Drilling and Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Syllabus

15‐09‐2021
Pressure gradient
Drilling And Hydraulic
Fracturing Technology
Wellbore depth Instructor: Dr. Sandeep D. Kulkarni

Autumn 2021
Overall Syllabus: Drilling and Hydrofracking Technology
 Introduction to FIELD Drilling Methods and Practices
 Drilling fluids:
• WBM : functional additives, formulation/adjustment, characterization, compatibility
• OBM: functional additives, formulation/adjustment, characterization, compatibility
 Fundamentals of Wellbore Hydraulics
• Lab‐to‐Field‐concept, Power law model for rheology, wellbore pressures, ECD
 Casing Design: Need, Type and Characterization.
 Cementing methods : Need, Field Application Overview, composition and Characterization.
 Mud Logging
 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Fracturing and Fracturing Fluid Design
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Introduction to FIELD Drilling Methods and Practices
 History of Drilling
 Rotary Method of Drilling Rigs
 Types of Rotary Drilling Rigs
 Solid Control methods
 DILUTION
 DUMP & DILUTE
 MECHANICAL SEPARATION
 Wellbore Volumes
History of Drilling Water-wells Oilwells
Ancient Attempts of Oilwell Drilling
 In China: A.D. 347
 In Japan: A. D. 600
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History of Drilling
19th Century Oilwell Drilling using Cable Tools Drake’s well
 Edwin L. Drake : 1859
 69.5 ft. deep
 8-10 bpd
 Cable tool drilling:

pounding through soil and rock to drill
the well by repeatedly dropping a
heavy iron bit attached to cable.
Steam
Engine
Cable Drilling Tools
Rotary Drilling : Modern Oil-well Industry
20th Century Oilwell Drilling using Rotary Drilling Methods
 Mr. Higgins & Captain Lucas: 1900
 About ≈ 1100 ft deep.
 1,00,000 bpd
 Birth of Modern oil-industry
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 Rotary Drilling Method
 Driil-Bit: Well is drilled using a drill-bit that,

under a downward force and rotation.
 Drill-pipe: tubular steel conduits that connects

the drill-bit to the surface equipment.
 Drill-collars: thick walled tubular

pieces with threads that connects
the drill-pipes to drill-bits.
 Drill-string: The combination of the drillpipe,

drill-bit, drill collars and any other tools used
to make the drill-bit turn at the bottom of
the wellbore.
 Derrick: the pyramidal structure that

supports the drill-string of a drilling rig.

Rotary Drilling Process:
Cuttings transport
 Mud-pump pulls fluid from pit up

to kelly hose and down drillpipe.
 The drilling fluid is ‘circulated’ Pump Pit

Pit
downhole through the drillpipe.
 The fluid from annulus goes over

shaker screens where cuttings
are separated.
 The filtered fluid goes back into

the pit.
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Rotary Drilling Rigs: Land Rigs

 Important Rig Components
Top‐drive is an equipment that imparts
rotary motion to the drill‐string and
also helps to achieve to place weight‐on‐bit.
Kelly is a stiff tubing that connects the Top‐drive
to top of the Drill‐string.
Rotary Hose carries the drilling fluid from mud‐pump
to inside of the drill‐string.
IBOP stands from “Inside Blow Out Preventer” which
essentially is a safety valve that prevents back
flow of the fluid up through the drill‐string.
https://youtu.be/rLxquNIJTUM?t=375
 How a drill‐pipe connection is made on the rig.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QkrUSVMSBlE
Types of Rotary Drilling Rigs
Offshore
Land Rigs
Rigs
Bottom‐supported
A1. Jackup
Conventional
A2. Platform
A3. Submersible
Floating Vessels
Mobile B1. Semisubmersible
B2. Drill‐ships
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Modern land rig

• Average depth ≈ 3000 ft
• Maximum depth ≈ 30,000 ft
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 Two broad categories: Conventional & Mobile
 Conventional Land Rigs:
 Uses a standard derrick built on location.
 Needs dismantling before moving to the next location.
 Derrick would be left standing above the well, even well
production begins, just in case work‐over becomes necessary.
 Mobile Land Rigs
 built with cantilever derrick or portable mast that is raised or
lowered as a whole.

 Mobile Land Rigs:
 Cantilever derrick
 assembled horizontally
 raised using the rig hoisting equipment
 Portable mast
 Mounted on a truck along with the hoisting system.
 Upon arrival on location, raised to the operating position.
Mobile Rigs with cantilever derrick Mobile Rigs with portable mast
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Offshore Rigs
Offshore rigs are self‐contained with drilling
equipments, life‐support systems and crew
quarters
Offshore
Land Rigs
Rigs
Bottom‐supported
A1. Jackup
Conventional
A2. Platform
A3. Submersible
Floating Vessels
Mobile B1. Semisubmersible
B2. Drill‐ships
Offshore Rigs: A1. Jackup Rigs
 Legs (towers) rest on the
sea floor
 Water depth
 few ft. to 400 ft.
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Offshore Rigs: A1. Jackup Rigs
 Mobilizing Jackup Rigs
 Once the desired location is reached, the rig legs are dropped and deck height is
raised as required.
 After completion of drilling, legs are raised.
 Difficulty may arise as legs may get stuck in consolidated, stick seafloor soils
 Most rig legs are equipped with water‐jetting system to help remove the legs.
Offshore Rigs: A2. Platform Rigs
 Immobile offshore structure.
 Once built, they are not movable.
 Require large up‐front investment for
constructing platform at a fixed location.
 Only done when there is reasonable
assurance of presence of commercial oil and gas.
 Typically applicable up to water depth of 1500 ft.
 Construction in deeper areas can be extremely expensive or technically not feasible.
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 In this type, the tender floats next to the rigid platform.
 Applicable if the working capacity of the rigid platform is limited
 The rigid platform may not have enough capacity to carry equipment, chemicals, water, pipes
etc.
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Offshore Rigs: A3. Submersible Rigs
 After drilling the water may  Rig rests on the sea‐floor when it is
be removed again from the drilling.
compartments.
 The rig compartments can be filled
 Then, the rig can be towed. up with water.
Up to 175 ft. deep
Offshore Rigs: A3. Submersible Rigs
Inland Swamp Barge Arctic Submersible
Up to 3 to 6 m deep
(channels, canals)
Bottle Type
Up to 175 ft. deep
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Offshore Rigs: B1. Semisubmersible
 Satellite Positioning system and
sensors used to keep the rig positioned.
 Lowered to predetermined depth by
filling water in the columns
 Position maintained using anchors or
thrusters.
 Up to 7500 ft. water depth
Offshore Rigs: B2. Drillships
 Self‐propelled
 Dynamically positioned
 Anchored
 Designed to minimize motion due to ocean waves and tides
 High level of automation and state‐of‐the‐art technology
 Drilling up to 10,000 ft. of water‐depth has been reported.
 System consists of subsea blowout prevention system.
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Introduction to FIELD Methods and Practices
 Solids Control Methods : Background & Importance
 Dilution
 Dump & Dilute
 Wellbore Volumes
Background: Drilling Fluids Additives

