastocyst becomes
embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. This is called
57
III. Ovulatory phase: 14th IV. Luteal phase (Secretory
day phase): 15-28th days
progesterone.
Ovulation occurs. Endometrium thickens
and uterine glands become
secretory.
Predominant ovarian
hormone: Progesterone
implantation.
• Implantation leads to pregnancy.
• The extra-embryonic or foetal membranes are the amnion,
chorion, allantois and yolk sac. Amnion provides a fluid
medium to the developing embryo; it prevents desiccation
of the embryo and function as a shock absorber.
• The chorion and allantois take part in the formation of
placenta. The human placenta is, thus, referred to as
chorioallantoic placenta.
• Allantois: A fluid filled, sac like extra embryonic
membrane lying between the chorion and amnion of
reptiles, birds and mammals.
• Amnion is innermost embryonic membrane and never
participates in placenta formation.
• Chorion is outermost embryonic membrane and
always participates in placental formation.
Pregnancy and Embryonic Development
• In pregnancy, the placenta forms especially large
quantities of human chorionic gonadotropin, estrogens,
Human Reproduction
progesterone, and human chorionic somatomammotropin.
These are all essential to a normal pregnancy.
• After implantation, finger like projections appears on the
trophoblast called chorionic villi.
• Chorionic villi surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal
blood.
• Temporary association between the fetal tissue (chorionic
villi) and maternal tissue (uterine endometrium) is called
placenta.
• The foetus is less susceptible to teratogens after 1st
trimester.
• Generally the head comes out first. If legs come first then
baby is called breech baby.
Function of placenta
 4
Chapter
Reproductive
Health
NCERT Crisp
According to WHO, the reproductive health means a total well
being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e. physical, emotional,
social and behavioural.
Reproductive health programmes (family planning) initiated
in India 1951. India was among the few first countries to
implement such action plans.
Major tasks of Reproductive & Child Health Care (RCH)
programmes are:
• To aware people about reproductions related aspects.
• Provide facilities and support to create a reproductively
healthy society.
Aims and Needs of Sex Education in Schools
• To provide right information about sex-related
aspects.
• To avoid sex-related myths and misconceptions.
• Proper information about reproductive organs,
adolescence and related changes, safe and hygienic
sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD),
AIDS, etc.
Population Stabilisation & Birth Control
• In 1900, the world population was around 2 billion
(2000 million). By 2000, it rocketed to about 6 billion. It
increased upto 7.2 billion in 2011.
• In India, population was nearly 350 million at the time
of independence. It crossed 1 billion in May 2000. It
means every sixth person in the world is an Indian.
Population reached 1.2 billion in may 2011.
• According to the 2011 census report, the population
growth rate was less than 2% (i.e. 20/1000/year), a
rate at which our population could double before 33
years.
Reasons for population explosion
• Increased health facilities and better living conditions.
• A rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate
(MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR).
• Increase in number of people in reproducible age.
Impacts of population explosion
• Scarcity of basic requirements (e.g. food, shelter &
clothing). Thus, strict measures must be taken to control
the population.
Control measures
• Motivate smaller families by using contraceptive
methods (to avoid unwanted pregnancies).
• Aware peoples about a slogan Hum Do Hamare Do
(we two, our two). Many couples have adopted an ‘one
child norm’. Providing incentives to couple with small
families is important.
• Statutory raising of marriageable age of the female
(18 years) and males (21 years).
Features of An Ideal Contraceptive
• User-friendly, easily available, effective and reversible
(causes no addiction).
• No or least side-effects.
• It should not interfere with sexual drive, desire & sexual
act.

Saheli
▪▪ New oral contraceptive for the females. It contains
a non-steroidal preparation.
▪▪ It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side effects
and high contraceptive value.
▪▪ Developed by CDRI → Central Drug Research
Institute
Injectables
Progestogens alone or in combination with oestrogen are
used by females as injections or implants under skin.
Their mode of action is similar to that of pills and their
effective periods are much longer.
Surgical methods (sterilization):
To block gamete transport and thereby prevents conception.
It is very effective but reversibility is poor as it is a terminal
method.
Side effects of Anti-natural contraceptives:
Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular
menstrual bleeding, breast cancer etc.
Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)
• Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before
full term is called MTP or induced abortion.
• 45 to 50 million MTPs are performed in a year all
over the world (i.e., 1/5th of total number of conceived
pregnancies).
• MTP helps to decrease the population.
• Because of emotional, ethical, religious and social issues
many countries have not legalised MTP.
• Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with
some strict conditions to check indiscriminate and illegal
female foeticides which are reported to be high in India.
• An abortion may be spontaneous (naturally occurring;
also called a miscarriage) or induced (intentionally
performed).
Importance of MTP Prevention:
• To avoid unwanted pregnancies due to casual
intercourse or failure of the contraceptive used during
coitus or rapes.
• Essential in cases where continuation of the pregnancy
could be harmful to the mother or to the foetus or both.
• MTPs are safe during the first trimester (up to 12 weeks
of pregnancy). 2nd trimester abortions are very risky.
Problems related with MTPs • The reasons for this may be physical, congenital,
• Majority of the MTPs are performed illegally by
83
unqualified quacks.
• Misuse of amniocentesis (a foetal sex determination
test based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic
fluid).
• If the foetus is female, it is followed by MTP. Such
practices are dangerous for the young mother and
foetus.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI’s)
• Diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse are
called Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)/Venereal
diseases (VD) or Reproductive tract infections (RTI).
E.g., Gonorrhoea, syphilis (caused by the bacterium
Treponema pallidum), genital herpes, chlamydiasis(a
sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium
Chlamydia trachomatis), genital warts, trichomoniasis,
hepatitis-B & HIV leading to AIDS.
Hepatitis-B & HIV are also transmitted by:
• By sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments etc.
• By transfusion of blood.
• From infected mother to foetus.
• Except hepatitis-B, genital herpes & HIV, other diseases
are completely curable if detected early and treated
properly.
Early symptoms: Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swell-
ings, etc., in the genital region.
• Absence or less significant early symptoms and the
social stigma deter the infected persons to consult a
doctor. This leads to pelvic inflammatory diseases
(PID), abortions, still births, ectopic pregnancies
(pregnancy in which the fertilised egg implants at
sites other than the uterus), infertility, cancer of the
reproductive tract, etc.
Reproductive Health
• All persons are vulnerable to STDs. These are very high
among persons in the age group of 15-24 years.
• Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
• Always use condoms during coitus.
• In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early
detection and get complete treatment.
Infertility
• It is the inability of male or female to produce children.
diseases, drugs, immunological or even psychological.
 5
Chapter
Principles of Inheritance
and Variation
NCERT Crisp
• Genetics  deals with the inheritance, as well as the
variation of characters from parents to offsprings.
• Inheritance is the process by which characters are
passed on from parent to progeny.
• Variation  is the degree by which progeny differ from
their parents.
• Father of Genetics: Gregor Johann Mendel
• Father of Modern Genetics: Bateson
• Father of Human Genetics: Archibald Garrod
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
• Gregor Mendel: Conducted hybridization experiments
on garden pea (Pisum sativum) for seven years (1856 –
1863) and proposed laws of inheritance.
• Mendel conducted artificial pollination/cross pollination
experiments using several true-breeding pea lines.
• A true breeding line is one that having undergone
continuous self-pollination for several generations.
• Mendel selected 14 true-breeding peas plant varieties,
as pairs which were similar except for one character with
contrasting traits.
Inheritance of One Gene
• Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the
inheritance of one gene.
• He collected the seeds produced as a result of this cross
and grew them to generate plants of the first hybrid
generation. This generation is called  filial progeny or
the F1.
• Mendel observed that all the F1 progeny plants are tall,
like one of its parents; none were dwarf.
• He made similar observations for the other pairs of traits
– he found that the F1 always resembled either one of the
parents, and that the trait of the other parent was not seen
in them.
• Mendel, then, self – pollinated the tall F1 plants and to
his surprise found that in the F2 generation some of the
offsprings were ‘dwarf; the character that was not seen in
the F1 generation was now expressed.
• The proportion of plants that were dwarf was 1/4th of the
F2 plants while 3/4th of the F2 plants were tall.
• The tall and dwarf traits were identical to their parental
type and did not show any  blending, that is all the
offsprings were either tall or dwarf, none were of in
between height.
• Similar results were obtained with the other traits that he
studied, only one of the parental traits was expressed in
the F1 generation while at the F2 stage, both the traits were
expressed in the proportion of 3:1.
• The contrasting traits did not show any blending at either
F1 or F2 stage.
Mendel’s Proposition
• Mendel proposed that something was being stably passed
down, unchanged, from parent to offspring through the
gametes, over successive generations. He called these
things as ‘factors’.
• Nowaday we call them as genes.
• Gene is the unit of inheritance.
• Genes which codes of a pair of contrasting traits are
known as alleles, i.e., they are slightly different forms of
 102
seeded (yyrr) plants. The F1 hybrid was self-pollinated
and F2 generation was obtained with the phenotypic
ratio of 9:3:3:1 and genotypic ratio of 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1.
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
Why Mendel’s theory was remained unrecognized?
• The communication was not easy in those days and
his work could not be widely publicized.
• His concept of genes (or factors, in Mendel’s word) as
stable and discrete units that controlled the expression of
traits and of the pair of alleles which did not 'blend' with
each other, was not accepted by his contemporaries as
an explanation for the apparently continuous variation
seen in nature.
• Mendel’s approach of using mathematics to explain
biological phenomena was totally new and unacceptable
to many of the biologists of his time.
• He could not provide any physical proof for the
existence of factors.
Rediscovery of Mendel’s result
• In 1990, three scientists  (deVries, Correns and von
Tschermak) independently rediscovered Mendel’s
result on the inheritance of character.
Chromosomal theory of inheritance:
• Proposed by  Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri in
1902.
Walter Sutton & Theodore Boveri say that the pairing and
separation of a pair of chromosomes would lead to segregation
of a pair of factors they carried.
According to chromosomal theory of inheritance,
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
• Chromosome and genes are present in pairs in diploid
cells.
• The two alleles of a gene pair are located on homologous
sites on homologous chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes separate during gamete
formation (meiosis)
• Fertilization restores the chromosome number to diploid
condition.
• The chromosomal theory of inheritance claims that,
it is the chromosomes that segregate and assort
independently.
Experimental verification of chromosomal theory:
• Experimental verification of chromosomal theory of
inheritance was done by Thomas Hunt Morgan and
his colleagues.
• Morgan worked with tiny fruit flies,  Drosophila
melanogaster.
Reasons for selecting Drosophila (Fruit fly):
• Suitable for genetic studies.
• Grown on simple synthetic medium in the laboratory.
• They complete their life cycle in about two weeks.
• A single mating could produce a large number of
progeny flies.
• Clear differentiation of male and female flies
• Have many types of hereditary variations that can be
seen with low power microscopes.
Linkage and Recombination
Term linkage was given by: T.H. Morgan (Father of
Experimental Genetics)
• Linkage:  Physical association of genes on a
chromosome.
• Recombination:  Generation of non-parental  gene
combinations.
• According to Morgan: In the same chromosome,
genes which are tightly linked will show very low
recombination, i.e., variation and vice - versa.
• Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of recombination
between gene pairs on the same chromosome as a measure
of the distance between genes and  ‘mapped’ their
position on the chromosome.
Polygenic Inheritance
• This is also known as polygene, multiple factor, multiple
gene inheritance, or quantitative gene.
• Quantitative or polygenic inheritance  was first studied
by J. Kolreuter (1760) 
• Some traits are generally controlled by three or more
genes and are thus called polygenic trait.
• Besides the involvement of multiple genes polygenic
inheritance also takes into account the influence of
environment.
• In a polygenic trait the phenotype reflects the
contribution of each allele i.e. the effect of each allele
is additive.
• Examples: Human skin colour, human height, Rh factor.
• Assume that three genes A, B, C control the skin colour
in human. Dominant forms A, B and C responsible for
 104

Table: Types of Inheritance patterns

Autosomal Autosomal recessive X-linked trait X-linked recessive Y-linked trait

dominant trait trait dominant trait

Usually appears in Usually appears in Both males and Usually more males Only males are affect-
both sexes with equal both sexes with equal females are usually than females are ed
frequency. frequency. affected; often more affected.
females than males
are affected.

