Tomorrow’s Mobility

Sustainable Technologies for the automotive sector

Week 2 – Session 8 – Battery Fundamentals

Guillermo Ballesteros

Introduction

I- Battery development
II- Battery pack architecture
III- Battery performance parameters
IV- Electrochemistry
V- Lithium-ion battery safety issues

Conclusion

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Introduction
This lesson focuses on the link between the electric machine current, and its supply source. The
electric current comes from a battery pack, so the following questions will be treated: How can we
store electric energy in a battery? What is the best battery technology for electric vehicle use?
What are the main parameters, and the main functionalities of a battery pack?

I- Battery development
Today, electric vehicles use a significant amount of electrical energy storage to have a large range.
Electrical energy storage is mainly based on electrochemical technologies. A lot of research and
development is currently done to improve electrochemical batteries. This work focuses on
improved chemistries, new materials, improved pack/cell designs for increased performance,
energy density, power density, durability, safety, affordability, and reduced cost.
Battery pack and electric vehicles

Improved
chemistries New materials

Safety
Energy density

Batteries’
improvements
Durability
Power density

Improved pack/cell designs

for increased performance

Affordability and reduced cost

Even if it is possible to use lead-acid, nickel metal, or sodium nickel chloride as electrochemistry,
Lithium-ion dominates the market because of its performance and relatively low price.
Lithium-ion

Nickel metal
or Sodium-
Nickel
chloride
Lead-acid

II- Battery pack architecture

A battery pack is composed of modules connected electrically together in series and/or parallel.
Modules themselves are also composed of cells connected together in series and/or in parallel. In
this way, pack voltage and energy capacity is managed. With series connection, voltage is

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increased. With parallel connection the energy stored is also increased. Cells are the basic elements
of a battery.
Battery Pack Architecture

Ah

Ah range
Voltage

Number of cells
Number of cells
in parallel
in series

III- Battery performance parameters

Main performance parameters of battery packs or battery cells are:
- Energy capacity: The amount of energy stored (Wh).
- Power capacity: The amount of power delivered (W).
- Energy density: The amount of energy contained per kilogram or liter (Wh/kg and Wh/L).
- Power density: The amount of power delivered per each kilogram or liter per second (W/kg
and W/L).
- Charge acceptance capacity: The amount of energy absorbable per second (W/kg and W/L).
- Cycle life: The number of full charge/discharge cycles until end-of-life condition. Commonly,
“end-of-life” is defined as when the battery capacity reaches 80% of its original capacity. It
varies with the use of the battery pack
- Cost: Euros or $ per kWh.
- Safety: Ensuring safe operation, for example, no risk of thermal runaway, or exothermic
behavior, in the event of a crash or a short circuit.
- Calendar life: The calendar longevity when it is at storage (months or years).

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 Battery Parameters

1. Energy capacity (Wh)

2. Power capacity (W)

3. Energy density (Wh/kg and Wh/L)

4. Power density (W/kg and W/L)

5. Charge acceptance capacity (W/kg and

W/L)

6. Cycle life

7. Cost: Euros or $ per kWh

8. Safety

9. Calendar life

IV- Electrochemistry
Electrochemical cells operate by converting electrical energy into chemical energy, through a pair of
reduction–oxidation (redox) reactions, where electrons are transferred. Redox reactions in
electrochemical cells take place with a reduction reaction at one electrode, and an oxidation
reaction at the other. Reduction means a gain of electrons, and oxidation means a loss of electrons.
This is possible by the transferal of electrons, from one electrode to the other through an external
electric circuit, and an internal flow of ions to maintain electro-neutrality. Two types of ions can be
found in the electrolyte. Anion is an ion with net negative charge, and a Cation has net positive
charge. Depending on the electron flow, batteries can be charged or discharged. To be charged, an
external voltage must be applied on the battery terminals.
An electrochemical cell contains the following four basic parts: positive electrode, negative
electrode, electrolyte, and separator. The positive and negative electrodes are surrounded by the
electrolyte. It is electrically insulating and ion conducting. Liquid electrolytes typically contain
dissolved compounds that are ionized in liquid solution. To increase power and energy density,
electrodes are typically placed as close as possible to each other. To prevent a short circuit, a
separator is also a part of the cell. The design of the separator is cell-type specific.
Cells with the flow of Li+ cations are referred to as Li-ion. There are many variations consisting of
different electrode materials. Positive electrode materials include molecules made from lithium and
either cobalt, or manganese, or phosphate, or nickel, or aluminum oxides. The most common
negative electrode material is graphite intercalated with lithium. The nominal cell voltage is
dependent on the materials chosen.

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 Li-ion battery technology

V- Lithium-ion battery safety issues

Given the high reactivity of lithium with water, non-aqueous electrolytes are used. Liquid or Solid
electrolytes consist of lithium salts dissolved in an organic solvent, or a solid polymer. Li-ion cells
come in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical or prismatic hard case, and pouch styles. The cell
shape impacts the performance of the integration (energy and power density). