Screw Threads

ME 147P
Machine Design I
• A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical
groove on a cylindrical surface.
• A screw made by cutting a single helical groove on the
cylinder is known as single threaded (or single-start) screw
• If a second thread is cut in the space between the grooves
of the first, a double threaded (or double-start) screw is
formed.
• Similarly, triple and quadruple (i.e. multiple-start) threads
may be formed.
• The helical grooves may be cut either right hand or left
hand.
• A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e. a
bolt and nut.
• The screwed joints are widely used where the machine
parts are required to be readily connected or disconnected
without damage to the machine or the fastening.

Important Terms Used in Screw Threads
4. Pitch. It is the distance from a point on one
thread to the corresponding point on the next.
This is measured in an axial direction between
corresponding points in the same axial plane.
Mathematically,
1 effective diameter. In a nut and
Pitch 
No. of threads per unit length of screw
1. Major diameter: the largest
diameter of an external or
internal screw thread; the screw
is specified by this diameter; also
known as outside or nominal
diameter.
2. Minor diameter: the smallest
diameter of an external or
internal screw thread; also
known as core or root diameter.
3. Pitch diameter: the diameter
of an imaginary cylinder, on a
cylindrical screw thread, the
surface of which would pass
through the thread at such
points as to make equal the
width of the thread and the
width of the spaces between the
threads. It is also called an
bolt assembly, it is the diameter
at which the ridges on the bolt
are in complete touch with the
ridges of the corresponding nut.
Important Terms Used in Screw Threads
9. Flank. It is the surface joining the crest and
root.
10. Angle of thread. It is the angle included by
the flanks of the thread.
11. Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.
5. Lead. It is the distance
between two corresponding
points on the same helix. It may
also be defined as the distance
which a screw thread advances
axially in one rotation of the nut.
Lead is equal to the pitch in case
of single start threads, it is twice
the pitch in double start, thrice
the pitch in triple start and so
on.
6. Crest. It is the top surface of
the thread.
7. Root. It is the bottom surface
created by the two adjacent
flanks of the thread.
8. Depth of thread. It is the
perpendicular distance between
the crest and root.
Forms of Screw Threads

1. British standard whitworth (B.S.W.) thread. This is a British standard thread

profile and has coarse pitches. It is a symmetrical V-thread in which the angle
between the flanks, measured in an axial plane, is 55°. These threads are found
on bolts and screwed fastenings for special purposes.
2. British association (B.A.) thread. This is a B.S.W. thread with fine pitches. The
proportions of the B.A. thread are shown in the figure. These threads are used for
instruments and other precision works.
3. American national standard thread.
The American national standard or U.S. or
Seller's thread has flat crests and roots.
The flat crest can withstand more rough
usage than sharp V-threads. These threads
are used for general purposes e.g. on
bolts, nuts, screws and tapped holes.
4. Unified standard thread. The three
countries i.e., Great Britain, Canada and
United States came to an agreement for a
common screw thread system with the
included angle of 60°, in order to facilitate
the exchange of machinery. The thread has
rounded crests and roots.
5. Square thread. The square threads, because
of their high efficiency, are widely used for
transmission of power in either direction. Such
type of threads are usually found on the feed
mechanisms of machine tools, valves, spindles,
screw jacks etc. The square threads are not so
strong as V-threads but they offer less
frictional resistance to motion than Whitworth
threads. The pitch of the square thread is often
taken twice that of a B.S.W. thread of the same
diameter.
6. Acme thread. It is a modification
of square thread. It is much stronger
than square thread and can be
easily produced. These threads are
frequently used on screw cutting
lathes, brass valves, cocks and
bench vices.
7. Knuckle thread. It is also a
modification of square thread. It has
rounded top and bottom. It can be
cast or rolled easily and can not
economically be made on a machine.
These threads are used for rough
and ready work. They are usually
found on railway carriage couplings,
hydrants, necks of glass bottles
and large moulded insulators used in
electrical trade.
8. Buttress thread. It is used for transmission
of power in one direction only. The force is
transmitted almost parallel to the axis. This
thread units the advantage of both square and
V-threads. It has a low frictional resistance
characteristics of the square thread and have
the same strength as that of V-thread. The
spindles of bench vices are usually provided
with buttress thread.
9. Metric thread. It is a standard thread and is
similar to B.S.W. threads. It has an included
angle of 60° instead of 55°. The basic profile of
the thread is shown in the figure and the
design profile of the nut and bolt is shown in
the figure.
Common Types of Screw Fastenings
1. Through bolts. A through bolt (or simply a bolt) is shown. It is a cylindrical
bar with threads for the nut at one end and head at the other end. The cylindrical
part of the bolt is known as shank.
2. Tap bolts. A tap bolt or screw differs from a bolt. It is screwed into a tapped hole
of one of the parts to be fastened without the nut, as shown.
3. Studs. A stud is a round bar threaded at both ends. One end of the stud is
screwed into a tapped hole of the parts to be fastened, while the other end receives
a nut on it, as shown in figure below. Studs are chiefly used instead of tap bolts for
securing various kinds of covers e.g. covers of engine and pump cylinders, valves,
chests etc.
4. Cap screws. The cap screws are similar to tap bolts except that they are of small
size and a variety of shapes of heads are available as shown below.
5. Machine screws. These are similar to cap screws with the head slotted for a
screw driver. These are generally used with a nut.
6. Set screws. The set screws are shown below. These are used to prevent relative
motion between the two parts. A set screw is screwed through a threaded hole in
one part so that its point (i.e. end of the screw) presses against the other part.