Does not skip gener- Tends to skip Does not skip gener- Affected sons are Does not skip gener-
ations generations. ations. Affected sons usually born to unaf- ations
must have an affect- fected mothers; sons
ed mother; affected are affected.
daughters must have
either an affected
mother or an affected
father.

Both sexes transmit Affected offspring Affected fathers will Approximately half
the trait to their off- are usually born to pass the trait on to all of a carrier (heterozy-
spring unaffected parents their daughters. gous) mother’s sons
are affected.

Affected offspring Affected mothers (if Never passed from

must have an affect- heterozygous) will father to son.
ed parent unless they pass the trait on to half
possess a new muta- of their sons and half
tion of their daughters.

When one parent is When both parents When mother is All daughters of Passed from father
affected (heterozy- are heterozygous, affected and the affected fathers are to all sons since only
gous) and the other approximately one- father is unaffected, carriers. males normally have
parent is unaffected, fourth of the offspring approximately half of a Y chromosome.
approximately half of will be affected the offsprings will be
the offspring will be affected.
affected

Unaffected parents do Appears more

Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology

not transmit the trait. frequently among

the children of
consanguineous
marriages

Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:

1. Familial hyper- 1. Tay- Sachs disease. Hypophosphatemia, Hemophilia A, also Male infertility
cholesterolemia, 2. Sickle cell anemia or familial vitamin- called classic hemo-
an inherited disease D-resistant rickets. philia.
in which blood
cholesterol is great-
ly elevated owing
to a defect in cho-
lesterol transport.
2. Myotonic dystro-
phy
 106

Chromosomal disorders
Down's syndrome Klinefelter’s syndrome Turner’s syndrome:
Caused due to presence of an Caused due to the presence of an Caused due to the absence of one of
additional copy of the chromosome additional copy of X-chromosome the X-chromosomes i.e. 45 (44 + X0).
number 21 (trisomy of 21). resulting into a karyotype of 47, ▪▪ Such females are sterile as ovaries
This disorder was first described by (44+XXY). are rudimentary.
Langdon Down (1866). ▪▪ Overall masculine development. ▪▪ Lack of other secondary sexual
▪▪ Short stature with small round head. ▪▪ Also develop feminine character characters
▪▪ Furrowed tongue (development of breast i.e. ▪▪ Dwarf
▪▪ Partially opened mouth Gynaecomastia) ▪▪ Mentally retarded
▪▪ Palm is broad with characteristic ▪▪ Individuals are sterile.
palm crease. ▪▪ Mentally retarded.
▪▪ Physical, psychomotor and mental
development is retarded.
Robertsonian translocation
▪▪ The extra chromosome 21 material
may also occur due to a Robertsonian
translocation in 2–4% cases. In this
situation, the long arm of chromosome
21 is attached to another chromosome,
often chromosome 14.

Exam oriented Additional information
• Cri du chat syndrome
Cri du chat syndrome, also known as chromosome 5p
deletion syndrome (Cri du chat syndrome is due to a partial
deletion of the short arm of chromosome  number 5, also
called “5p  monosomy” or “partial monosomy.), 5p− (said
minus) syndrome or Lejeune’s syndrome. It is characteristic
cat-like cry of affected children.
• Tay sachs Disease
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
trait is said to exhibit incomplete penetrance. An example of
incomplete penetrance in humans is polydactyly-the presence
of extra fingers and toes.
• Epistasis: Sometimes the effect of gene interaction is
that one gene masks (hides) the effect of another gene
at a different locus, a phenomenon known as epistasis.
Example: Inheritance of fruit color in summer squash
plants.
In epistasis, the gene that does the masking is called an epistatic

gene; the gene whose effect is masked is a hypostatic gene.

Also known as GM2 gangliosidosis or hexosaminidase  A
deficiency, is autosomal recessive genetic disorder. Tay–Sachs
results from mutations in the HEXA  gene on chromosome
15, which encodes the alpha-subunit of  beta-N-
acetylhexosaminidase  A, (that breaks down  glycolipids),
a  lysosomal  enzyme. It causes a progressive deterioration
of nerve cells and of mental and physical abilities.
Epistatic genes may be recessive or dominant in their effects.
Recessive epistasis: Recessive alleles at one locus (aa) mask
the phenotypic expression of other gene locus (BB, Bb or bb),
such epistasis is called recessive epistasis. 
Example: Bombay phenotype, which suppresses the
expression of alleles at the ABO locus.

Sex influenced traits: Pattern baldness,moustaches and
beard in human males are examples of sex influenced traits
(autosomal traits that are influenced by sex).
Sex limited trait :It is a trait which is only expressed in one
of the sexes. Example milk secretion in mammalian females.
Incomplete Penetrance: When individuals do not show
a trait even though they have the appropriate genotype,the
Phenotypic ratios are 9:3:4 in F2 generation
Dominant epistasis: When the dominant allele of one gene
masks the effects of either allele of the second gene.
Dominant epistasis is seen in the interaction of two loci that
determine fruit color in summer squash,
Ratio is 12:3:1 instead of 9:3:3:1
Universally accepted Mendel’s law is- Law of Segregation

• Supernatant contains viral protein labeled with S35,
i.e., the viral protein had not entered the bacterial cells.
The bacterial pellet contains radioactive P.
• This shows that viral DNA labeled with P32 had entered
the bacterial cells. This proves that DNA is the genetic
material.
The DNA
• DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
• The length of the DNA depends on number of nucleotide
pairs present in it.
• Characteristics of the organism depend on the length of
the DNA.
• Examples:
◊ Bacteriophage ϕ ×174 has 5386 nucleotides.
◊ Bacteriophage lambda has 48502 base pairs.
◊ Escherichia coli had 4.6 × 106 base pairs.
◊ Human genome (haploid) is 3.3 × 109 bp.
Structure of polynucleotide chain:
• Nucleotide = Nitrogen base + pentose sugar + phosphoric
acid
• Nucleoside = Nitrogen base + pentose sugar
• Nitrogen bases:
◊ Purines: Adenine, guanine (DNA)
◊ Pyrimidines: Cytosine, thymine (DNA) and uracil
(RNA)
• Pentose sugar
◊ Ribose in RNA
◊ Deoxyribose in DNA
• N-glycosidic linkage: Between a nitrogen base and C1 of
the pentose sugar
• Phosphodiester bond: Between the 3' carbon atom of
one sugar molecule and the 5' carbon atom of another.
Two nucleotides are linked through 3'-5' phosphodiester
linkage to form a dinucleotide.
▪▪ In RNA every nucleotide has an additional –OH
group at 2′ of ribose.
▪▪ In RNA, uracil is found in place of thymine.
▪▪ 5-methyl uracil is the other name of thymine.
History of DNA
• DNA as an acidic substance in the nucleus was first
identified by Friedrich Meischer in 1869. He named it as
'Nuclein'.
135
• In 1953,  double helix  structure of DNA was given by
James Watson and Francis Crick, based on X-ray
diffraction data produced by Maurice Wilkins and
Rosalind Franklin.
• Hallmark of their proposition was base pairing between
two strands of polynucleotide chains. This was based on
observation of Erwin Chargaff.
Chargaff’s rules
• Ratio of purine and pyrimidine is constant and equals one.
A+T
• =1
G+C
• A = T and G = C
Salient features of Double helix structure of DNA
▪▪ Made of two polynucleotide chains.
▪▪ Two strands are held together by hydrogen bond present
in between bases.
▪▪ A purine comes opposite to a pyrimidine. This
generates approximately uniform distance between the
two strands of the helix.
▪▪ The two chains are coiled in a right – handed fashion.
▪▪ The pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm or 34 A0
▪▪ There are roughly 10 bp in turn.
▪▪ The distance between the bp in a helix is 0.34nm or
3.4 A0.
▪▪ The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in
double helix.
• Central dogma of flow of genetic information: DNA→
RNA→ Protein.
Packaging of DNA Helix:
• Distance between two conjugative base pairs is 0.34nm,
if the length of the DNA in a typical mammalian cell will
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
be 6.6 × 109  bp × 0.34 × 10–9m/bp, it comes about 2.2
metres.
Packaging in prokaryotes:
• They do not have definite nucleus.
• The DNA is not scattered throughout the cell.
• DNA is held together with some proteins in a region is
called ‘nucleoid’.
• The DNA in nucleoid is organized in large loops held by
proteins.
Packaging in Eukaryotes:
• In eukaryotes, the packaging is more complex.
• Histones are positively charged due to rich in basic amino
acids like lysine and arginine.
• Histones are organized to form a unit of eight molecules
 137

• Mathew Messelson  and  Franklin Stahl  performed the • The replication process occurs within a small opening of
following experiment in 1958. the DNA helix called replication fork.