Water Base Oil Base
Base fluid: Base fluid:

clear water or brines Isomeric olefins,
diesel, esters etc.
NaCl, CaCl2, CaBr2
Emulsifiers
Viscosifiers:
Clay (bentonite, Water (or Brine)
hectorite), polymers [Oil/water ratio:
60:40 to 95:5]
Filtration control
agents Viscosifiers:
organophilic clays,
polymers
Shale stabilizers
Filtration control We want to keep
Weighting agents: agents the commercial
Low gravity solids
Weighting agents:
solids (~2.7sg)
Low gravity solids
High gravity
solids(~4.2 sg) High gravity solids 2
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Solids Control Methods: Importance
Conditioned
fluid
SOLIDS ADDITIVES
CONTROL MIXING
Fluid containing
Drill Solids
Drill Solids +
Residual Fluid
WASTE
MANAGEMENT
Key Performance Points
 Maximize drill solids removal
 Minimize whole mud loss
 Minimize loss of commercial solids
 Provide optimum drilling fluid conditioning
 Waste management
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Improper Solid Control would lead to……
 Poor rheology control
Issues: Lost Circulation,
Borehole stability
 Poor density control
Issues: Lost Circulation,
Borehole stability
Viscosity
 Excessive solids/clays in the system
Issues: Torque & Drag, stuck pipe,
reduced ROP
 Excessive Fluid maintenance 5% 10%
Issues: cost
% Drill solids (Clay) in Drilling Fluid
Types & Sizes of Drill Solids & Commercial solids

 DESIRED: Commercial solids
 Weighing material
 Commercial clays
 Calcium carbonate
 LCM fibers, granules, flakes
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Solids Control Methods

 DILUTION
Based on addition of new fluid
 DUMP & DILUTE
Based on displacement of a portion of the fluid with fresh fluid
 MECHANICAL SEPARATION
Based on particle size and density difference
 CHEMICALLY ENHANCED SEPARATION
Based on dewatering principal
 SETTLING (Using large non‐agitated tanks)
Based on stoke’s law
Solids Control Methods: Dilution
Vdf = Vpt (LGSpt ‐ LGSf) Principle: mass balance

[LGSf ‐ LGSdf ]
Vdf = Dilution volume required LGSpt = %Volume of LGS in pre-treatment system

Vpt = Fluid volume pre-treatment LGSf = %Volume of LGS desired in the final fluid
LGSdf = %Volume of LGS in added dilution fluid
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Solids Control Methods: Dump & Dilution
Vdf = Vpt (LGSpt ‐ LGSf) Principle: displacement

(LGSpt ‐ LGSdf ) & mass balance
Vdf = Dilution volume required LGSpt = %Volume of LGS in pre-treatment system

Vpt = Fluid volume pre-treatment LGSf = %Volume of LGS desired in the final fluid
LGSdf = %Volume of LGS in added dilution fluid
Solids Control Methods: Dilution vs. [Dump & Dilution]
Water Vol. 2% Bentonite

Required (bbl) Slurry Required (bbl)
Ex. 1 Ex. 2 Ex. 3 Ex.4

333 500 250 333
Dilution Dump & Dilution
 Disadvantages of Dilution Method:
 Cannot continue indefinitely

 High maintenance cost for large system.
 Logistics crisis
 Disadvantages for Dump & Dilution Method:
 Environmental impact of dumped mud.

 High disposal costs.
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 DILUTION
 DUMP & DILUTE
 Drilling Fluids Volumes
Solids Control Methods: Importance (review slide)
Conditioned
fluid
SOLIDS ADDITIVES
CONTROL MIXING
Fluid containing
Drill Solids
Drill Solids +
Residual Fluid
WASTE
MANAGEMENT
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Solids Control Equipment : Importance (review slide)
Key Performance Points
 Maximize drill solids removal
 Minimize whole mud loss
 Minimize loss of commercial solids
 Provide optimum drilling fluid conditioning
 Waste management
Solids Control Methods: Mechanical Separation

Underlying principle: accelerated sedimentation
 Stoke’s law (*)
𝑑 𝑓𝑡 ∗ ρ ρ 𝑠𝑔
Fall rate 𝑈 𝑓𝑡/ sec 1.66∗10 ∗
μ 𝑐𝑝
 It will take many hours/days for particle to settle under gravity.
 Mechanical separation techniques enable accelerated sedimentation.
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Mechanical Separation Devices
A. Shale Shakers
B. Hydro‐cyclone separators
B1. Desander
B2. Desilter
C. Centrifuge

A. Shale Shakers
Inclination Vibrator assembly
Control By-pass gate
Basket/deck
Screens
Catch Pan
Demonstration video: Tensioning Assembly
https://youtu.be/ocmkknOvaUo
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Principle of a Shale Shakers
 vibrating screens to remove as much drilled solids
 First pass removal
 liquid passes through the screen
 Assist downstream separation equipment
 Performance is affected by:
• Vibration frequency (2.5 – 5.5 g)

• Number of decks
• Deck length
• Deck angle
• Screen type & mesh size
• Mud rheology
• Flow rate and solids loading