The diameter of the set screw (d) may be obtained from the following expression:
d = 0.125 D + 8 mm
where D is the diameter of the shaft (in mm) on which the set screw is pressed.
Designation of Screw Threads

1. Size designation. The size of the screw thread is designated

by the letter `M' followed by the diameter and pitch, the two
being separated by the sign ×. When there is no indication of
the pitch, it shall mean that a coarse pitch is implied.
2. Tolerance designation. This shall include
(a) A figure designating tolerance grade as indicated below:
‘7’ for fine grade,
‘8’ for normal (medium) grade, and
‘9’ for coarse grade.
(b) A letter designating the tolerance position as indicated
below :
‘H’ for nut thread,
‘d’ for bolt thread with allowance, and
‘h’ for bolt thread without allowance.

For example, A bolt thread of 6 mm size of coarse pitch and

with allowance on the threads and normal (medium)
tolerance grade is designated as M6-8d.
Standard Dimensions of Screw Threads
Stresses in Screwed Fastening due to Static Loading
1. Initial stresses due to screwing up forces,
2. Stresses due to external forces, and
3. Stress due to combination of stresses at (1) and (2).
Initial Stresses due to Screwing up Forces
The following stresses are induced in a bolt, screw or stud when it is screwed up
tightly.
1. Tensile stress due to stretching of bolt. Since none of the above mentioned
stresses are accurately determined, therefore bolts are designed on the basis of
direct tensile stress with a large factor of safety in order to account for the
indeterminate stresses. The initial tension in a bolt, based on experiments, may
be found by the relation
Fi  2840 d , N for making a joint fluid tight like steam engine
Fi  initial tension in the bolt cylinder cover joints, etc.
d  nominal diameter of bolt in mm
when the joint is not required as tight as fluid-
Fi  1420 d , N tight joint
If the bolt is not initially stressed, then the maximum safe axial load
which may be applied to it, is given by

F  permissible stress X cross - sectional area(stress area)

The stress area may be obtained from the preceding table or it may be found
by using the relation:

  d p  dc 
2

Stress area   
4 2 
d p  pitch diameter
d c  core or minor diameter
 2. Torsional shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the threads
during its tightening. Tr 16T
Ss  
J d c 3
3. Shear stress across the threads. The average thread shearing stress:
F
Ss   for screw F
d c bn Ss   for the nut
dbn
d c  core or root or minor diameter
d  major diameter
n  no.of threads in engagement
b  width of the thread section at the root
4. Compression or crushing stress on threads. The compression or crushing
stress between the threads may be obtained by using the relation :
P
Sc 

4
d 2
 dc n
2

5. Bending stress if the surfaces under the head or nut are not
perfectly parallel to the bolt axis. When the outside surfaces of the
parts to be connected are not parallel to each other, then the bolt will
be subjected to bending action. The bending stress (Sb) induced in the
shank of the bolt is given by:

xE
Sb 
2l
x  difference in height between the extreme corners
of the nut or head
l  length of the shank of the bolt
E  Young' s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
Sample Problems:
Determine the safe tensile load for a bolt of M 30, assuming a safe
tensile stress of 42 MPa.

d  30mm; St  42 N
mm 2
From table (coarse series), for M30 :
Stress area  561mm 2
Assuming the bolt is not initially stressed,
F (safe tensile load)  42 N
mm 2 561 mm 2

 23562 N
 Sample Problems:
Two machine parts are fastened together tightly by means of a 24
mm tap bolt. If the load tending to separate these parts is neglected,
find the stress that is set up in the bolt by the initial tightening.

d  24mm
From table (coarse series), for a bolt with major dia. of 24mm,
the designation is M 24 with d c  20.32mm
The initial tension in the bolt :
Fi  2840d  284024  68160 N
Stress set up in the bolt,
Fi 68160 N
St    210.2 MPa
 2 
dc 20.32mm2
4 4
 Stresses due to External Forces
1. Tensile stress. The bolts, studs and screws usually carry a load in the
direction of the bolt axis which induces a tensile stress in the bolt.