Result of the experiment
• After one generation (that is after 20 minutes; E. coli
divides in 20 minutes), the DNA extracted had a hybrid
or intermediate density.
• After second generation, DNA extracted was composed
of equal amounts of this hybrid DNA and of ‘light’ DNA.
Experiment by Taylor and Colleagues
• Used  radioactive thymidine  to detect distribution of
newly synthesized DNA in the chromosomes.
• They performed the experiment on  Vicia faba  (faba
beans) in 1958.
• They proved the semiconservative nature of DNA
replication in eukaryotes.
Replication Machinery and Enzymes
• Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates  (dATP, dGTP,
dCTP, dTTP) serve dual purposes:
• Provide energy for polymerization.
• Acts as substrates for polymerization.
• The region where, replication fork formed is called origin
of replication.
• Two separated strand are called template strands.
• Main enzyme is DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, since
it uses a DNA template to catalyze the polymerization of
deoxyribonucleotides.
• DNA polymerase catalyses polymerization only in one
direction, i.e., 5' → 3'.
• On one strand (template with 3' → 5' polarity), the
replication is continuous hence called leading strand.
• In another strand (template with 5' → 3' polarity) the
polymerization takes place in the form of short fragment
called Okazaki fragment.
• The short fragments are joined by  DNA ligase, hence
called lagging strand.
• In eukaryotes, replication takes place in S-phase of cell
cycle.
• A failure of cytokinesis after replication results
into polyploidy.

Enzymes Function
Initiator protein Binds to origin and separates strands of DNA to initiate replication
DNA helicase Unwinds DNA at replication fork
Single - strand binding proteins Attach to single - stranded DNA and prevent secondary structures from forming
DNA gyrase Moves ahead of the replication fork, making and resealing breaks in the double
- helical DNA to release the torque that builds up as a result of unwinding at the
replication fork
DNA primase Synthesizes a short RNA primer to provide a 3'-OH group for the attachment of
DNA nucleotides

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

DNA polymerase III Elongates a new nucleotide strand from the 3'-OH group provided by the primer
DNA polymerase I Removes RNA primers and replaces them with DNA
DNA ligase Joins Okazaki fragments by sealing nicks in the sugar - phosphate backbone of
newly synthesized DNA

Transcription would be complementary to each other, hence will

form double stranded RNA. This would prevent RNA
‘The process of copying genetic information from one strand
translation into protein.
of the DNA into RNA is termed a transcription’.
Why both strands of DNA not copied during transcription? Transcription Unit
• If both strand of DNA acts as template, they would
A transcription unit in DNA consists of three regions:
translated into two RNA of different sequences and in
turn if they code for proteins, the sequence of amino acids • A promoter
in the protein would be different. Hence one segment of • The structural gene
DNA would be coding for two different proteins. • A terminator.
• The two RNA molecules if produced simultaneously DNA dependent RNA polymerase  catalyses the
 139

• Promoter of the DNA is recognized by initiation factor Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3’ end of
or sigma (σ). hnRNA in a template independent manner.

• RNA polymerase along with initiation factor binds to the The processed hnRNA is now called mRNA and transported
promoter. out of the nucleus for translation.

◊ Elongation Genetic Code

• RNA polymerase unzipped the DNA double helix and
forms an open loop.
• It uses  ribonucleoside triphosphate  as substrate and
polymerizes in a DNA template following the rule of
complementarity.
• Only a short stretch of polymerized RNA remains binds
with the enzyme.
• The process of polymerization continued till the enzyme
reaches the terminator gene.
◊ Termination
• RNA polymerase recognizes the terminator gene by
a termination-factor called rho (ρ) factor.
• The RNA polymerase separated from the DNA and also
the transcribed RNA.
Additional complexities in eukaryotes
There are  three  different types of RNA polymerases in
the nucleus:
▪▪ RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNA (28S, 18S, and
5.8S)
▪▪ RNA polymerase II  transcribes  heterogeneous
nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
▪▪ RNA polymerase III transcribes tRNA, 5srRNA and
snRNA.
Contribution to discovery:
• The process of translation is the transfer of genetic
information form a polymer of nucleotides to a polymer
of amino acids. There is no complementarity exist
between nucleotides and amino acids.
• If there is change in the nucleic acid (genetic material),
there is change in amino acids in proteins.
• There must be a genetic code that could direct the
sequence of amino acids in proteins during translation.
• George Gamow  proposed the code should be
combination of bases, he suggested that in order to code
for all the 20 amino acids, the code should be made up of
three nucleotides.
• Har Govind Khorana synthesized RNA molecules
with desired combinations of bases (homopolymer and
copolymers).
• Marshall Nirenberg’s  cell – free system for protein
synthesis finally helped the discovery of genetic code.
• Severo Ochoa enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase)
was also helpful in polymerizing RNA with desired
sequences in a template independent manner (enzymatic
synthesis of RNA).
Salient features of genetic code
• The  codon is triplet. Three nitrogen base sequences

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Post transcriptional processing constitute one codon.

• Occurs inside the nucleus • There are 64 codon; 61 codes for amino acids and 3
codons are stop codon.
(a) Splicing
• One codon codes for only one amino acid, hence it
◊ The primary transcript  (hnRNA)  contain is unambiguous and specific.
both exons and introns and required to be processed
• Degeneracy: Some amino acids are coded by more than
before translationally active (mRNA).
one codon.
◊ The introns are removed and exons are joined in a
• Comma less: The codon is read in mRNA in a continuous
defined order.
fashion. There is no punctuation.
◊ This process is catalyzed by snRNP, introns removed
• Universal:  From bacteria to human, UUU codes for
as spliceosome.
phenylalanine.
(b) Capping
• Initiation codon: AUG is the first codon (initiator codon)
An unusual nucleotide called  methyl guanosine of all mRNA. And also it codes for methionine (met),
triphosphate is added to the 5’ end of hnRNA. hence has dual function.
(c) Tailing • Non-overlapping: The genetic code reads linearly.

◊ Translational level.
• In prokaryotes, control of rate of transcriptional initiation
is the predominant site for control of gene expression.
• The activity of RNA polymerase at the promoter is
regulated by accessory proteins, which affects its ability
to recognize the start site.
• The regulatory proteins can act both positively
(activators) or negatively (repressor).
• The regulatory proteins interact with specific region of
DNA called operator, which regulate the accessibility of
RNA polymerase to promoter.
Lac Operon
• Francois Jacob and Jacque Monod were first to describe
a transcriptionally regulated system of gene expression.
• A polycistronic structural gene is regulated by common
promoter and regulatory genes. Such regulation system is
common in bacteria and is called operon.
• Lac operon consists of:
◊ One regulator gene ( i-gene)
◊ Three structural genes (z,y,a)
◊ Operator (binding site of repressor protein)
◊ Promoter (binding site of the RNA polymerase)
• The i-gene codes for repressor of the lac operon.
• The structural gene consists of three gene (z, y and a)
◊ ‘z’-gene codes for  beta-galactosidase, which
hydrolyze lactose into galactose and glucose.
◊ ‘y’ –gene codes for  permease, which increases the
permeability of bacterial cell to lactose.
◊ ‘a’-gene codes for transacetylase.
• All three genes are required for the metabolism of lactose
in bacteria.
• Inducer: Lactose is the substrate for β- galactosidase and
it regulates the switching on and off of the lac operon.
Hence, it is called inducer.
• In the absence of glucose, if lactose is added in the
growth medium of the bacteria, the lactose is transported
into the cell by permease.
• Very low level of expression of lac operon has to be
present in the cell all the time; otherwise lactose cannot
enter the cell.
Mechanism of regulation of lac operon
• The repressor protein is synthesized from i-gene (all time
141
constitutively)
• In the  absence of the inducer,  i.e., lactose, the active
repressor binds to the operator and prevents RNA
polymerase from transcribing the structural gene.
• In the presence of the inducer such as lactose or
allolactose, the repressor is inactivated by interaction
with inducer.
• This allows RNA polymerase access to the promoter and
transcription proceeds.
• The regulation of lac operon by repressor is referred to
as negative regulation.
Human Genome Project
• Assumptions that led to finding out the complete DNA
sequence of human genome are
◊ Genetic make-up of an organism or an individual lies
in the DNA sequences.
◊ Two individual differs in their DNA sequences at least
in some places.
• Project of sequencing human genome was launched in
1990.
Goals of HGP
• Identify all the approximately 20,000 – 25,000 genes in
human DNA.
• Determine the sequence of all 3 billion chemical base pairs.
• Store this information in data bases.
• Improve tools for data analysis.
• Transfer related technologies to other sectors, such as
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
industries.
• Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that
may arise from the project.
Methodology
• To identify all the genes that expressed as RNA referred
as Expressed Sequence Tags (ETSs).
• Simply sequencing the whole set of genome that
contained all the coding and non-coding sequence, and
later assigning different regions in the sequence with
functions called Sequence Annotation.
• The commonly used hosts for sequencing were bacteria
and yeast and vectors were called as  BAC  (bacterial
artificial chromosome) and  YAC  (yeast artificial
chromosome).
 7
Chapter
Evolution
NCERT Crisp
Origin of Life
Stellar distances are measured in light years.
The universe is very old – almost 20 billion years old.
The Big Bang theory:  It states that the universe was in a
very high density state and then expanded.
• A singular huge explosion unimaginable in physical term.
The universe expanded and hence the temperature came
down. Hydrogen and helium formed sometime later.
The gases condensed under gravitation and formed the
galaxies of the present day universe.
In the solar system of the Milky Way galaxy, earth was
supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years
back.
Conditions of early earth
• Earth formed 4.5 billion years back.
• There was no atmosphere on early earth.
• Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia
released from molten mass covered the surface.
• The UV rays from the sun broke up water into hydrogen
and oxygen and lighter H2 escaped.
• Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form
water, CO2 and others.
• The ozone layer was formed.
• As it cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the
depressions and form oceans.
• Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of
earth.
Origin of life
Early Greek thinkers thought units of life
called  spores  were transferred to different planets
including earth.
Theory of Panspermia (Cosmozoic theory)
This theory was proposed by Richter(1865)
According to this theory life on earth came from a distant
planet in the form of spores or microorganisms.
Theory of Spontaneous Generation
According to this theory, life came out of decaying and rotting
matter like straw, mud, etc.
Theory of spontaneous generation was proposed by Van
Helmont.
Theory of Biogenesis: According to this theory, life originated
from pre-existing life.
This theory was proved by three scientists: Redi, Spallanzani
and Pasteur.
Louis Pasteur Experiment
Careful experimentation demonstrated that life comes only
from pre-existing life.
He showed that in pre-sterilized flasks, life did not come from
killed yeast while in another flask open to air, new living
organism arose from ‘killed yeast’.
This disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.
Theory of Chemical Origin
Oparin – Haldane theory of origin of life
Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the
first form of life could have come from pre- existing non-
living organic molecule (e.g. RNA, protein etc.).
Formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution,
i.e., formation of diverse organic molecule from inorganic
constituents.
 167