Principle of a Shale Shakers
 Screen sizes
 Typically shakers screen solids above 180-2000 microns (80/10 mesh)

based on the screens used.
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B. Hydro‐cyclone Separators
Principal of a Hydro‐cyclone separator
 Converts incoming liquid velocity into rotary motion
 Passive separators
 Accelerated sedimentation (up to 300-600 g force)
 Centrifugal force and inertia push solid to the wall
 Lighter fluid/particles escape from top
 Heavy slurry containing large/dense solids contribute to bottom discharge
 No moving parts and lower cost devices.
 Equipment based on hydro-cyclone technique : Desander & Desilter
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B1. Desander Equipment
 Typical Dimensions:
o 10”‐12” cone diameter
o 75‐90 feet of head
o Number of cones dictated by flow rate
 Flow‐rate handling capacity: 400‐500 gpm each
 Particle screening: 200‐250 micron and above
 Outlet streams:
o Overflow returned to desilter tank
o Underflow discarded or re‐screened

B2. Desilter Equipment
 Typical Dimensions:
o 3”‐6” cone diameter
o 75‐90 feet of head
o Number of cones dictated by flow rate
 Flow‐rate handling capacity: 20‐100 gpm each
 Particle screening: 70‐100 micron and above
 Outlet streams:
o Overflow returned to centrifuge
o Underflow discarded or re‐screened
 Typically not recommended for weighted
oil‐based or water‐based fluid systems
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Thumb‐rule for determining number of cones
Cone Capacities
Cone Size (inch) gpm

3 50
4 50
6 100
8 150
10 500
12 500
Number of Cones
Number of cones = Max. circ. Rate (gpm) x 1.25

Cone Capacity (gpm)

Additional screen or mud‐cleaner
Hydro-cyclone bank mounted on top of fine screen shaker
Clean Mud
Mud In
Hydrocyclones
Screen
Discarded
Solids
Screen Underflow
Mud Return
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C. Centrifuge Main Drive
Motor
Back Drive
Feed inlet Motor
Torque
Limiter
Conveyor
Bowl Gearbox
Demonstration video:
https://youtu.be/r4uuWSkPbm0?t=13

Centrifuge Principle
 Active rotating separators
o Low speed centrifuge: 1500 – 2000 RPM
o High speed centrifuge: 3000 – 3500 RPM
 Accelerated sedimentation
o Low speed centrifuge: 1200 - 1500 g
o High speed centrifuge: 3000 – 3500 g
 Centrifugal force and inertia push solid to the wall
 Lighter fluid/particles escape separately.
 Heavy slurry containing larger particles through another channel.
 Solids Removal:
o Low speed centrifuge: up to 10 – 75 microns.
o High speed centrifuge: up to 5 – 10 microns.
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HIGH SPEED LOW SPEED SHAKERS AND

CENTRIFUGE CENTRIFUGE HYDROCYCLONES
PERCENTAGE
DISCARDED SOLIDS
DISCARDED SOLIDS
WEIGHING MATERIAL AND
SOLIDS RETURNED
TO MUD SYSTEM
2 7-10 74
PARTICLE SIZE (MICRONS)
Low /High speed overlap zone

Comparison of mechanical separators
Mechanical separation Equipment Sedimentation Solids

technique acceleration Screening
vibrating screen Shale shaker 2.5 – 5.5 g 180‐2000 µm
Desander 300 – 350 g 200‐250 µm and

Hydro‐cyclone based above
Desilter 500 – 600 g 70‐100 µm and
above
Low‐speed
10 – 75 µm and
Centrifuge centrifuge 1200 – 1500 g
above
High‐speed
3000‐3500 g 5‐10 µm and
centrifuge
above
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 DILUTION
 DUMP & DILUTE
 Drilling Fluids’ Volumes
Drilling Fluid Volumes

 Storage Volume:
Oil-field Units bbl, gal, ft
o Any drilling fluid or base fluid stored
on location for later use 1 bbl 42 gallons 158.9 litres
o E.g. weighted fluids, Clear brines
1 𝑏𝑏𝑙 5.6146 𝑓𝑡3
 Surface Volume:
o Drilling fluids in the active pit system
o E.g. Fluids in Suction pit, Mixing pit,
solids control unit
 Hole Volume: Image source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b2di7nR198s
o Drill string and wellbore annulus
volume occupied by the drilling fluid
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 Surface Volume: Rectangular Tank
o Tank length (L, ft), Tank Width (W, ft) and Fluid height in the tank (Hf , ft)
o Fluid volume Calculations
∗ ∗
Total Tank Volume (bbl) =
.
bbl 𝐿∗𝑊
Fluid Volume
ft 5.6146
Image source: https://www.gnsolidscontrol.com/mud‐tank/

 Surface Volume: Vertical Cylindrical Tank
o Tank Diameter (D, ft), and Fluid height in the tank (Hf , ft)
∗
Total Tank Volume (bbl) =
.
Π 2
bbl 𝐷
Fluid Volume 4
ft 5.6146
Image source: https://www.tradewheel.com/p/
drilling‐fluids‐mud‐circulation‐system‐475861/
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 Surface Volume: Horizontal Cylindrical Tank
o Tank Diameter D (ft); and radius R (ft)
o Fluid height in the tank Hf (ft) ; height of empty section He (ft)
o Tank Length L (ft)
He
Hf
 Surface Volume: Horizontal Cylindrical Tank
(filled more than half)
He
𝜃 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 2 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 R
Hf
Arc area 𝐷2 *
Triangular area 2∗ ∗ 𝑅 𝐻 2 ∗tan 𝜃/2 }
Total Fluid volume (bbl) = .
{ 𝐷2 – [ Arc area – Triangular area] }
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Problems
Calculate the volume of drilling fluid in each of following pits/tanks
A. Rectangular pit 18 ft long by 10 ft wide with a fluid depth of 4.5 ft
B. Vertical cylindrical tank 13 ft high by 8 ft diameter with a fluid depth of 10.6 ft
C. Horizontal cylindrical tank: 18 ft long with a diameter of 8 ft
i. with a fluid depth of 6.0 ft

 Hole Volume: Typical Wellbore Schematic (vertical wellbore)
13 3/8” Casing
MD 3000 ft OD ID
TVD 3000 ft.
Casing 1 13 3/8” 12.735”
Casing 2 9 5/8” 8.896”
Drill‐pipe 5” 4.3”
9 5/8” Casing
Drill Collar 6.5” 2.7”
MD 8500 ft
TVD 8500 ft.
MD : Measured depth (typical unit – ft)
500 ft. Open Hole (OH) = 8 ½” TVD: True Vertical Depth (typical unit – ft)
MD = 9000 ft
TVD = 9000 ft. ID: Inside Diameter (typical unit – inch)
OD: Outside Diameter (typical unit –inch)
OH: open‐hole
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Drilling Fluid Volumes Oil-field Units bbl, gal, ft