F 4F
St   dc 
 2 St n
dc n
4
d c  root or core diameter of the thread
St  permissible tensile stress for the bolt material
n  no.of bolts
Then from the table, the value of the nominal diameter of bolt corresponding
to the value of dc may be obtained or stress area,  2
A dc
4
In case the standard table is not available, then for coarse threads, dc = 0.84 d,
where d is the nominal diameter of bolt.
 2. Shear stress. Sometimes, the bolts are used to prevent the relative
movement of two or more parts, as in case of flange coupling, then the
shear stress is induced in the bolts. The shear stresses should be avoided as
far as possible.
Fs 4 Fs
Ss  d 
 2 S s n
d n
4
d  major diameter of the bolt
S s  permissible shear stress for the bolt material
n  no.of bolts

It should be noted that when the bolts are subjected to direct shearing loads,
they should be located in such a way that the shearing load comes upon the
body (i.e. shank) of the bolt and not upon the threaded portion.
3. Combined tension and shear stress. When the bolt is subjected to both
tension and shear loads, as in case of coupling bolts or bearing, then the
diameter of the shank of the bolt is obtained from the shear load and that
of threaded part from the tensile load. A diameter slightly larger than that
required for either shear or tension may be assumed and stresses due to
combined load should be checked for the following principal stresses.

Maximum shear stress,

1
 St  4S s
2 2
S smax
2
and maximum principal tensile stress,

St 1
  St  4 S s2
2
Stmax
2 2
Sample Problem:
An eye bolt is to be used for lifting a load of 60 kN. Find the nominal
diameter of the bolt, if the tensile stress is not to exceed 100 MPa.
Assume coarse threads.
F  60000 N
S  100 N
t max
mm 2
F
Stmax 
 2
dc
4
60000 N
100 N 
mm 2
 2
dc
4
d c  27.64mm
Referring to table : the nearest higher standard
core diameter is 28.706mm, which corresponds
a nominal diameter, d  33mmM 33
Sample Problem:
A flange coupling connects two shafts used to transmit torque of 25
N-m. The flanges of the coupling are fastened by four bolts of the
same material at a radius of 30 mm. Find the size of the bolts if the
allowable shear stress for the bolt material is 30 MPa.
T  25000 N  mm
n4
Rb  30mm
S s  30 N
mm 2
T 25000 N  mm
Fs    833.3N
Rb 30mm
Fs 833.3N
Ss    30 N
Ar  d c n
2 mm 2
4
d c  2.97mm
Referring to table : the nearest higher standard
core diameter is 3.14mm, which corresponds
a nominal diameter, d  4mmM 4
Power Screws
ME 147P
Machine Design I
 Power Screw

• A power screw is a mechanical device used in

machinery to convert a rotary motion into a linear
motion for power transmission.
• Common applications of power screws are jack
screws, lead screws of a lathe, screws for vices,
presses etc.
Dr  root diameter or minor diameter of the screw
Dm  mean or pitch diameter of the screw
Do  outside or major diameter of the screw
(nominal diameter of the screw)
W  total axial load of the screw
P  pitch of screw
  lead angle of screw
N screw  angular speed of screw
vload  linear speed of the load attached to the
head of the screw
D  Dr
h  tooth depth  o  Do  Dm
2
Forms of Thread and the Commonly Used Proportions

7
h P h  0.5P
16
  14.5(for standard ACME)
  15(for trapezoidal metric)

2  thread angle
  pressure angle

h  0.663P
Equivalent Diagram of Load Concentration in One Thread
of Power Screw
Mx  0

Tr  Q m   eq.1
D
 2
where :
Tr  torque to raise the
load up the screw
Q  horizontal force
needed to raise the
load up the inclined
surface
 Diagram of Loaded Screw Unwrapped from the Body of
the Screw
• Although the load is distributed over several threads, lifting a load by
screw is analogous to moving the load up an inclined plane.