E.g., Thorns of Bougainvillea E.g., Wings of insects and • Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc., has only
and tendrils of Cucurbita; birds; eyes of octopus resulted in selection of resistant varieties in a much lesser
time scale.
Human hand, Whale’s and mammals; flipper of
flippers, Bat’s wing, and penguins and dolphins; • This is also true for microbes against which we employ
Cheetah’s foot sweet potato & potato; antibiotics or drugs against eukaryotic organisms/cell.
trachea of insects and lungs Hence, resistance organisms/cells are appearing in a time
of vertebrates scale of months or years and not in centuries.
Convergent and divergent evolution
What is Adaptive Radiation?
Convergent evolution Divergent evolution
• The process of evolution of different species in a given
It is the process by which It is the process by which
geographical area starting from a point and literally
unrelated species become related species become less
radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is
more similar in order to similar in order to survive
called adaptive radiation.
survive and adapt in similar and adapt in different
environmental condition environmental condition • When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have
The origin of homologous Origin of analogous organs occurred in an isolated geographical area (representing
organs is due to divergent is due to convergent different habitats), one can call this convergent evolution.
evolution. evolution. Examples:
C. Embryological support for evolution ◊ Darwin’s Finches
• Proposed by Ernst Haeckel based upon observation of • In Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed small black
certain features during embryonic stage common to birds later called Darwin’s Finches.
all vertebrates that are absent in adult. • He realized that there were many varieties of finches in
• The embryos of all vertebrates including human develop the same island.
a row of vestigial gill slits just behind the head but it is a • All the varieties, evolved on the island itself.
functional organ only in fish and not found in any other
• From the original seed-eating features, many other
adult vertebrates. forms with altered beaks arose, enabling them to become
• This is disproved on careful study performed by Karl insectivorous and vegetarian finches.
Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos never pass ◊ Australian marsupial
through the adult stages of other animals.
• A number of marsupials each different from the other
D. Evolution by natural selection evolved from an ancestral stock. But all within the
Based on observation of moth population in England made Australian island continent.
in 1850. ◊ Placental mammals 
Eg; Industrial melanism (In England)
• In Australia, placental mammals also exhibit adaptive
Before industrialization (1850s) radiation in evolving into varieties of such placental
mammals each of which appears to be ‘similar’ to a
There were more white winged moths (Biston betularia)
corresponding  marsupial  (e.g., placental wolf and
on trees than dark winged or melanised moths (Biston
Tasmanian wolf-marsupial).
carbonaria).
Reason: There was white coloured lichen covered the trees. Biological Evolution Evolution
In that background, the white winged moths survived but
the dark coloured moths were picked out by predators. Darwinian theory of evolution

After industrialization (1920)
More dark winged moths and less white winged moths.
Reason: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial
smoke and soot. No growth of lichens. Under this condition
the white winged moth did not survive because the predators
identified them easily. Dark winged moth survived because
of suitable dark background.
E. Evolution by anthropogenic (by human) action:
• Examples of evolution by anthropogenic action.
• Branching descent and natural selection are the two
key concepts of Darwinian Theory of Evolution.
• The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life
cycle or the life span.
• Some organisms are better adapted to survive in an
otherwise hostile environment.
• Adaptive ability is inherited. It has genetic basis, for
getting selected and to evolve.
• Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get
selected by nature.
 169

A Brief Account of Evolution

Evolution of Plants:
Unicellular → Multicellular → Algae → Rhynia type plants → Cycads → Gnetales → Dicot → Monocot.

Evolution of Man

Various Stages of Human Evolution

Human ancestors Origin period Characteristics

Dryopithecus 20-25 mya More ape-like, arms and legs of same length, large brain and ate
soft fruits and leaves.

Ramapithecus 14-15 mya More man-like, walked erect and teeth like modern man

Australopithecus 3-4 mya Man-like primates, tall, walked straight, ate fruits having brain
capacity 400-600 cc. Fossils found in Tanzania and Ethoipia

Homo habilis 2 mya First humans-like being, brain capacity 650-800 cc, herbivores
and fossils found in East Africa

Homo erectus (Java 1.5 mya Brain capacity 900 cc, food was meat. Fossils found in Java.
man)
Homo sapiens neander- 1,00,000-40,000 years ago Brain size 1400 cc, used hides to protect body and body buried
thalesis (Primitive man) after death. Fossils found in East and Central Asia.

Homo sapiens sapiens 75,000-10,000 years ago Started agriculture, human settlement started, prehistoric cave
(Modern man) art developed.

Exam Oriented Information Sphenodon Connecting link between Reptile and

Amphibians
Coacervates: Microscopic spontaneously formed spherical
aggregates of lipid molecules that are held together by Ornithorhynchus Connecting link between Mammals
electrostatic forces and that may have been precursors of cells. and Reptiles
Missing links: Extinct Organisms which had characters of Protopterus Connecting link between Bony fish
two different groups of animals. e.g ,Archaeopteryx: Missing (Lung fish) and Amphibians
link between reptiles and birds Seymouria Connecting link between Amphibians
Connecting links: Living Organisms having character of two and Reptiles
different groups of animals.
Atavism /Reversion: Reappearance of ancestral traits/

Evolution
Examples structures.
Organisms Connecting links
Examples: Ability to move pinnae, human baby with a small
Peripatus Connecting link between Annelids and
tail etc
Arthropods
Neopilina Connecting link between Annelids and Biogenetic law: given by Ernst Haeckel states “Ontogeny
Molluscs repeats Phylogeny”.
Balanoglossus Connecting link between Chordates Modern synthetic theory of evolution: Combination of
and Non chordates Darwins Natural selection theory & De Vries mutation theory.
 194

Diphtheria Corynebacterium Direct contact with Sore throat Throat culture

diphtheriae infected perosn Fever
or through the air. Enlarged lymph nodes.
Viral diseases:

Disease Causal organism Mode of transmission Symptoms Diagnostic test

Common cold Rhino viruses Droplets resulting Infect the nose and respiratory Self diagnosable
from cough or sneezes passage but not the lungs.
of an infected person Nasal congestion and discharge
are either inhaled Sore throat & hoarseness
directly or transmitted Cough
through contaminated Headache
objects. Tiredness

Protozoan diseases:

Disease Causal organism Mode of transmission Symptoms Diagnostic test

Malaria Plasmodium sp. (P. Anopheles mosquito Release of Haemozoin 1.Blood test
vivax, P. malariae, and biting. causes chill and high 2.Quantitative buffy
P. falciparum). fever recurring every coat (QBC) is a
3-4 days. laboratory test to
detect infection with
malaria
Amoebiasis (Amoebic Entamoeba histolyt- Houseflies (mechani- Constipation, abdom- Blood and stool test
dysentery) ica. cal carriers) inal pain and cramps,
stools with excess mu-
cous and blood clots.
Helminthes diseases

Disease Causal organism Mode of Symptoms Diagnostic test

transmission
Ascariasis Ascaris (Intestinal Contaminated soil, Internal bleeding, muscular Stool test
parasite). water, vegetables, pain, fever, anaemia and
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology

fruits etc. blockage of intestinal passage.

Filariasis (Elephan- Filarial worms or Bite of female Culex Filarial worms live in lym-  ICT Filariasis Test
tiasis) Wuchereria (W. ban- mosquito. phatic vessels (usually of
crofti & W. malayi). lower limbs). Inflammation
of the organs in which they
live for many years. Limbs
and genital organs may be
deformed.
Fungal diseases
Disease Causal organism Mode of Symptoms Diagnostic test
transmission
Ring worm Microsporum, Trichophyton From soil or by Appearance of dry, By looking skin
(Dermatophytosis) & Epidermophyton. using towels, cloths, scaly lesions on
comb, etc. Heat and various body parts
moisture help fungi to such as skin nails and
grow. scalp. Intense itching.
 196
• The substances to which allergy is produced are called
allergens.
• The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type. Allergy
is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and
serotonin from the mast cells.
• For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is
exposed to or injected with very small doses of possible
allergens.
Auto Immunity
• Sometimes, due to genetic and other unknown reasons,
the body attacks self-cell.
• This results in damage to the body and is called auto-
immune disease, e.g., Rheumatoid arthritis.
Immune System In The Body
• The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs,
tissues, cells and soluble molecules like antibodies.
Lymphoid organs
• The primary lymphoid organs are bone marrow and
thymus where immature lymphocytes differentiate into
antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
• After maturation, the lymphocytes migrate to secondary
lymphoid organs like spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils,
Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix.
• The bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all
blood cells including lymphocytes are produced.
• The thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps
reducing in size with age and by the time puberty is
attained it reduces to a very small size.
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
• Both bone-marrow and thymus provide micro-
environments for the development and maturation of
T-lymphocytes. Spleen has a reservoir of erythrocytes.
• Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT): It is
located within the lining of the major tracts (respiratory,
digestive and urogenital tracts). It constitutes about 50
per cent of the lymphoid tissue in human body.
Cancer
• In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly
controlled and regulated. In cancer cells, there is
breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms.
• Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition
by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits their
uncontrolled growth.
• Cancer cells appear to have lost this property. As a result
of this, cancerous cells just continue to divide giving rise
to masses of cells called tumors.
• Tumors are of two types: benign and malignant. Benign
tumors normally remain confined to their original
location and do not spread to other parts of the body and
cause little damage.
• The malignant tumors, on the other hand are a mass of
proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor cells.
• These cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the
surrounding normal tissues.
• Cells sloughed from such tumors reach distant sites
through blood, and wherever they get lodged in the body,
they start a new tumor there.
• This property called metastasis is the most feared
property of malignant tumors.
Causes Of Cancer
• Transformation of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic
cells may be induced physical, chemical or biological
agents. These agents are called carcinogens.
• Ionizing radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and
non-ionizing radiations like UV cause DNA damage
leading to neoplastic transformation.
• The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco smoke have
been identified as a major cause of lung cancer.
• Cancer causing viruses called oncogenic viruses have
genes called viral oncogenes.
• Furthermore, several genes called cellular oncogenes
(c-onc) or proto oncogenes have been identified in normal
cells which, when activated under certain conditions,
could lead to oncogenic transformation of the cells.
Cancer Detection And Diagnosis
• Cancer detection is based on biopsy and histopathological
studies of the tissue and blood and bone marrow tests
for increased cell counts in the case of leukemias.
Treatment Of Cancer
• The common approaches for treatment of cancer are
surgery, radiation therapy and immunotherapy.
• Patients are given substances called biological response
modifiers such as α-interferon which activate their
immune system and help in destroying the tumor.
Drugs And Alcohol Abuse
• The drugs, which are commonly abused, are opioids,
cannabinoids and coca alkaloids.
 Strategies for
9 Enhancement in Food
Chapter
Production

NCERT Crisp

Animal Husbandry make that organism more useful to humans.