1 𝑏𝑏𝑙 5.6146 𝑓𝑡3
 Hole Volume 1 ft = 1’ = 12 inch 12"
o Drill‐string component or Pipe Fluid Capacity
Drill‐pipe
(Pipe/drill‐string ID in inches)
Annular
capacity
o Drilling Fluid Pipe Volume
Pipe
capacity
o Annular Fluid Capacity
Drill‐collar
Drill‐collar
(Casing/open‐hole ID in inches)
capacity
o Drilling Fluid Annular Volume
Drilling Fluid Well-Volumes
Wellbore Volume Exercise
SKETCH THE VERTICAL WELLBORE AND ESTIMATE THE HOLE
VOLUME
Surface Casing: OD = 12‐1/4”, Casing ID = 11.5”. MD = 4300 ft.
Open‐hole (OH) : 9 5/8” ID, from MD = 4300 ft to MD = 11000 ft
Drill‐pipe: 4.5”*3.826”*10,200 ft
Drill collars: 6.5”*2.25”*800 ft
Note: Drill‐string is situated at the bottom hole.
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Circulating Fluid Volume

Circulating Volume (Suction to Suction) =
Wellbore Volume + Total Active Pit Volume
o Surface/Bit Time
Time required for the fluid to travel from
wellbore entry point to the downhole bit.
o Bit/Surface Time
Pump Pit
Pit
The bit to the wellbore exit point.
o Surface/Surface Time
wellbore entry point to the wellbore exit point.
o Suction to Suction Time
Time required for the fluid to travel from the
mud‐pump to the wellbore entry and then to the bit,
then to the wellbore exit, and then back again
The different “times” could be
to the mud‐pump via the solids control unit and pit.
verified using tracers. 11
Triplex Pump Output
A Triplex Pump is a kind of a pump that uses 3 plungers to reduce pulsation of

the single reciprocating plunger pumps.
https://youtu.be/SF832mZL1RU?t=26
• Liner size in inches
• Stroke length in inches
• Efficiency expressed as fraction
• PO = pump output in bbl/stroke
Image Source: http://www.triplexmudpump.com/F‐1300‐triplex‐mud‐
pumps.php
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Volume Displacement Strokes
Problem
spm = strokes per min (by pump)
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Important Conversion Chart

bbl 5.6148 ft3
Poise 0.1 Pa.s
Viscometer dial reading (lb/100ft2) 5.11 dyne/cm2

g/cm3 0.433 psi/ft
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• WBM : functional additives, formulation/adjustment, characterization, compatibility
• OBM: functional additives, formulation/adjustment, characterization, compatibility
• Lab‐to‐Field‐concept, Power law model for rheology, wellbore pressures, ECD
 Casing Design: Need, Type and Characterization.
 Cementing methods : Need, Field Application Overview, composition and Characterization.
 Mud Logging
Drilling Fluids: Functions
 Transport cuttings & cavings to surface
 Control Subsurface pressures
 Help suspend weight of drill string and casing
 Cool and lubricate bit and drill string
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Drilling Fluids: Functions
 Provide wellbore stability
 Minimize formation damage
 Provide medium for Wireline Log
Drilling Fluids:
Importance in Wellbore Pressure Management
True Vertical Depth (TVD) : measured vertically

from the surface down to a certain target down
hole.
Measured Depth (MD): total length of the

wellbore measured along the actual well path.
Drilling Fluid Static Pressure @TVD [psi]
= 0.052*TVD [ft]*fluid_density [lbm/gal]
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Drilling Fluids:
 Pore pressure: The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir.
 Ideally it is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the reservoir fluid.
 However, when the sedimentary rock compression was happening over a
long time period, fluids cannot always escape and must then support the total
overlying rock column, leading to anomalously high pore pressures.
 Fracture pressure: pressure above which injection of fluids will cause the rock

formation to fracture hydraulically.
 The static/dynamic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid (at a given depth), MUST
BE BETWEEN PORE PRESSURE and FRACTURE PRESSSURE.
Drilling Fluids:
Numerical:
For a well of 10,000 ft TVD (True Vertical Depth), the pore pressure is 6500 psi.
What is the reasonable drilling fluid density can help avoid kick situation ?
A. 9 lbm/gal
B. 11 lbm/gal
C. 13 lbm/gal
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Drilling Fluids: Composition
Polymer Additives in Water‐Based Drilling Fluids (WBM)
WBM Additives
Viscosifiers:
Organic Polymers : natural (xanthen gum),
modified (polyanionic cellulose) and synthetic (acrylamide).
Inorganic Clays: Bentonite, Hectorite, Sepiolite
De-flocculants or Thinners (for clay systems):