F f  frictional force
N  normal reaction

• Note: This diagram is only

applicable to square-
threaded screws
 F f  fN
f  coef. of thread friction
similarly,
Ff
 tan   f
N
  friction angle

 
R  resultant of F f and N  F f2  N 2
Lead  axial distance that a thread advances in one revolution
Pitch axial pitch , P  axial distance from a point on one thread
to the corresponding point on an adjacent tthread
1
P , inch
no.of threads per inch
 For single - threaded screw, Lead  Pitch
For double - threaded screw, Lead  2 x Pitch
For triple - threaded screw, Lead  3 x Pitch
Lead
tan  
Dm
 FH  0
Q  R sin      eq.(2)
 FV  0
W  R cos     eq.3
Divide eq.(2) by eq.(3) :

 tan      eq4 
Q
W
Substitute eq.(4) into eq.(1) :
Equation for Torque needed to
raise the load up the screw
(square thread)
D
Tr  Q m 
WDm
tan   
2 2
 Torque Needed to Overcome Collar Friction
• When the axial load is taken up by a thrust collar as shown in figure
below, so that the load does not rotate with the screw, then the
torque required to overcome friction at the collar,
Dc  mean diameter of collar
F f c  resultant frictional force
TC  torque to overcome collar friction
 M y 0 
Dc
TC  F f c ; Ffc  f c N c
2
f c  coefficient of collar friction
N c  normal reaction at collar  W
Dc Dc
TC  f c N c  f cW
2 2
WDc
TC  fc
2
 Total torque required :
TT  Tr  TC Efficiency of Screw
Power input to screw : Poutput W vload 
e  x100
Pinput  TT  N screw  Pinput Tr  N screw 
Torque w/o friction T0
e 
Torque w/ friction Tr
Efficiency of Screw & Collar or if friction is zero,   0, F f  0
Combined Eff. of Screw & Collar :
tan     
WDm WDm
T0  tan 
Poutput W vload  2 2
e'   x100
Pinput TT  N screw  WDm
tan 
T0 T0 Thus, e  2
e'   x100
tan    
WDm
TT Tr  TC
2
tan 
The preceding formulas are e x100
derived primarily for square- tan    
threaded screws
 For Power Screws Other Than Square Threads
From square thread formula :
tan   tan 
Tr 
WDm
tan   ; but, tan    
2 1  tan  tan 
and tan β   f  coefficient of friction
Thus,
WDm  tan   tan   WDm  f  tan   For Buttress Thread ;
Tr  1  tan  tan    2 1  f tan   can also be applied for
2     Square Threads

For other thread forms :

WDm  f  cos  tan  
Tr   cos   f tan   General Equation for Tr
2  
where :   14.5 for ACME Refer to Table 8.1 of the
textbook for the Standard
  0 for square thread Dimensions of Screws
  15 for trapezoidal metric
 Torque Needed to Lower the Load

 FH  0
Q  R sin    
 FV  0
W  R cos   

 tan    
Q
W
D
TL  Q m 
WDm
tan   
For other thread forms : 2 2
Equation for Torque needed to
WDm  f  cos  tan  
TL  lower the load (square thread)
2  cos   f tan  
where :   14.5 for ACME if TL   , screw is self - locking
  0 for square thread if TL   , screw is not self - locking
  15 for trapezoidal metric
 Sample Problem 1
• A single-threaded power screw of square form is to raise a
load of 90000N at the rate of 360mm/min. Other data are as
follows:
Nominal Diameter of screw=36mm
Pitch=6mm
Coefficient of thread friction=0.13
Coefficient of collar friction=0.10
Friction radius at collar=30mm
Determine:
a. the power input to the screw;
b. Efficiency of the screw; and
c. Efficiency of screw and collar.
• Solve the above if screw is double-threaded, square form. Is
the screw self-locking or not?
• Solve the above if screw is double-threaded, ACME form. Is
the screw self-locking or not?
 W  90000 N load 
Do  36mmnominal
P  6mm
f  0.13
f c  0.10
Rc  30mm  Dc  60mm
vload  360 mm
min
For square thread : h  7 P  0.43756mm   2.625mm
16
Dm  Do  h  36  2.625  33.375mm

a. Pinput  TT  N screw   Tr  TC  N screw 

tan    
WDm
Tr 
2
; Lead  P  6mmsingle thread 
Lead
tan  
Dm
  6mm 
  Arc tan    3.275
  33.375mm  
tan   f    Arc tan f  Arc tan 0.13  7.41
90000 N 33.375mm 
Tr  tan7.41  3.275  283375N  mm
2
90000 N 60mm 
TC 
WDc
fc  0.10  270000 N  mm
2 2
TT  283375  270000  553375 N  mm

, rev
N screw
min

 vload
, mm   1rev 
min  Lead , mm 
 mm  1rev 
N screw   360    60rpm
 min  6mm 
Pinput  TT  N screw 
 rev  2  1 min  1kN  m 
 553375 N  mm 60    6   3.477kW
 min  rev  60s  10 N  mm 
 tan 
b. e for square thread
tan    

e
tan 3.275
100  30.33%
tan 7.41  3.275
Or
90000 N 33.375mm 
WDm
tan  tan3.275
To
e  2  2 100
Tr Tr 283375 N  mm