More than 70% of the world livestock population is in India &
China. However, the contribution to the world farm produce
is only 25%, i.e., the productivity per unit is very low.
Management of Farms and Farm Animals
1. Dairy Farm Management (Dairying)
For the high yield potential:
▪▪ The cattle have to be well looked after – they have to
be housed well, should have adequate water and be
maintained disease free.
▪▪ The feeding of cattle should be carried out in a scientific
manner – with special emphasis on the quality and
quantity of fodder.
▪▪ Stringent cleanliness and hygiene (both of cattle &
handlers) while milking, storage and transport of the milk.
2. Poultry Farm Management
Components of poultry farm management:
▪▪ Selection of disease free and suitable breeds.
▪▪ Proper and safe farm conditions.
▪▪ Proper feed and water.
▪▪ Hygiene and health care.
Animal Breeding
A breed is a group of animals related by descent and similar
in general appearance, features, size etc.
Breeding is the modification of genotype of an organism to
Breeding is 2 types: Inbreeding and out breeding.
a. Inbreeding
• It is the mating of more closely related individuals within
the same breed for 4-6 generations. This strategy is as
follows:
• Superior males and superior females of the same breed
are identified and mated in pairs.
• The progeny obtained are evaluated and superior males and
females among them are identified for further mating. In
cattle, a superior female produces more milk per lactation. A
superior male (bull) gives rise to superior progeny.
Advantages of inbreeding:
• It increases homozygosity to evolve a pure line animal.
• It exposes harmful recessive genes that are eliminated by
selection.
• It helps in accumulation of superior genes and elimination
of less desirable genes. This approach increases the
productivity of inbred population.
• Continued inbreeding, especially close inbreeding,
may reduce fertility and productivity. This is called
inbreeding depression. To solve this problem, selected
animals should be mated with unrelated superior animals
of the same breed.
b. Out-breeding: It is the breeding of the unrelated animals.
It is of three types:

Out-crossing Interspecific hybridization Cross-breeding

Breeding between individuals of the
same breed but having no common
ancestors for 4-6.
It is the best method for animals having
low productivity in milk production,
growth rate in beef cattle.
It helps to overcome inbreeding
depression.
Breeding between individuals of different Breeding between individuals of
species. between different breeds
In some cases, the progeny may combine It allows the desirable qualities of
desirable features of both the parents, and two different breeds to be combined
may be of considerable economic value.
E.g., Mule (male ass X female horse) Jack E.g., Hisardale: Bikaneri ewes X
and Mere relation Marino rams

locations in the country, representing all the agro climatic
zones. The material is evaluated in comparison to the
best available local crop cultivar (a check or reference
cultivar).
High Yielding Crop Varieties
Wheat and Rice:
• The development of high yielding varieties of wheat and
rice in the mid-1960s, through plant breeding techniques
has increased food production in our country. This phase
is known as the Green Revolution.
• Father of Green Revolution: M.Swaminathan
• Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug (International Centre
for Wheat & Maize Improvement, Mexico) developed
semi-dwarf wheat.
• In 1963, high yielding and disease resistant varieties such
as Sonalika & Kalyan Sona were introduced all over the
wheat-growing belt of India.
• Semi-dwarf rice varieties:
◊ IR-8, (developed at International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI), Philippines)
◊ Taichung Native-1 (from Taiwan). Later better-
yielding semi dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna were
developed in India.
Sugar cane: Saccharum barberi (grown in north India, but
poor sugar content & yield) was crossed with Saccharum
officinarum (tropical canes in south India, thicker stems and
higher sugar content but do not grow well in north India) and
got a hybrid sugar cane having desirable qualities like high
yield, thick stems, high sugar and ability to grow in north
India.
Millets: Hybrid maize, jowar & bajra successfully
developed in India. It includes high yielding varieties resistant
to water stress.
Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance
• It enhances food production and helps to reduce the use
of fungicides and bactericides.
Plant diseases:
▪▪ Fungal: Rusts (E.g., brown rust of wheat, red rot of
sugarcane and late blight of potato).
▪▪ Bacterial: Black rot of crucifers.
▪▪ Viral: Tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic, etc.
Methods of breeding for disease resistance: Include
conventional breeding techniques & mutation breeding.
1. Conventional method: The steps are:
• Screening germplasm for resistance sources.
223
• Hybridisation of selected parents.
• Selection and evaluation of the hybrids.
• Testing and release of new varieties.
• Conventional breeding is constrained by the availability
of limited number of disease resistance genes.
2. Mutation breeding:
• Mutation (creation of genetic variations) can create
new desirable characters not found in the parental type.
Plants having these desirable characters can be multiplied
directly or can be used in breeding.
• Mutation breeding is the breeding by mutation through
use of chemicals or radiations (like gamma radiations),
and selecting and using the plants that have desirable
character as a source in breeding.
• E.g., In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus
and powdery mildew were induced by mutations.
• Resistant genes from wild species are introduced into
the high-yielding cultivated varieties. E.g., resistance to
yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus)
was transferred from a wild species and resulted in a new
variety called Parbhani kranti.
• Transfer of resistance genes is achieved by sexual
hybridisation between the target and the source plant.
Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests
• Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due
to morphological, biochemical or physiological
Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production
characteristics.
• Hairy leaves: e.g., resistance to jassids in cotton and
cereal leaf beetle in wheat.
• Solid stems in wheat: lead to non-preference by the stem
sawfly.
• Smooth leaved and Nectar-less cotton varieties do not
attract bollworms.
• High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in
maize leads to resistance to maize stem borers.
• Sources of resistance genes for breeding are cultivated
varieties, germplasm collections of crop or wild relatives.
Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality
• More than 840 million people in the world do not have
adequate food. 3 billion people suffer from micronutrient,
protein and vitamin deficiencies (‘hidden hunger’).
• Biofortification: (breeding crops with higher levels of
 10
Chapter
Microbes in
Human Welfare

NCERT Crisp

Organisms/Products Uses

Microbes in household products

Lactobacillus acidophilus or Lactic acid bacteria ▪▪ Convert milk to curd.

Baker’s Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
▪▪ LAB produces acids that coagulate and partially digest the
milk proteins.
▪▪ It also increases vitamin B12.
▪▪ In stomach, LAB helps to check pathogens.
▪▪ It is used to make bread by fermenting dough.

Propionibacterium sharmanii ▪▪ Large holes in ‘Swiss cheese’ are due to production of CO2

Microbes in industrial products

Penicillin (Medicine) ▪▪ First antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming.

▪▪ He observed that a mould (Penicillium notatum) growing in
unwashed culture plates around which Staphylococci could
not grow.
▪▪ Ernest Chain and Howard Florey established its full
potential as an effective antibiotic.
Lactobacillus (a bacterium) ▪▪ Lactic acid producer

Lipases(Enzyme) ▪▪ Used in detergent formulations.

▪▪ Help to remove oily stains from the laundry.

Pectinases & Proteases (Enzymes) ▪▪ To clarify bottled juices.

Microbes in Sewage Treatment organic matter and microbes.

Sewage is treated in Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) to
Sewage (municipal waste-water) contains large amount of
make it less polluting. It includes 2 stages,
 11
Chapter
Biotechnology:
Principles and Processes
NCERT Crisp
• Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live
organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce
products and processes useful to humans.
• According to EFB, biotechnology is defined as ‘the
integration of natural science and organisms, cells,
parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and
services’.
Principles Of Biotechnology
There are two core techniques that enabled birth of modern
biotechnology.
◊ Genetic engineering
◊ Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-
free) ambience
• In a chromosome, there is a specific DNA sequence
called the origin of replication, which is responsible for
initiating replication.
• Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer, in 1972, isolated the
antibiotic resistance gene by cutting out a piece of DNA
from a plasmid which was responsible for conferring
antibiotic resistance.
• Molecular scissors: Restriction enzymes are called
molecular scissors as they cut the DNA at specific
locations.
There are three basic steps in genetically modifying an
organism
▪▪ Identification of DNA with desirable genes
▪▪ Introduction of the identified DNA into the host
▪▪ Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer
of the DNA to its progeny
Tools Of Recombinant DNA Technology
The key tools for genetic engineering or recombinant DNA
technology are restriction enzymes, polymerase enzymes,
ligases, vectors and the host organism.
Restriction Enzymes
• The first restriction endonuclease-Hind II, always cut
DNA molecules at a particular point by recognizing a
specific sequence of six base pairs. This specific base
sequence is known as the recognition sequence.
• In EcoRI, the letter ‘R’ is derived from the name of
strain. Roman numbers following the names indicate the
order in which the enzymes were isolated from that strain
of bacteria.
Restriction enzymes are of two kinds:
▪▪ Exonucleases: Remove nucleotides from the ends of
the DNA
▪▪ Endonucleases: Make cuts at specific positions
within the DNA
• Palindromic nucleotide sequences: It is a sequence
of base pairs that reads same on the two strands when
orientation of reading is kept the same.
• Sticky ends: These are the over hanging stretches created
by restriction enzymes. These are named so because they
form hydrogen bonds with their complementary cut
counterparts. This stickiness of the ends facilitates the
action of the enzyme DNA ligase.
Seperation And Isolation Of DNA Fragments
• The most commonly used matrix is agarose (natural
polymer extracted from sea weeds).
• The separated DNA fragments can be visualized only

processing.
Bioreactor
• To produce in large quantities, the development of
bioreactors, where large volume of culture can be
processed, was required.
• A bioreactor provides the optimal conditions for
achieving the desired product by providing optimum
growth conditions (temperature, pH, substrate, salts,
vitamins, oxygen).
263
Stirred-tank reactor
• It is usually cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate
the mixing of the reactor contents.
• The stirrer facilitates even mixing and oxygen
availability throughout the bioreactor.
• The bioreactor has an agitator system, an oxygen
delivery system and a foam control system, a temperature
control system, pH control system and sampling ports
so that small volumes of the culture can be withdrawn
periodically.
Biotechnology: Principles and Processes