Mechanism of clay-brine interaction
Thinners: Polyphosphates, lignosulfonates.
Filtration control agents
colloidal particulates, Lignite, Polymers (starch and cellulose derivatives).
Shale stabilizers: salts, PH-APAM, Lignosulfonates,
Weighting agents:
Low gravity solids (~2.7sg)
High gravity solids(~4.2 sg)
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I. Polymeric Viscosifiers for WBM
Classification: Organic and In‐organic
 Polymeric viscosifiers in drilling fluids classified according to origin & composition as:
 Naturally Occurring
 Modified
 Synthetic Hydrophilic Hydrophobic
 Polymer Characteristics:
 Molecular weight
• Molecular weight distribution
• Average molecular weight
 Ionicity
• Cationic
• Anionic
• Non‐Ionic
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Naturally Occurring Polymeric Viscosifiers
 Polysaccharides polymeric carbohydrates molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharides units
bound together
 Polysaccharides, are with repeating units in the polymer backbone are six‐carbon monosaccharides,
 The general formula simplifies to (C6H10O5)n.
 Starch (a polysaccharide)
 Naturally occurring
 Primary Sources: Wheat, tapioca, potatoes grains and corn
 Functionality: function of molecular weight and molecular structure
(n is the number of
 Primarily reduce filtrate loss repeating units and
ranges in the 1,000's)
• Form colloidal water‐absorbent particles that seal pores in the filter cake
 Secondarily provide viscosity
 Degraded by heat and agitation above 200 oF
 Cellulose (a polysaccharide)
 In cellulose, the glucose monomers are assembled in an alternating pattern while the glucose
monomers of starch are assembled facing in the same direction each time.
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 Xanthan Gum (a polysaccharide)
 Naturally occurring
 Produced by the action of the plant
 Hetero‐polysaccharide
 High molecular weight in excess of five Million.
 Primarily function
• high viscosity even when very little is used.
 Degraded by heat and agitation above 200 oF
Modified Polymeric Viscosifiers
 Poly‐anionic Cellulose
 Modified polymer
 Filtration control and viscosifier
 Thermally stable up to 250 F
 Increased salt tolerance
 High and low molecular weights
7
15‐09‐2021
Synthetic Polymeric Viscosifiers
 Polyacrylamides/Polyacrylates
 Synthetic polymer
 Molecular weights from 1,000 to 20,000,000
 water‐absorbent, forming a soft gel when hydrated, used in such application
 Effective deflocculant at low concentrations
 High temperature stability
II. Clay Inorganic Additives in WBM
 Clay is a group of rock‐forming, hydrous aluminum silicate minerals that are layered
in morphology
 Clay is a large family of complex minerals containing the elements magnesium,
aluminum, silicon, and oxygen combined in a sheet‐like structure.
 Types of Clays
 Bentonite
 Sepiolite
 Attapulgite
8
15‐09‐2021
 Clays: Bentonite
 Particle size: 0.1 ‐ 10 microns (4900 mesh).
• Smaller the size, more is the surface area
• More is surface area, more effective are reactive solids.
μm
1 cm cube of clay has
a surface area 104
times lesser than that
when the same cube
is divided in to 1 μm
size cubes.
 Clay structure of Sodium Bentonite A unit layer of Na‐Bentonite clay
 Clay structure info. using on X‐ray
diffraction, adsorption spectra and
thermal analysis.
 The overall structure is represented by
the formula 4SiO2 ∙Al2 O3 ∙H2 O but with
some of the aluminum cations Al3+ being
replaced by magnesium cations Mg2+.
 Clay minerals are of a crystalline nature
with several layers or platelets.
Tetrahedral: a central atom with four other
atoms that are located at the corners of a
tetrahedron.
Octahedral: a central atom with six other atoms
that are located at the corners of a octahedron.
9
15‐09‐2021
 A single platelet is called a unit layer,
A unit layer of Na‐Bentonite clay
and consists of:
 In the octahedral sheet : “Al/Mg” atoms
in octahedral co‐ordination with “O”
atoms e.g. Al2 (OH)6
 In the tetrahedral sheet : “Si” atoms
in octahedral co‐ordination with “O”
atoms
 The sheets are tied together by sharing
common “O” atoms.
 Hydrophilic Nature of Sodium Bentonite
 For Smectite, the predominant
substitutions of Mg+2 for Al+3
leading to the charge deficiency.
This creates a negative potential at the surface of crystal, which is compensated
for by the adsorption of a loosely attached cation, Na+ in this case.
The clay is a hydrophilic and the layers may expand and the clay particle may
swell to approximately 10 times its original volume when exposed to water.
10
15‐09‐2021
 Hydrophilic Nature of Sodium Bentonite
 Distance between a plane in one layer and the
corresponding plane in next layer is called
c‐spacing.
 This c‐spacing is 9 ‐ 11 Angstoms
 The sheets in the unit layer are tied together by
covalent bonds, WHILE, the layers in the crystal
lattice are held together only by van der Waals
forces.
 Water can enter between the layers, thereby
causing an increase in the c‐spacing.
 The swelling would be inhibited in brines which is
discussed in details later.
 Clays: Attapulgite
 Attapulgite particles consist of bundles of laths,
which separate to individual laths when mixed
vigorously with water.
 There are very few atomic substitutions in
structure.
 Rheological properties of attapulgite suspensions
are dependent on mechanical interference
between the long laths, rather than on
electrostatic interparticle forces.
 Hence, attapulgite makes an excellent viscosifiers
in brines Electron micrograph of attapulgite clay
(magnified 45,000 time)
11
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 Clays: Sepiolite
 Sepiolite is an analagous clay mineral to Attapulgite.
 Sepiolite has wider laths than attapulgite.
 Their rheological properties are not affected by high temperatures.
 Sepiolite‐based muds are recommended for use in high‐temperature wells
12
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WBM : functional additives, formulation/adjustment, characterization, compatibility

OBM: functional additives, formulation/adjustment, characterization, compatibility
 Mud Logging
 Casing Design
 Cementing methods
WBM Additives
Viscosifiers:

Mechanism of clay-brine interaction
Thinners: Polyphosphates, lignosulfonates.
Shale stabilizers: salts, PH-APAM, Lignosulfonates,
Weighting agents:
1
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Mechanism of Clay‐Brine Interaction
Dispersed and Dispersed and
Deflocculated flocculated,
(Thin system) (Thick system)
Micro‐aggregation Complete aggregation
(Thin system) (Thin system)
 
Clay‐Brine Interaction: Aggregation vs. Dispersion
 Aggregation : collapse of the diffuse double layers and formation
of aggregates of parallel platelets (specially in presence of divalent
salts).
• Aggregation typically reduces viscosity and gels as opposed to
flocculation.
• Aggregation will eliminate performance of the clay viscosifier.
 Dispersion : subdivision of particle aggregates in a suspension,
usually by mechanical means.
2
15‐09‐2021
Clay‐Brine Interaction: Flocculation vs. De‐flocculalation
 Flocculation: the term flocculation stands for loose association of
clay platelets which forms slurry or gel (viscosity increase).
 De‐flocculation: No loose association of clay platelets.
Additives in WBM: Flocculants
 Flocculants
 If enough electrolyte is added, the clay particles can approach
each other so closely that the attractive forces predominate.
 Flocculation value: the critical concentration of electrolyte at
which it occurs.
 Sodium montmorillonite is flocculated by about 15 meq/litre
of sodium chloride (approx. 1000 ppm).
 Strategy for Clay‐based WBM:
 First achieve a good dispersion in fresh water.
 Then the addition of monovalent salt would ensure
flocculation.
3
15‐09‐2021
Additives in WBM: De‐flocculants or Thinners
 Flocculation may be prevented/reversed, by the addition of the
de‐flocculants or thinners which are salts of certain complex anions: anions, e.g.:
1. Sodium hexametaphosphate
2. Calcium lignosulfonates.
 The thinners retards the flocculation by the mechanism of chemisorption. Sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP)
 E.g. about 0.5% of sodium hexametaphosphate added to a dilute suspension of
sodium montmorillonite, the flocculation value is raised from 15 meq/lit to about
400 meq/lit (25000 ppm) of sodium chloride.
 A 0.5% of sodium hexameta‐phosphate could liquify a thick gelatinous mud.
WBM Additives
Viscosifiers:

Polyphosphates, lignosulfonates.