85940.08
100  30.33%
283375
Or
 mm 
90000 N  360 
e
Wvload
  min 
100  30.33%
Tr N screw  rev  2 
283375 N  mm 60  
 min  rev 
  o for square thread 
To T
c. e' 
Tr  TC TT

e
85940.08
100  15.53%
553375
Or
 mm 
90000 N  360 
e
Wvload
  min 
100  15.53%
TT N screw  rev  2 
553375 N  mm 60  
 min  rev 
 Sample Problem
2. A square threaded bolt of mean diameter 24 mm and
pitch 5 mm is tightened by screwing a nut whose mean diameter
of bearing surface is 50 mm. If the coefficient of friction for the
nut and bolt is 0.1 and for the nut and bearing surfaces 0.16, find
the force required at the end of a spanner 0.5 m long when the
load on the bolt is 10 kN. [Ans. 120 N]
3. The mean diameter of the square threaded screw having
pitch of 10 mm is 50 mm. A load of 20 kN is lifted through a
distance of 170 mm. Find the work done in lifting the load and
the efficiency of the screw, when
a. The load rotates with the screw, and
b. The load rests on the loose head which does not rotate
with the screw.
The external and internal diameter of the bearing surface of the
loose head are 60 mm and 10 mm, respectively. The coefficient
of friction for the screw and the bearing surface may be taken as
0.08.
Prob. 3 :
Given : P  10mm, Dm  50mm
W  20000 N , DC0  60mm, DCi  10mm,
f  f c  0.08
 tan   tan  
Tr 
WDm
tan     WDm 1  tan  tan  
2 2  
tan   f  0.08

 0.0637assume single start 

Lead P 10
tan    
Dm Dm  50
20000 N 50mm   0.08  0.0637 
Tr     72218 N  mm  72.218 N  m
2 1  0.080.0637  

a. When the load rotates w/ the screw :

Work input  Tr  N screw ; N screw  axial dist. travelled by the load  / Lead/rev
170mm
N screw   17rev
10mm
Work input  72.218 N  m 17rev  2  rev
  7713.9 N  m
 tan 
e for square thread
tan    
tan  tan  tan  1  tan  tan  
e  
tan      tan   tan   tan   tan 
1  tan  tan  
 
0.06371  0.080.0637 
e 100  44.1%
0.08  0.0637
b. When the load does not rotate w/ the screw :
Work input  TT  N screw ; TT  Tr  TC
WDc DC0  DCi 60  10
TC  f c ; Dc    35mm
2 2 2
TC 
20000 N 35mm 0.08  28000 N  mm  28 N  m
2
TT  72.218  28  100.218 N  m
Work input  100.218 N  m 17rev  2  rev
  10704.7 N  m
20000 N 50mm 
WDm
tan  0.0637
To
 2 2 100  31.8%
e' 
TT TT

100.218 N  m 1000 
mm
1m

 Sample Problem 4
• The C-clamp shown in the figure below uses a 10 mm square
thread screw with a pitch of 2 mm. The frictional coefficient is 0.15
for both the threads and the collar. The collar has a frictional
diameter of 16 mm. The handle is made of steel with allowable
bending stress of 165 MPa. The capacity of the clamp is 700 N.
(a) Find the torque required to tighten the clamp to full
capacity.
(b) Specify the length and diameter of the handle such
that it will not bend unless the rated capacity of the
clamp is exceeded. Use 15 N as the handle force.
Do  10mmnominal
P  2mm
f  f c  0.15
Dc  16mm
W  700 N load 
For square - thread : h  7 P  0.43752mm   0.875mm
16
Dm  Do  h  10  0.875  9.125mm

WDm  f  tan  
a. Tr  1  f tan  
2  
; Lead  P  2mmassume single start 
Lead
tan  
Dm
 2mm 
tan      0.06977
  9.125mm  
700 N 9.125mm   0.15  0.06977 
Tr     709.31N  mm
2 1  0.150.06977  
 WDc
TC  f c ; Dc  16mm
2
700 N 16mm 
TC  0.15  840 N  mm
2
TT  709.31  840  1549.31N  mm  1.55 N  m

b. F  handle force  15 N ; S f allow  165MPa

Equate the TT with FL, where L is the length of the handle :
1.55 N-m  15 N L; L  0.103m  103mm
The stress that may be induced to the handle is flexural, where
M  TT  1.55 N  m
Mc 32M
Sf  
I d h3
 1000mm 
321.55 N  m  
165 N   m 
 d h  4.57mm  5mm
mm 2 d h
3
Helical Coil Springs