Mechanism of action
• B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals, a toxic insecticidal
protein, during a particular phase of their growth.
• After ingesting by the insect, the inactive toxin (natural
form) is converted into an active form of toxin due to the
alkaline pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals.
• The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut
epithelial cells.
• It creates pores that cause cell swelling and lysis and
eventually cause death of the insect.
Nematode resistance in tobacco plants:
• A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the roots of
tobacco and rice plants and causes a great reduction in
yield.
• RNA interference (RNAi) strategy is used to prevent
this infestation.
• RNAi is a method of cellular defense in all eukaryotic
organisms. It prevents translation of a specific mRNA
(silencing) due to a binding of complementary miRNA to
mRNA forming dsRNA molecule.
• The source of this complementary RNA is from an
infection by RNA viruses, mobile genetic elements
(transposons) or inverted repeat sequence that replicate
via an RNA intermediate.
Mode of action
• Nematode-specific genes were introduced into the host
plant by using Agrobacterium vectors
• The introduction of DNA was such that it produced both
sense and anti-sense RNA in the host cells.
• These two RNA’s being complementary to each other
formed a double stranded (dsRNA).
• This results in the initiation of RNAi and thus, silenced
the specific mRNA.
Applications In Medicine
• The recombinant DNA technology helps for the mass
production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs.
• The recombinant therapeutics do not induce unwanted
immunological responses as is common in case of
similar products isolated from non-human sources.
• At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have
been approved for human-use. In India, 12 of these are
presently being marketed.
287
Genetically Engineered Insulin
• Management of adult-onset diabetes is possible by taking
insulin at regular time intervals.
• Now, it is possible to produce human insulin using
bacteria.
• Insulin from the pancreas of animals (cattle & pigs)
causes allergy or other types of reactions to the foreign
protein.
• Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains (chain
A & chain B) that are linked together by disulphide
bridges.
• In mammals, insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone.
The pro-hormone needs processing before it becomes a
fully mature and functional hormone.
• The pro-hormone contains an extra stretch called the C
peptide. This is removed during maturation into insulin.
Biotechnology and its Applications
• In 1983, Eli Lilly an American company prepared two
DNA sequences corresponding to A & B chains of human
insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to
produce insulin chains. Chains A & B were produced
separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide
bonds to form human insulin.
Gene Therapy
• It is a method to correct a gene defect that has been
diagnosed in a child/ embryo.
• First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-year
old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
The disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene
for adenosine deaminase (the enzyme crucial for the
immune system to function).
• This can be cured by bone marrow transplantation or
by enzyme replacement therapy (injection of functional

introduction of these organisms in natural ecosystem.
• Many indigenous varieties are claimed by multinational
companies as their own inventions.
• E.g., a new variety of Basmati was claimed by an American
company through patenting.This new variety had actually
derived from Indian farmers by crossing Indian Basmati
with semi-dwarfvarieties. Similarly, neem and turmeric,
which have been used for ages in Indian medicines, are
also mattersof dispute for patent rights.
Biopiracy
• It is the use of bio-resources by multinational companies
and other organizations without proper authorization
from the countries and people concerned.
289
• Industrialized and developed nations are rich financially
but poor in biodiversity and traditional knowledge.
Therefore, they exploit traditional knowledge and
resources of poor countries for commercialization.
• There has been growing realization of the injustice,
inadequate compensation and benefit sharing between
developed and developing countries. Therefore, some
nations develop laws to prevent such unauthorized
exploitation of their bio-resources and traditional
knowledge.
• The Indian parliament has recently introduced second
amendment of Indian patents bill to deal with these
issues.
Biotechnology and its Applications
 310
Based on the range of tolerance to salinity, organisms are
▪▪ Euryhaline: Tolerate a wide range of salinities.
▪▪ Stenohaline: Tolerate only a narrow range of salinity.
Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea
water and vice versa because of the osmotic problems.
c. Light
• Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis and flowering.
• Small forest plants (herbs & shrubs) are adapted to
photosynthesize optimally under very low light because
they are overshadowed by tall, canopied trees.
• Many animals use the diurnal and seasonal variations in
light intensity and photoperiod for timing their foraging,
reproductive & migratory activities.
• Sun is the ultimate source for light and temperature
on land. Deep (>500m) in the oceans, the environment is
dark and there is no energy available from sun.
• Among the red, green and brown algae that inhabit
the sea, red alage is likely to be found in the deepest
waters.
Light Zones of Lakes/Sea:
Littoral Zone Highly productive region
Limnetic zone An open water body
Euphotic zone This zone receives maximum light
Disphotic zone/ This zone receives diffused light
Twilight zone
Profundal zone No light at all.
Benthic zone Zone present at bottom of the sea
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
d. Soil
• The nature and properties of soil is dependent on the
climate, the weathering process, sedimentation, method
of soil development, etc.
• Various characteristics of the soil (soil composition, grain
size and aggregation) determine the percolation and water
holding capacity of the soils.
• These characteristics and parameters such as pH, mineral
composition & topography determine the vegetation and
animals in an area.
• In aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics
determine the type of benthic animals.
• Soil particles determine its texture.
• Fertility of soil is measured by its ability to supports life.
Responses to Abiotic Factors
• Organisms maintain a constant internal environment
(homeostasis) despite varying external environmental
conditions. This is possible by following processes.
a. Regulate
• It is the maintenance of homeostasis by physiological &
behavioural means that ensures constant body temperature
(thermoregulation), constant osmotic concentration
(osmoregulation) etc.
• E.g., all birds & mammals, very few lower vertebrates
and invertebrates.
Thermoregulation in mammals:
▪▪ The success of mammals is mainly due to their ability to
maintain a constant body temperature.
▪▪ In summer, when outside temperature is more than body
temperature (370C) we sweat profusely. This results in
evaporative cooling and brings down body temperature.
▪▪ In winter, when the temperature is below 370C, shivering
occurs. It produces heat and raises the body temperature.
b. Conform
• 99% of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain
a constant internal environment. Their body temperature
or osmotic concentration change with the surrounding
conditions. They are called conformers.
• In aquatic animals, osmotic concentration of body
fluids changes with that of the ambient osmotic
concentration.
• Thermoregulation is energetically expensive
especially for small animals (shrews, humming birds
etc). They have a larger surface area relative to their
volume. So they lose body heat very fast when it is
cold outside. Then they have to expend much energy to
generate body heat. Therefore very small animals are
rare in polar regions.
c. Migrate
• Many animals like birds move away temporarily from
stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and return
when stressful period is over.
• E.g., during winter, Keolado National Park (Bhartpur,
Rajasthan) hosts migratory birds coming from Siberia
 312
Populations
A population is a group of individuals of same species that
live in a given geographical area, share or compete for similar
resources and potentially reproduce.
E.g., all the cormorants in a wetland, rats in an abandoned
dwelling, teakwood trees in a forest tract, bacteria in a culture
plate and lotus plants in a pond, etc.
Population ecology is an important area of ecology as it links
ecology to population genetics & evolution.
Population Attributes:
◊ Birth rates: Refers to per capita births.
• E.g. Consider in a pond there are 20 lotus plants last
year and through reproduction 8 new plants are added.
Hence, the current population = 28
• The birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year.
◊ Death rates: Refers to per capita deaths.
• E.g., Consider 4 individuals in a laboratory population
of 40 fruit flies died during a week. Hence, the death rate
= 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week.
• Sex ratio: Ratio of number of males and females in a
population.
Age pyramid: If the age distribution (% individuals of a given
age or age group) is plotted for the population, the resulting
structure is called an age pyramid.
For human population, the age pyramids generally show age
distribution of males and females in a combined diagram.
The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
population- whether it is (a) growing (b) stable or (c) declining.
Population Growth
The population size changes in time, depending on various
factors like food availability, predation pressure & weather.
Changes in population density give some idea about the
Exponential growth
Resources (food and space) in the habitat are unlimited.
Each species shows its full innate potential to grow in number.
population – whether it is flourishing or declining.
Four basic processes that fluctuate the population density:
• Natality (B): It is the number of births in a population
during a given period.
• Mortality (D): It is the number of deaths in a population
during a given period.
• Immigration (I): It is the number of individuals of
the same species that have come into the habitat from
elsewhere during a given time period.
• Emigration (E): It is the number of individuals of the
population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during
a given time period. Natality & immigration increase the
population density and mortality & emigration decrease
the population density.
If N is the population density at time t, then its density at time
t +1 is Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Immigration
(I)
+
Natality + –
Mortality
(B) Population
(D)
Density
(N)
–
Emigration
(E)
This equation indicates that population density increases if
(B + I) is more than (D + E). Otherwise it will decrease.
Under normal conditions, births & deaths are important
factors influencing population density. Other two factors
have importance only under special conditions. E.g., if a new
habitat is just being colonized, immigration may be more
significant to population growth than birth rates.
Logistic growth
Resources (food and space) in the habitat are limited.
This leads to competition between individuals for
limited resources. The ‘fittest’ individuals survive
and reproduce.
 314
phytophagous.
• If a predator overexploits its prey, then the prey might
become extinct. It results in the extinction of predator. This
is the reason why predators in nature are ‘prudent’.
Importance of predators:
• Predators keep prey populations under control. When
certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical
area, they spread fast due to the absence its natural
predators in the invaded land.
E.g., the prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia
in the early 1920’s caused havoc by spreading. Finally,
the invasive cactus was brought under control only
after a cactus-feeding predator (a moth) was introduced
into the country.
• Biological control methods are based on the ability of the
predator to regulate prey population.
• Predators maintain species diversity in a community, by
reducing the intensity of competition among competing
prey species.
E.g., the starfish Pisaster is a predator in the rocky
intertidal communities of the American Pacific Coast.
In an experiment, when all the starfishes were removed
from an enclosed intertidal area, more than 10 species
of invertebrates became extinct within a year, due to
interspecific competition.
Defenses of prey species to lessen impact of predation:
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
• Some insects & frogs are camouflaged (cryptically-
coloured) to avoid being detected by the predator.
• Some are poisonous and so avoided by the predators.
The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator
(bird) due to a special chemical in its body. This chemical
is acquired during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a
poisonous weed.
• Thorns (Acacia, Cactus etc) are the most common
morphological means of defence of plants.
• Many plants produce chemicals that make the herbivore
sick, inhibit feeding or digestion, disrupt its reproduction
or kill it.
E.g., Calotropis (a weed growing in abandoned fields)
produce highly poisonous cardiac glycosides.
Therefore cattle or goats do not eat it. Nicotine, caffeine,
quinine, strychnine, opium, etc., are defenses against
grazers and browsers.
Competition
• Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic
evolution.
• Competition is a process in which fitness of one species
(measured as ‘r’ value) is significantly lower in presence
of another species.
• Competition occurs when closely related species compete
for the same limited resources.
• Unrelated species can also compete for the resource. E.g.,
Flamingoes & fishes in some shallow South American
lakes compete for zooplankton.
• Competition occurs in abundant resources also.
E.g., In interference competition, the feeding efficiency of
one species is reduced due to the interfering and inhibitory
presence of other species, even if resources are abundant.
Evidences for competition:
The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct
within a decade after goats were introduced on the island, due
to greater browsing efficiency of the goats.
Competitive release: A species, restricted to a small
geographical area (due to the presence of competitively
superior species), expands its distributional range when the
competing species is experimentally removed.
Connell’s field experiments showed that on the rocky sea
coasts of Scotland, the larger & competitively superior
barnacle Balanus dominates intertidal area, and excludes the
smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone.
Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’:
It states that two closely related species competing for
the same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the
competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually.
This may be true in limited resources, but not otherwise.
• Species facing competition may evolve mechanisms that
promote co-existence rather than exclusion.
E.g., resource partitioning.
Resource partitioning: If two species compete for the same
 316