Shale stabilizers: salts, Lignosulfonates,
Weighting agents:
4
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Additives in WBM: Filtration Concepts
 Principle: As the pressure of the drilling fluid is higher than the formation
pore pressure, the drilling fluid filtrate would continuously invade into
the permeable formation until the filter cake (i.e. seal) is formed using Inlet Drilling Fluid Filter‐cake Formation
the insoluble components of the fluid. Outlet
 Filter‐cake properties such as cake thickness, toughness, slickness, (T,P)
stability and permeability are important because the cake that forms on
permeable zones in the wellbore can cause differential sticking and other
drilling problems.
 Differential sticking: when pipe rotation is stopped, a part of pipe may
come in contact with the thick cake, then regaining the pipe movement
becomes a big challenge.
Additives in WBM: Filtration Properties Measurements
 Filtration performance must be evaluated using
API filtration tests LTLP (Low‐temperature Low
Pressure) and HTHP (High‐temperature high‐
pressure) tests [characterization equipment details
will be discussed later].
5
15‐09‐2021
Additives in WBM: Filtration Properties Measurements
 As per Darcy law
k — dynamic cake permeability,
P ‐ differential pressure,
μ ‐ viscosity of the filtrate
h ‐ thickness in centimeters,
q ‐ volume of filtrate
t ‐ time in seconds.
 Larson’s experimental results
[Qw 𝒒𝟎 𝑨 ∗ 𝑪 ∗ √𝒕
Qw ‐ cumulative filtrate volume A typical plot of cumulative filtrate volume versus time
C – constant plotted on a square root scale
qo – spurt loss
A – Area of filter cake
Additives in WBM: Filtration Control Additives
 Particulates of size comparable to pore opening can block the pores and
act as bridging agents (e.g. CaCO3 particulates).
 Lignite (soft coal, 20‐60% carbon content) helps with filtration control up
to 400 F.
Lignite
 Polymers
 Starch (temperature stability up to 180 F)
 Poly‐anionic Cellulose (temperature stability up to 250 F)
 Synthetic acrylamide‐based polymers
Poly‐anionic Cellulose Structure
6
15‐09‐2021
WBM Additives
Viscosifiers:


Shale stabilizers: salts, PHPA, sulphonated asphault
Weighting agents:
Additives in WBM: Shale Stabilization Concepts
Inlet Drilling Filter‐cake Formation
Outlet
 Principle of Osmosis: a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to Fluid
pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated
solution into a more concentrated one.
 It is NOT desirable that the water in WBM to go to formation shales.
 The WBM base‐fluid is essentially brine of sufficient strength to
avoid osmosis‐based water passage from WBM to formation
 Otherwise, challenges such as wellbore collapse and excessive
shale dis‐integration would incur.
7
15‐09‐2021
Additives in WBM: Shale Stabilization Concepts
 Principle of Shale Encapsulation
Demonstrative Example:
 PHPA is a copolymer, which is

polymer that contains two or more
different types of monomer, consist
of acrylate and acrylamide.
 The anionic polymers or complex

ions could encapsulate the shale
cuttings and minimize further dis-
integration.
Additives in WBM: Shale Stabilization Additives
• KCl (1% ‐ 7%, w/w)

Osmotic
based • NaCl (5 % ‐ 25% w/w)
• PHPA: Partially Hydrolyzed
Shale polyacrylamide (MW ≈ 20 million)
Encapsulation • Quaternary ammonium salts
Based • Sulphonated asphalt
8
15‐09‐2021
WBM Additives
Viscosifiers:


Shale stabilizers: salts, PHPA, sulphonated asphault
Weighting agents:
Low gravity solids (~2.7sg) – calcium Carbonate
High gravity solids(~4.2 sg) - Barite
Additives in WBM: Weighing Materials
 API Barite Specifications:
 Density: 4.20 g/cm3 [minimum].
 Particle Size:
o Residue greater than 75 microns: 3.0 % by weight [maximum].
o Particles less than 6 microns in diameter: 30 % by weight [maximum].
 Contamination
o Water soluble alkaline earth metals as calcium: 250 mg/kg, maximum.
 Calcium Carbonate Specifications:
CaCO3 Type d50 (μm)
 Density: 2.6‐2.7 g/cm3
Coarse 350
Medium 100
Fine 20
9
15‐09‐2021