ME 147P
Machine Design I
 Springs
• A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to
distort when loaded and to recover its original shape when
the load is removed.
• Some important applications of springs are as follows :
1. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or
vibration as in car springs, railway buffers, air-craft landing
gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.
2. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded
valves.
3. To control motion by maintaining contact between two
elements as in cams and followers.
4. To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine
indicators.
 Types of Springs-According to Shape
1. Helical springs. The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in
the form of a helix and is primarily intended for compressive or tensile
loads. The cross-section of the wire from which the spring is made may
be circular, square or rectangular. The two forms of helical springs are
compression helical spring and tension helical spring .
The helical springs have the
following advantages:
(a) These are easy to manufacture.
(b) These are available in wide
range.
(c) These are reliable.
(d) These have constant spring rate.
(e) Their performance can be
predicted more accurately.
(f) Their characteristics can be
varied by changing dimensions.
2. Conical and volute springs. The conical and volute
springs are used in special applications where a
telescoping spring or a spring with a spring rate that
increases with the load is desired.
3. Torsion springs. These springs may be of helical or spiral type. The
helical type may be used only in applications where the load tends to
wind up the spring and are used in various electrical mechanisms. The
spiral type is also used where the load tends to increase the number
of coils and when made of flat strip are used in watches and clocks.
4. Laminated or leaf springs. The laminated or leaf spring (also known
as flat spring or carriage spring) consists of a number of flat plates
(known as leaves) of varying lengths held together by means of clamps
and bolts, as shown . These are mostly used in automobiles. The major
stresses produced in leaf springs are tensile and compressive stresses.

5. Disc or bellevile springs. These springs consist of a number of

conical discs held together against slipping by a central bolt or tube.
These springs are used in applications where high spring rates and
compact spring units are required.
6. Special purpose springs. These springs are air or liquid springs,
rubber springs, ring springs etc. The fluids (air or liquid) can behave as
a compression spring.
Helical Springs

where :
Dw  spring wire diameter
Di  inside coil diameter
Dm  mean coil diameter
Do  outside coil diameter
F  axial load of spring
 Spring Lengths

F.L.  free length of the spring

F .L.  C.L.  
The free length of a spring is the length of
F .L.  S .H .   max
the spring in the free or unloaded condition.
C.L.  compressed length
S.H.  solid height or length
When the spring is compressed until the coils come in contact
with each other, then the spring is said to be solid.
  axial deformation or deflection of spring due to load F
 max  max. axial deformation
This is reached at solid length condition, caused by the max. force, Fmax .
P  pitch of spring
  spring angle or spring pitch angle
Spring index : is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of
the coil to the diameter of the wire.
Dm
C
Dw
Spring rate. The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined
as the load required per unit deflection of the spring. Mathematically,
F
k

 Stresses in Helical Springs of Circular Wire

Consider a part of the compression spring as shown in Fig. (b). The load F
tends to rotate the wire due to the twisting moment ( T ) set up in the wire.
Thus torsional shear stress is induced in the wire.
A little consideration will show that part of the spring, as shown in Fig. (b), is in
equilibrium under the action of two forces F and the twisting moment T.
 In addition to the torsional shear stress induced in
the wire, the following stresses also act on the
wire :
1. Direct shear stress due to the load F, and
2. Stress due to curvature of wire.
F
Direct Shear Stress : S 2 
As
F 4F
S2  
 Dw2
Stresses in the wire : Dw2
Tr 4
Torsional Stress : S1  Total shear stress :
J
D  D  4 ST  S1  S 2 
8FDm 4 F

T  F  m ; r  w ; J  Dw
 2  2 32 Dw Dw2
3

 D m  Dw 8FDm  Dw 
F  ST 
 2  2 8 FDm 1  
S1   Dw3  2 Dm
 4  D 3
Dw w
32 K s  factor for direct shear
In order to consider the effects of the curvature of the wire,
a stress concentration factor, K c is introduced.
8 FDm
Ss  K s Kc  max .shear stress
Dw3

K  Wahl' s Factor  resultant factor due to torsional shear,

direct shear and curvature
K  K s Kc
8 FDm Dm
Ss  K ; C  spring index 
Dw3
Dw
8 FC Wahl' s Factor :
Ss  K
Dw2 4C  1 0.615
K 
4C  4 C
We see from Figure that Wahl’s stress factor increases very rapidly as the
spring index decreases.
The springs mostly used in machinery have spring index above 3.
For a good design of springs, C≥5.
If C<5, special care in coiling is necessary to prevent cracks in some wires.
 End Connections for Compression Helical Springs