(a): flower is pollinated by wasp (b) : Wasp laying eggs in a fig fruit

2. Orchids show diversity of floral patterns. They can attract

the right pollinator insect (bees & bumblebees) to ensure
pollination. Not all orchids offer rewards.
3. ‘Sexual deceit’ of Ophrys (the Mediterranean orchid). Showing bee-a pollinator on orchid flower

Pseudocopulates : One petal of its flower resembles female
bee in size, colour & markings. So male bee is attracted to
what it perceives as a female ‘pseudocopulates’ with the
flower. The bee is dusted with pollen from the flower.
When the same bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with another flower,
it transfers pollen to it. If the female bee’s colour patterns
change slightly during evolution, pollination success will be
reduced unless the orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the
resemblance of its petal to the female bee.
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
Exam Oriented Information
• Polar ice contains more than 70% of worlds freshwater.
• Ecological Niche: Each organism has an invariably
defined range of conditions that it can tolerate, diversity
in the resources it utilises and a distinct functional role
in the ecological system, all these together comprise its
niche.
Niche is actually a habitat and specific functions of a
species.
Ecological niche overlap indicates sharing of one or
more resources between the two species.
• Keystone species: The species which have great influence
on the community with respect to their biomass
 340

of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 %
of the surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55
billion tons. Rest of course, is on land.
Decomposition
• It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by
decomposers into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients.
• It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
• Detritus (dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers
and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter) is
the raw material for decomposition.
Steps of decomposition
• Fragmentation: It is the breakdown of detritus into
smaller particles by detritivores (e.g. earthworm).
• Leaching: By this process, water soluble inorganic
nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get
precipitated as unavailable salts.
• Catabolism: Degradation of detritus into simpler
inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal enzymes.
Fragmentation, leaching and catabolism operate
simultaneously on the detritus.
• Humification: Accumulation of humus (dark coloured
amorphous substance) in soil. Humus is resistant to
microbial action and so decomposes very slowly. Being
colloidal in nature, it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
• Mineralization: It is the release of inorganic nutrients
due to the degradation of humus by some microbes.
Factors influencing decomposition
• Chemical composition of detritus: Decomposition
rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin & chitin, and
quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble
substances like sugars.
• Climatic factors like temperature and soil moisture:
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward
increasing disorderliness.
• Producers: All organisms are dependent for their food
on producers (green plants), either directly or indirectly.
◊ In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are
herbaceous and woody plants.
◊ Primary producers in an aquatic ecosystem are
phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
• The energy trapped by the producer is either passed on to
a consumer or the organism dies. Death of organism is the
beginning of the detritus food chain/web.
• Consumers (heterotrophs): These are all animals that
depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food.
They include:
◊ Primary consumers (herbivores- feed on plants)-E.g.,
insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial ecosystem
and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
◊ Secondary consumers (primary carnivores- feed on
herbivores). E.g. frog, fox, man, etc.
◊ Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores- feed on
primary carnivores).
• A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below:
Grazing food chain Detritus food chain
It begins with the It begins with the dead organic
living green plants, i.e.,
matter and decomposers
producers occupying the called detritivores as the first
first trophic level. trophic level.
A much less fraction of A much larger fraction of
energy flows through thisenergy flows through this
type of food chain. type of food chain.
It binds to inorganic It releases the inorganic

Warm and moist environment favour decomposition nutrients. nutrients bound in organic
whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit matter
decomposition resulting in buildup of organic materials. It is directly dependent Energy for the food chain
on the influx of solar comes from the organic
Energy Flow
radiation. wastes, exudates and dead
• Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems matter termed as detritus.
(except deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem).
• Of the incident solar radiation less than 50% of it is
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
• Plants and photosynthetic & chemosynthetic bacteria
(autotrophs) fix solar radiant energy to make food.
• Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR and this small
amount of energy sustains the entire living world. So, it is
very important to know how the solar energy captured by
plants flows through different organisms of an ecosystem.
• Ecosystems obey 2nd law of thermodynamics. They need
a constant supply of energy to synthesise the molecules Trophic levels in an ecosystem
 342

• In the successive seral stages, there is a change in the • The climax community remains stable as long as the
diversity of species, increase in the number of species and environment remains unchanged.
organisms and an increase in the total biomass.
• Primary succession in water:
• The present day communities are the results of succession
that occurred over millions of years. Succession and Phytoplankton (pioneer) → free-floating angiosperms
evolution would have been parallel processes at that time. → rooted hydrophytes → sedges, grasses → trees
(climax community is a forest). With time, the water
Succession is 2 types:
body is converted into land.
Primary succession Secondary succession
Nutrient Cycling
It starts where no living It begins in areas where
organisms ever existed. natural biotic communities • The amount of nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
have been destroyed calcium, etc., present in the soil at any given time, is
It takes several hundred to It takes comparatively less referred to as the standing state. It varies in different
several thousand years. time. kinds of ecosystems and also on a seasonal basis.
The establishment of a Since some soil or sediment • Nutrients are never lost from the ecosystems. They are
new biotic community is is present, succession is faster recycled again and again. The movement of nutrient
generally slow. than primary succession. elements through various components of an ecosystem is
E.g., occurs in areas such E.g.,occurs in areas such called nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles).
as newly cooled lava, bare as abandoned farm lands,
Nutrient cycles are 2 types:
rock, newly created pond or burned or cut forests, lands
reservoir. that have been flooded. Gaseous cycle Sedimentary cycle
• The species that invade depend on the condition of the Reservoir exists in the Reservoir is located in
soil, availability of water, etc. atmosphere Earth’s crust.
• In succession, changes in vegetation affect food & shelter The elements are gaseous or The elements are non-
of various animals. Thus, as succession proceeds, the in vapor form. gaseous.
number and types of animals & decomposers also change.
E.g., Nitrogen cycle, carbon E.g., Sulphur and
• Natural or human induced disturbances (deforestation, fire cycle, etc. phosphorus cycle
etc.) can convert a particular seral stage of succession to
an earlier stage. Such disturbances create new conditions • Environmental factors (soil, moisture, pH, temperature,
that encourage some species and discourage or eliminate etc.) regulate the rate of release of nutrients into the
other species. atmosphere. The reservoir meets with the deficit of
Succession of Plants nutrients due to imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
Carbon Cycle
• Based on the nature of the habitat, succession of plants is
2 types: hydrarch and xerarch. • Reservoir of carbon: Atmosphere (about 1%), organisms
Hydrarch succession Xerarch succession (49% of dry weight), oceans (71% dissolved carbon). It
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology

regulates the amount of atmospheric CO2), fossil fuel etc.

It takes place in wetter It takes place in dry areas.
areas. • Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean and
The successional series The series progress from through living and dead organisms.
progress from hydric to the xeric to mesic conditions. • 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through
mesicconditions. photosynthesis annually.
Phytoplanktons form the Lichens form the pioneer • A major amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as
pioneer community. community. CO2 through respiration.
• Hence, all successions (both hydrarch & xerarch) lead to • Decomposers also contribute to CO2 pool by their
medium water conditions (mesic, the climax community). processing of waste materials and dead organic matter.
• The species invading a bare area are called pioneer • Some amount of the fixed carbon is lost to sediments and
species. removed from circulation.
• Primary succession on rocks (xerophytic habitat): • Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic
Lichens (pioneer species) secrete acids to dissolve rock, matter, fossil fuel and volcanic activity are other sources
helping in weathering & soil formation) → small plants for releasing CO2 in the atmosphere.
like bryophytes (they need only small amount of soil) • Role of human activities in carbon cycle: Deforestation,
→ bigger plants → stable climax forest community burning of fossil fuel, etc. has increased the rate of release
(mesophytic). of CO2 into the atmosphere.
 15
Chapter
Biodiversity and
Conservation

NCERT Crisp

• Term biodiversity was coined by W.G.Rosen (1985)

• Biodiversity is the term popularized by the sociobiologist Edward Wilson
• International Biodiversity Day: 22nd of May.
The most important biodiversities are:
Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecological diversity
Diversity shown by a single species at genetic The diversity at the species level. Diversity at ecosystem level.
level.
India has more than 50,000 genetically different The Western Ghats have a greater In India, deserts, rain forests,
strains of rice, and 1,000 varieties of mango. amphibian species diversity than mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands,
Rauwolfia vomitoria (Himalaya) shows genetic the Eastern Ghats. estuaries, and alpine meadows has
variation in the potency & concentration of the a greater ecosystem diversity than a
chemical reserpine. Scandinavian country like Norway.

• According to the IUCN (2004), the total number of plant • India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its
and animal species described so far is slightly more than share of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1
1.5 million.
per cent.
• Scientifically sound estimate made by Robert May
places the global species diversity at about 7 million. • Our country is one of the 12 mega diversity countries of
the world.
• Among animals, insects are the most species-rich
taxonomic group, making up more than 70 per cent of the
Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals
total. Out of every 10 animals on this planet, 7 are insects.
have been recorded from India.
• The number of fungi species in the world is more than
the combined total of the species of fishes, amphibians, • According to May’s global estimates, only 22 per cent
reptiles and mammals. of the total species have been recorded so far.