 Mud Logging
 Casing Design
Fluid Formulation Recipe: WBM
 Inputs for Fluid Design Recipe
 Fluid Density
 Salt Type & ppm
 Weighting material (& density)
 Additive details (density & concentration)
 Output for Fluid Design Recipe
 Fluid composition for formulating 1 lb‐bbl (350 ml) fluid in lab or 1 bbl fluid in field
[ Prove: 1 lbm/bbl == 1 g/350 ml ]
amounts of weighting material, water & salt(s).
 ASG (average specific gravity).
1
15‐09‐2021
Fluid Formulation: WBM
 Formulae : Density table, Volume Balance and Mass Balance, ASG
 Brine density & volume correction
 ∑𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1.
𝑉 , 𝑉 , 𝑉 are volume fractions of brine, additives and weighting material respectively.
 ∑𝜌 𝑉 𝑉 ∗𝜌 𝑉 ∗𝜌 𝑉 ∗𝜌 = {MW (lbm/gal)/8.345} [g/cm3]
𝜌 , 𝜌 , 𝜌 are densities (g/cm3) of brine, additives and weighting material respectively.
 ASG (Average specific gravity of solids)
∗ ∗
ASG =
For Fluid density
For component 1 pound per barrel (lbm/bbl) 1 g/(350 ml)
concentration
Fluid Formulation Recipe: WBM
 Formulae : Density table, Volume Balance and Mass Balance, ASG
 Brine Density Correction : e.g. NaCl
x = fractional weight
percentage
 Brine Volume Correction: Consider 100 g of brine solution
100
𝑉 𝜌 /8.345 (𝜌 in lbm/gal)
𝑉 100 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡_𝑤𝑡%
2
15‐09‐2021
Problem: WBM Design
 Design recipe of 1 lb‐bbl (350 ml) water‐based mud with following specifications:
 Fluid Density : 12 ppg
 Salt: NaCl (140,000 ppm)
 Weighting material: Barite (4.2 sg)
 Additive details (density & concentration)
WBM Fluid Adjustment: Problem 1
 You are working as a in‐charge of central drilling fluids’ facility.
The drilling fluids engineer orders 1500 bbl of 15.0 lbm/gal of water‐based mud.
 How much water and barite is needed to make the mix ?
Pointer: consider a conservative approach for calculation.
ignore the amount of salt and additives while making estimates of water and barite needed.
3
15‐09‐2021
 You are a drilling fluid engineer. The current mud you are running is 15.2 lbm/gal and
the circulating fluid volume is 800 bbls.
 The operator asks you to weigh up the fluid to 17.4 lbm/gal using
20.1 lbm/gal mud in the store.
 The operator also wants you to keep up the current volume.
 How much of 20.1 lbm/gal mud is required to weigh up the circulating system ?
 How much of the initial 15.2 lbm/gal of mud you would take out before starting the
weigh up ?
 The operator wants to cut the 17.4 lbm/gal drilling fluid present in the circulating
system to 17.0 lbm/gal
 As a fluid engineer, you are aware that there is 1000 bbl of this fluid in the circulating
system. The operator is ok if the fluid volume increases in the dilution process.
 You may use fresh water to cut density.
 How much amount of water is required ?
4
15‐09‐2021

 Mud Logging
 Casing Design
Water‐Based Drilling Fluids’ (WBM)
Characterization
API Recommended Practices: 13B‐1
1
15‐09‐2021
Safety First
 First condition of job
 Critical aspects
 PPE: Personal protective equipment
 SOP: Standard operating procedure
 RA: Risk Assessment
https://youtu.be/GjAD83B4JaY
 Criticize why it went wrong
https://youtu.be/6aK2CKrdjbE?t=16
WBM Characterization Tests/Equipments
 Density : API Densitometer
 Filtration
 API LTLP Filter‐press
 HTHP filter‐press
 Viscosity
API conventional viscometer
HT & HTHP (high‐temperature high‐pressure) viscometer
Retort: % water
 Chemical Analysis: salinity determination
 Other Tests
2
15‐09‐2021
Density: API Densitometer

 Objective: To determine density of drilling fluids.
 Test Overview:
 Accurate field instruments available for determining the density of drilling fluids.
 Four scales on the Mud Balance:
 pounds per gallon

 specific gravity
 pounds per cubic foot
 pounds per square inch per 1,000 feet of depth
 Entrapped gas/air bubbles in the fluid may distort accuracy of density measurement.
(*This distortion can be significantly reduced by pressurizing the fluid.)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wNEN6SOa7M
Filtration: API LTLP Filter Press
https://youtu.be/QrTzdHdFI8Y
3
15‐09‐2021
Filtration: API LTLP Filter Press

 Objective: To determine filtration and wall cake‐building properties of drilling fluids.
 Test Overview:
 Sample fluid confined in test cell is pressurised under 100 PSI differential pressure.
 The fluid under pressure escapes from the bottom of the test cell.
 The solid particles cannot escape because of the filter paper and mesh screen.
 The fluid (brine) collected noted at the interval of 5 minutes and 30 minutes.
 The mud is collected as a cake on the filter paper whose thickness is measured.
 Working Pressure: 100 PSI (689.5 kPa)
 Working Temperature: Ambient
 Filtration Area 7.1 ± 0.1 in2 (45.8 ± 0.6 cm2)
 Working Volume: 400 mL
 Safety Pointer: De‐pressurize before Dis‐assemble.
Filtration: HTHP Filter Press

 Objective: To determine filtration and wall cake‐building
properties of drilling fluids at HTHP conditions.
 Test Overview:
 Fann 175 ml HPHT Filter Press units can be pressurized to
1800 psig on the cell
 The maximum operating temperature is 350°F.
 Pressurization with CO2 Cartridges, in‐house Nitrogen
 Filter media includes the API standard Filter Paper and
various mesh sized screens.
https://youtu.be/ckHDxai2sx0
4
15‐09‐2021
Viscosity: API Conventional Viscometer
Oil-field Viscometer
Shear stress
Shear rate
Inner Cylinder: Bob
https://youtu.be/7o3ILPihHW0
Outer Cylinder: Rotor
Gap between Bob & Rotor: 1.2 mm
 For the oilfield viscometer, The deflection of the
bob (inner cylinder) represents the Shear stress.
 For the oilfield viscometer, The rotation of rotor (outer cylinder) can be transformed in
shear rate knowing the gap.
5
15‐09‐2021
 Objective: To determine rheological properties (shear thinning & gel) of drilling fluids.
 Test Overview:
 The API conventional viscometers are Couette rotational viscometers.
 Test fluid contained in annular space between an outer cylinder (rotor) and the bob
inner cylinder (bob).
 Outer cylinder, rotating at a known velocity, causes a viscous drag exerted by fluid.
 The drag creates a torque on the bob, which is transmitted to a precision spring.
 Safety Pointer: Do NOT heat the thermo‐cup beyond 180 F.