In all springs, the end coils produce an eccentric application of the load,
increasing the stress on one side of the spring.
Under certain conditions, especially where the number of coils is small,
this effect must be taken into account.
The nearest approach to an axial load is secured by squared and ground
ends, where the end turns are squared and then ground perpendicular to
the helix axis.
• It may be noted that part of the coil which is in contact with the seat
does not contribute to spring action and hence are termed as inactive
coils.
• The turns which impart spring action are known as active turns or
active coils.
• As the load increases, the number of inactive coils also increases due to
seating of the end coils and the amount of increase varies from 0.5 to 1
turn at the usual working loads.
Approximate Free Lengths and Solid Heights
Type of Ends Free Length Total No. of Solid Height
Coils
Plain PN c  Dw Nc Dw  N c  1
Ground PN c Nc Dw N c
Squared PN c  3Dw Nc  2 Dw  N c  3
Squared and ground PN c  2 Dw Nc  2 Dw  N c  2

Note: Nc= no. of active coils; P= pitch of coil; Dw=wire diameter

Data taken from textbook by Faires, AT 16
 Deflection of Helical Springs of Circular Wire
The length of one coil  πDm
L  total active length of wire  Dm N c
  angular deflection of wire when acted upon by torque T , or
angle of twist of wire caused by the load F
 Dm 
Axial deflection of spring,     
 2 
Dm
TL D   4 But C  spring index 
 ; T  F  m ; J  Dw Dw
JG  2  32
Dm3
D 
F  m Dm N c  C  3
3

 2  16 FDm2 N c Dw
 
  4 Dw4 G 8 FC 3 N c
 Dw G 
 32  GDw
16 FDm2 N c  Dm  8 FDm3 N c Spring' s Axial Deflection Equation
   
 DwG  2 
4
Dw4 G
Pitch Angle of Helical Spring

P
tan  
Dm
 P 
  tan 
1


 m
D

For good design,   12.

If   12, stress and deflection equations
become less and less accurate.
 Spring Rate
Also referred to as:
F F GDw
- Spring constant k   3
- Stiffness of spring  8FC N c 8C N c
3

- Spring scale GDw

- Spring gradient
- Spring modulus

For 2 springs of same materials :

F F F  F F
k 1 2  2 1
1  2  2  1 
Another Derivation for Spring Deflection

By Energy Balance :
1 1
F  T
2 2
 Dm  16 FDm N c 
2
F   F   D 4G 
 2  w 
8 FDm3 N c D 3
 : C 3
 m
Dw4 G Dw3
8 FC 3 N c

DwG
 Springs in Parallel
Concentric Springs of Equal Lengths

W  Fi  Fo
  o  i
 Concentric Springs of Unequal Lengths

e  initial difference in lengths between the outer

W  Fi  Fo
and inner springs
o  i  e
Fi  force exerted by inner spring
Fo  force exerted by outer spring
W  total load on the nest of spring
Non-concentric Parallel Springs

 Mo  0
W a  b  c   F1 a  b   F2 a 
By similar triangles :
2 1

a ab
W  F1  F2
  1   2
Springs in Series

W  F1  F2
 T  1   2
Springs under Impact Load
PE  IE
P
W h    
2
P  equivalent impact load;
becomes the load on the spring

KE  IE
1 2 P
mv 
2 2
W 2
v  P
g
 Sample Problem 1
• A helical coil spring is made of steel whose allowable
stress is 80 MPa. The dimensions of the spring with
squared and ground ends are, as follows:
Dw  20mm
D0  250mm
N c  10coils
F .L.  500mm

Determine the following:

a. Maximum permissible axial load F;
b. Deflection as caused by the load F; and
c. Stress at solid height.
 N
S allow  80
mm 2
Dw  20mm
D0  250mm
N c  10coils
F .L.  500mm
Gsteel  11.5 x106 psi
 79300 N
mm 2
a. permissible F so as not to overstress the spring
8 FC Dm Do  Dw 250  20
Ss  K ; C     11.5
Dw2
Dw Dw 20
4C  1 0.615 411.5  1 0.615
K     1.125
4C  4 C 411.5  4 11.5
 8F 11.5 
80 N  1.125  2 
mm 2   20  
F  971.31N
b.  caused by F
8 FC 3 N c 8971.31N 11.5 10
3
   74.514mm
GDw 79300 N
mm 2
20mm
8 Fmax C F F1 F2 Fmax   max 
c. S ssolid  S smax  K ; k    ; Fmax  F  
Dw2
 1  2  max   
F .L.  S .H .   max   max  F .L.  S .H .
From AT 16, for squared and ground ends :
S.H.  Dw  N c  2   2010  2   240mm
 max  500  240  260mm
 260 
 Fmax  971.31   3389.2 N
 74.514 
83389.2 N 11.5
S ssolid  S smax  1.125  279.14 N
 202 2
mm
 Sample Problem 2
Given: Two concentric springs of unequal lengths, as shown.