Biologists are not sure about how many prokaryotic species
there might be. Because conventional taxonomic methods
are not suitable for identifying microbial species and
many species are simply not culturable under laboratory
conditions.
Community Diversity
Alpha diversity: Diversity within community
Beta Diversity: Diversity between community
Gamma Diversity: Diversity among different geographical
areas.
 366
extinct within next 100 years.
Impacts of Loss of biodiversity
▪▪ Decline in plant production
▪▪ Environmental perturbations such as drought.
▪▪ Increased variability in ecosystem processes such as
plant productivity, water use, and pest and disease
cycles.
Causes of Biodiversity Losses (‘The Evil
Quartet’)
a. Habitat loss and fragmentation: Most important cause
driving animals and plants to extinction.
E.g., tropical rain forests (loss from 14% to 6%). Thousand
hectares of rain forests is being lost within hours.
The Amazon rain forest (‘lungs of the planet’) is being
cut for cultivating soya beans or for conversion of grass-
lands for cattle.
Due to fragmentation, animals requiring large territories
and migratory animals are badly affected, leading to
population declines.
b. Over-exploitation: Many species like Stellar’s sea cow,
Passenger pigeon, etc, extinct due to over-exploitation
by humans. Presently many marine fish populations
around the world are over harvested.
c. Alien species invasions: Alien species cause decline or
extinction of indigenous species.
E.g., the Nile Perch introduced in Lake Victoria (East
Africa) caused extinction of more than 200 species of
cichlid fish.
• Invasive weed species like carrot grass (Parthenium),
Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia) caused
Objective NCERT Gear Up Biology
damage to our native species.
• The illegal introduction of the African Catfish (Clarias
gariepinus) for aquaculture is posing a threat to the
indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
d. Co-extinction: When a species becomes extinct, the
plant and animal species associated with it also become
extinct. E.g., extinction of the parasites when the host is
extinct.
Co-evolved plant-pollinator mutualism where extinction
of one invariably leads to the extinction of the other.
Biodiversity Conservation
World conservation day: December 3rd .
There are 3 categories of reasons for conservation.
1. Narrowly utilitarian arguments
• Human derive economic benefits from nature such as
food, firewood, fibre, construction material, industrial
products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes)
and medicines.
• More than 25% of the drugs are derived from plants.
25,000 species of plants have medicinal value.
E.g., Quinine is obtained from the bark of Cinchona
ledgeriana to cure malaria & Taxol from the bark of
Taxus brevifolia for treating cancer).
2. Broadly utilitarian arguments says that biodiversity
has many ecosystem services.
• Amazon forest (‘lung of the planet’) produces 20% of
total O2 in the earth’s atmosphere.
• Pollination through bees, bumblebees, birds and bats.
• Aesthetic pleasures.
3. Ethical arguments: Every species has an intrinsic
value. We have a moral duty to care for their well-being.
Types of Conservation
▪▪ India has 14 Biosphere Reserves, 90 National Parks and
448 wildlife sanctuaries.
▪▪ Hotspots: These are the richest and the most threatened
reservoirs of plant and animal life on earth. There are 34
hotspots in the world.
▪▪ Three hotspots (Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-
Burma and Himalaya) cover India’s biodiversity regions.
▪▪ Endemic species: Species confined to a particular region
and not found anywhere else.
▪▪ Sacred groves: These are tracts of forest set aside, and
all the trees and wildlife within it are venerated and given
total protection. E.g., Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya,
Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghat regions of
Karnataka and Maharashtra and the Sarguja, Chanda and
Bastar areas of Madhya Pradesh.
International Efforts for Conserving
Biodiversity
• The Earth Summit (Rio de Jeneiro, 1992) - 3 objectives:
a. Conservation of biodiversity
b. Sustainable use of biodiversity
c. Sharing of benefits in the utilization of genetic
resources.
• The World Summit on Sustainable Development
 16
Chapter
Environmental Issues
NCERT Crisp
Human population explosion increases the demand for food,
water, home, electricity, roads, automobiles, etc. It leads to
pollution of air, water and soil.
Pollution is any undesirable change in physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of air, land, water or soil. Agents
that cause pollution are called as pollutants.
The Government of India has passed the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 to control environmental pollution
and protect and improve the quality of our environment.
Air Pollution and Its Control
Causes of air pollution:
• Particulate & gaseous air pollutants from smokestacks of
thermal power plants, smelters, etc.
• Pollutants from automobiles.
Harmful effects of air pollution
• Air pollutants cause injury to all living organisms.
• They reduce growth and yield of crops and cause
premature death of plants.
• Air pollutants affect the respiratory system.
• According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),
particulate size of less than 2.5 mm in diameter (PM
2.5) causes greatest harm to human health. It causes
respiratory problems, irritation, inflammations & damage
to lungs and premature deaths.
Control measures of air pollution
• Particulate matters must be separated/filtered out before
releasing the harmless gases into the atmosphere.
• Use of lead-free petrol or diesel.
• Use of catalytic converters (having platinum-palladium
& rhodium as the catalysts). It reduces emission of
poisonous gases. This converts unburnt hydrocarbons
to CO2 & water, and carbon monoxide and nitric oxide
to CO2 and nitrogen gas, respectively. Motor vehicles
having catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol
because lead in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.
• Phasing out of old vehicles
• Use of low-sulphur petrol and diesel
• Application of pollution-level norms for vehicles.
• In Delhi, compressed natural gas (CNG) in public
transport (buses) is used. CNG is better than petrol &
diesel because CNG burns most efficiently and very little
of it is left unburnt. CNG is cheaper than petrol or diesel,
cannot be siphoned off by thieves and adulterated like
petrol or diesel. The main problem with switching over to
CNG is the difficulty of laying down pipelines to deliver
CNG through distribution points/pumps and ensuring
uninterrupted supply.
• Auto fuel policy has laid out a roadmap to cut down
vehicular pollution in Indian cities.
Electrostatic precipitator:
• It is the device widely used to remove particulate matter.
• It can remove over 99% particulate matter present in
the exhaust from a thermal power plant.
• The electrons released from electrode wires (maintained
at several thousand volts) attach to dust particles and
give a negative charge. The collecting plates attract the
charged dust particles.

which act as plant nutrients. They overstimulate the
growth of algae, causing unsightly scum and unpleasant
odors, and robbing the water of dissolved oxygen vital
to other aquatic life. At the same time, other pollutants
flowing into a lake may poison whole populations of fish;
whose decomposing remains further deplete the water’s
dissolved oxygen content.
• Heated (thermal) wastewater from electricity-
generating units (e.g., thermal power plants) eliminates
organisms sensitive to high temperature. It may enhance
the growth of plants and fish in extremely cold areas but,
only after causing damage to the indigenous flora and
fauna.
Integrated Waste Water Treatment
• It includes artificial and natural processes.
• An example is the town of Arcata, situated along the
northern coast of California. Collaborating with biologists
from the Humboldt State University, the townspeople
created an integrated waste water treatment process
within a natural system.
• The cleaning occurs in two stages:
a. Sedimentation, filtering and chlorine treatments.
After this stage, lots of dangerous pollutants like
dissolved heavy metals still remain. To combat this,
an innovative approach was taken.
b. The biologists developed a series of six
connected marshes over 60 hectares of marshland.
Appropriate plants, algae, fungi and bacteria were
seeded into this area, which neutralize, absorb
and assimilate the pollutants. Hence, as the water
flows through the marshes, it gets purified naturally.
The marshes also constitute a sanctuary, with a high
level of biodiversity in the form of fishes, animals
and birds that now reside there. A citizens group
called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) is
responsible for the upkeep and safeguarding of this
wonderful project.
Bio-degradable Recyclable
Waste materials that breaks Non-biodegradable wastes which can Waste materials that cannot be
down naturally with exposure to be converted into reusable objects to decomposed either by air, climate or
microorganisms, heat, and oxygen. prevent waste.
387
• Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for
handling human excreta, using dry composting toilets.
This is a practical, hygienic, efficient and cost-effective
solution to human waste disposal. The key point to
note here is that with this composting method, human
excreta can be recycled into a resource (as natural
fertiliser), which reduces the need for chemical
fertilisers. There are ‘EcoSan’ toilets in many areas of
Kerala & Sri Lanka.
Solid Wastes
• Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash.
• Municipal solid wastes are wastes from homes, offices,
stores, schools, hospitals, etc., that are collected and
disposed by the municipality.
• The municipal solid wastes include paper, food wastes,
plastics, glass, metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc.
• Burning reduces the volume of the wastes, although
it is generally not burnt to completion and open
dumps often serve as the breeding ground for rats
and flies.
• Sanitary landfills were adopted as the substitute for
open-burning dumps. In a sanitary landfill, wastes are
dumped in a depression or trench after compaction, and
covered with dirt every day.
• Landfills are also not really much of a solution since the
amount of garbage generation especially in the metros
has increased so much that these sites are getting filled
too. Also there is danger of seepage of chemicals, etc.,
from these landfills polluting the underground water
resources.
Environmental Issues
All wastes can be categorized into 3 types –
(a) Bio-degradable
(b) Recyclable
(c) Non-biodegradable
Non-biodegradable
soil and cannot be dissolved naturally
into the land.

doses, it creates various disorders, such as cancer.
• It has been recommended that storage of nuclear waste,
after sufficient pre-treatment, should be done in suitably
shielded containers buried within the rocks, about 500 m
deep below the earth’s surface. However, this method of
disposal is meeting stiff opposition from the public.
Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming
• Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon responsible
for heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere. It
maintains the present average temperature (15oC).
• Without greenhouse effect, the average temperature at
Earth surface would have been a chilly (–18oC).
• Clouds and gases reflect about 1/4th of the incoming
solar radiation, and absorb some of it. But almost half of
incoming solar radiation falls on Earth’s surface heating
it, while a small proportion is reflected back. Earth’s
surface re-emits heat as infrared radiation.
• During the past century, the temperature of Earth has
increased by 0.60C, most of it during the last 3 decades.
Impacts of global warming:
• Deleterious changes in the environment resulting in odd
climatic changes (e.g., El Nino effect).
• Melting of polar ice caps, Himalayan snow caps, etc.
• Over many years, this will result in a rise in sea level that
submerges many coastal areas.
Control of global warming:
• Reduce the use of fossil fuel
• Improve efficiency of energy usage
• Reduce deforestation and plant trees
• Slowing down the growth of human population
• International initiatives are also being taken to reduce the
emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere
• ‘Bad’ ozone is formed in the lower atmosphere
(troposphere). It harms plants and animals.
• The ‘good’ ozone is found in the stratosphere. It acts as
a shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
• UV rays are highly injurious since they cause mutation.
• The thickness of the ozone (O3) in a column of air from
the ground to the top of the atmosphere is measured in
terms of Dobson units (DU).
389
• Ozone is continuously formed by the action of UV rays
on molecular oxygen, and also degraded into molecular
oxygen in the stratosphere.
• Production & degradation of ozone in the stratosphere
should be balanced. But the balance is disrupted due to
ozone degradation by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• CFCs (used as refrigerants) move upward and reach
stratosphere. UV rays act on them releasing Cl atoms.
In presence of Cl (catalyst), ozone degrades releasing
molecular oxygen (O2). This causes ozone depletion. It
has formed ozone hole over the Antarctic region.
• UV radiation of wavelengths shorter than UV-B, are
almost completely absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere. But,
UV-B causes mutation of DNA. It causes aging of skin,
damage to skin cells and skin cancers. A high dose of
UV-B causes inflammation of cornea (snow-blindness),
cataract, etc. It permanently damages the cornea.
• The Montreal Protocol (an international treaty in
Canada, 1987) was signed to control the emission
of ozone depleting substances. Subsequently many
more efforts have been made and protocols have laid
down definite roadmaps, separately for developed and
developing countries, for reducing the emission of CFCs
and other ozone depleting chemicals.
Degradation by Improper Resource
Utilisation and Maintenance
Soil erosion and desertification
• Human activities like over-cultivation, deforestation,
grazing and poor irrigation practices, leads to soil
erosion. It results in arid patches of land and desertification.
• Increased urbanization also creates desertification.
Environmental Issues
Water logging and soil salinity:
• These are the problems as a part of Green Revolution.
• Irrigation without proper drainage of water leads to water
logging in the soil.
• It draws salt to the surface of the soil. The salt is deposited
on the land surface or collects at the plant roots. This
damages the agriculture.
Deforestation
• It is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones.
• Almost 40% forests have been lost in the tropics,
compared to only 1% in the temperate region.
• National Forest Policy (1988) of India has recommended