Dial reading is in units of lb/100 ft2
1 lb/100 ft2 = 0.511 Pa
1 RPM = 1.703 s‐1
At 100 RPM rotation of outer cylinder, 15 dial
readings. What is viscosity of the fluid at
given speed ?
Shear stress: 15 * 0.511 Pa = 7.66 Pa
Shear rate: 100*1.703 s‐1 = 170.3 s‐1
Viscosity = Shear‐stress/shear‐rate = 0.045 Pa. sec = 45 cp
(@ 3 RPM)
6
15‐09‐2021

 Plastic Viscosity (PV)
 A parameter of the Bingham Plastic Model.
 PV is the slope of the shear stress vs. shear

rate line using 600 RPM and 300 RPM data.
 PV represents the viscosity of the mud at high

shear rates.
 A low PV indicates that the mud is capable of

drilling rapidly because of the low viscosity of
mud exiting at the bit. High PV is caused by a 300 RPM 600 RPM
viscous base fluid and by excess colloidal
solids.
PV = Delta SS / Delta SR
 To lower PV, a reduction in solids content can
be achieved by dilution of the mud.
(DR600 – DR300)
=
(DR600 – DR300)*0.511
= *1000
∗ .
PV (cp) =(DR600 – DR300)

 Yield Point (YP)
 A parameter of the Bingham Plastic Model.
 YP is the zero-shear rate intercept of the

extrapolated
shear stress vs. shear rate plot using 600
RPM and 300 RPM data.
 YP is used to evaluate the ability of

a drilling fluid to lift cuttings from
the annulus.
 A high YP implies a non-Newtonian fluid

capable of carrying the cuttings better for
given density.
 YP is lowered by adding deflocculant to

a clay-based mud and increased by adding
freshly dispersed clay or a flocculant such
as lime.
7
15‐09‐2021
Viscosity: HT & HTHP Viscometer

 Objective: To determine rheological properties (shear thinning & gel) of drilling fluids.
 Test Overview:
 A rotational viscometer (coaxial cylinder chamber)
 Heating, pressurization and rotor speed are controlled by input from specialized
software.
 HT viscometer: Temperatures up to 500°F (260°C) and pressures up to 1,000 psi
 HTHP viscometer: Temperatures up to 600°F (260°C) and pressures up to 30,000 psi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cNoNaEEMIlo
Retort: % water
Temperature Range 930-950°F(+/-2°F)

50 mL, 10 mL
Sample Volumes
or 20 mL
Condenser
Output: Sample
cell
• % water in the drilling fluid
Heater
jacket cell
Liquid receiver
https://youtu.be/Yd7d2zHsQPg
8
15‐09‐2021
Chemical Analysis: Salinity Determination
 Laboratory Titrations
 Requires indicators, solvents etc.,
 using the filtrate
Alkalinity Chloride Calcium

test Test Test
 Based on volume  Based on volume of  Based on volume of
of standard acid standard silver nitrate standard calcium‐
required to reach required to react with chelating agent required
with alkaline the chloride ions to form to react with the Calcium
materials in the insoluble silver chloride ions.
mud. (halide) salts.
 Determines CaCl2 and
 Determines excess  Determines chloride NaCl salinity in the
lime in the WBM content in the WBM filtrate and WBM.
filtrate. filtrate.
Other Tests
 Ageing: Homogeneous mixing and conditioning.
 Lubricity meter: determining lubricating quality of the
fluid.
 Linear Swell meter: shale‐swelling capacity of the fluid
 Methylene Blue Test:
Shows the amount of reactive clays (bentonite and/or drill solids)
present in drilling fluid.
 LCM Test:
Ability of drilling fluid to fill slot of
given size.
9
15‐09‐2021
 You are given task to analyze a received water‐based drilling fluid.
 The retort test provided % water = 87.0
 The salinity based on titration tests is 140,000 ppm (14% by wt) NaCl.
(corresponding brine density (from salt table) = 1.104 g/cm3)
 The density based on MW test is 10.9 lbm/gal.
 Other additive concentration may be ignored for calculations.
 How much % LGS and % weighting material are present in the fluid system ?
 Determine ASG.
10

Drilling and Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Syllabus

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15‐09‐2021

Wellbore depth Instructor: Dr. Sandeep D. Kulkarni

Introduction to FIELD Drilling Methods and Practices

History of Drilling Water-wells Oilwells

Ancient Attempts of Oilwell Drilling

 In China: A.D. 347

 Edwin L. Drake : 1859

 69.5 ft. deep

 Cable tool drilling:

Rotary Drilling : Modern Oil-well Industry

20th Century Oilwell Drilling using Rotary Drilling Methods

 Mr. Higgins & Captain Lucas: 1900

 About ≈ 1100 ft deep.

 Birth of Modern oil-industry

Rotary Drilling : Modern Oil-well Industry

 Driil-Bit: Well is drilled using a drill-bit that,

 Drill-pipe: tubular steel conduits that connects

 Drill-collars: thick walled tubular

 Drill-string: The combination of the drillpipe,

 Derrick: the pyramidal structure that

Rotary Drilling : Modern Oil-well Industry

 Mud-pump pulls fluid from pit up

 The drilling fluid is ‘circulated’ Pump Pit

 The fluid from annulus goes over

 The filtered fluid goes back into

Rotary Drilling Rigs: Land Rigs

Types of Rotary Drilling Rigs

Rotary Drilling Rigs: Land Rigs

Modern land rig

Rotary Drilling Rigs: Land Rigs

Rotary Drilling Rigs: Land Rigs

Rotary Drilling Rigs: Land Rigs

Offshore Rigs: A1. Jackup Rigs

Offshore Rigs: A1. Jackup Rigs

Offshore Rigs: A2. Platform Rigs

Offshore Rigs: A2. Platform Rigs

Offshore Rigs: A2. Platform Rigs

Offshore Rigs: A3. Submersible Rigs

Offshore Rigs: A3. Submersible Rigs

Offshore Rigs: B1. Semisubmersible

Offshore Rigs: B2. Drillships

Introduction to FIELD Methods and Practices

Background: Drilling Fluids Additives

Base fluid: Base fluid:

Solids Control Methods: Importance

Solids Control Methods: Importance

Solids Control Methods: Importance

Types & Sizes of Drill Solids & Commercial solids

Solids Control Methods

Solids Control Methods: Dilution

Vdf = Vpt (LGSpt ‐ LGSf) Principle: mass balance

Vdf = Dilution volume required LGSpt = %Volume of LGS in pre-treatment system

Solids Control Methods: Dump & Dilution

Vdf = Vpt (LGSpt ‐ LGSf) Principle: displacement

Vdf = Dilution volume required LGSpt = %Volume of LGS in pre-treatment system

Solids Control Methods: Dilution vs. [Dump & Dilution]

Water Vol. 2% Bentonite

Ex. 1 Ex. 2 Ex. 3 Ex.4

 Disadvantages of Dilution Method:

 Cannot continue indefinitely

 Disadvantages for Dump & Dilution Method:

 Environmental impact of dumped mud.

Introduction to FIELD Drilling Methods and Practices