Inner Spring Outer Spring

Dw  20mm Dw  25mm
D0  170mm D0  230mm
N c  20coils N c  8coils
G  79GPa G  79GPa

Required: When the 90000 N load is applied, determine

the force exerted by each spring and the stress in each.
From 1st figure :  o   i  e
 o   i  20  Eq.①
From 2nd figure : Fo  Fi  90000  Eq.②
Relationship of F and  :
F F GDw
k   3
 8FC N c 8C N c
3

GDw
Fi Gi Dwi Dmi Doi  Dwi 170  20
ki   ; Ci     7.5
i 3
8Ci N ci Dwi Dwi 20

79000
N
2
20mm N
ki  mm  23.41
87.5 20
3
mm
4Ci  1 0.615 47.5  1 0.615
Ki      1.197
4Ci  4 Ci 47.5  4 7.5
Fi Fi
i  ; i   Eq.③
ki 23.41
 Fo Go Dwo Dmo Doo  Dwo 230  25
ko   ; Co     8.2
o 3
8Co N co Dwo Dwo 25

79000
N
2
25mm N
ko  mm  55.97
88.2 8
3
mm
4Co  1 0.615 48.2  1 0.615
Ko      1.179
4Co  4 Co 48.2   4 8.2
Fo Fo
o  ; o   Eq.④
ko 55.97

Substitute eqns.③and④ into①:

Fo Fi
  20  Eq.⑤
55.97 23.41
From eq.②: Fi  90000  Fo
 Fo 90000  Fo
Then, substitute into eq.⑤: 55.97   20
23.41
Fo 90000  Fo  2023.41

55.97 23.41
 90000  Fo  2023.41
23.41Fo
55.97
90000  2023.41
Fo   63788 .2 N
23.41
1
55.97
8 FoCo Fi  90000  63788.2  26211 .8 N
S so  K o
Dw2o
863788.2 8.2 
 1.179  2512 .63 N
 252 2
mm
8F C
S si  K i i 2 i
Dwi
826211.87.5
 1.197  1498.03 N
 202
mm 2
 Sample Problem 3
Given: Two concentric springs of equal lengths, as shown.

Inner Spring Outer Spring

Dw  20mm Dw  25mm
D0  170mm D0  230mm
N c  20coils N c  8coils
G  79GPa G  80GPa
Fo Fi S allow  110MPa S allow  150MPa

Required: (a) Deformation of each spring at impact; (b)

Stress on each spring at impact; and (c) Are the springs
safe to absorb the impact?
a. Deflection :    o   i
Forces : Fo  Fi  P  Eq.①
Impact Load : PE  IE
2W h   
W h      ; P 
P
 Eq.②
2 
Equation for  :
8 FC 3 N c

GDw
Dmo Doo  Dwo 230  25 4Co  1 0.615 48.2   1 0.615
Co     8.2; K o      1.179
Dwo Dwo 25 4Co  4 Co 48.2   4 8.2
8Fo 8.2  8 
3
o  ;  o    0.01764 Fo ; Fo   Eq.③
8000025 0.01764
Dmi Doi  Dwi 170  20 4Ci  1 0.615 47.5  1 0.615
Ci     7.5; K i      1.197
Dwi Dwi 20 4Ci  4 Ci 47.5  4 7.5
8Fi 7.5 20 
3
i  ;  i    0.0427 Fi ; Fi   Eq.④
7900020 0.0427
 Substitute eqns.②,③and④ into①:
Fo  Fi  P
  2W h    2550460   
  
0.01764 0.0427  
80.11 2  2550460  2550   2  13.73  6316.32  0
13.73  13.732  416316.32
By quadratic formula :  
21
  86.64mm   i   o
8FoCo  86.64
b. S so  K o ; F    4911.56 N
Dwo
2 o
0.01764 0.01764
84911.568.2
 1.179  193.47 N 2 or MPa
 252
mm
8Fi Ci  86.64
S si  K i ; Fi    2929.04 N
Dwi2
0.0427 0.0427
82929.047.5
 1.197  115.96 N 2 or MPa
 202
mm
c. Outer Spring
 
S so  193.47 MPa  S allow  150MPa
 not safe !
Inner Spring
 
S si  115.96MPa  S allow  110MPa
 not safe !
 Exercise1
Given: Two parallel helical coil springs of equal lengths, as shown.

Data for Spring

C 6
N c  8coils
G  11.5 x106 psi
S allow  12000 psi

Required: (a) Dw and Do of the spring to safely absorb the

impact load; and (b) Deformation of spring caused by the
impact load.
 Exercise 2
Given: Two concentric springs of equal lengths, as shown.

Inner Spring Outer Spring

Dw  20mm Dw  25mm
D0  170mm D0  230mm
N c  20coils N c  8coils
Fo Fi G  79GPa G  80GPa
S allow  110MPa S allow  150MPa

Required: Determine the maximum height of drop, h so as

not to overstress either spring.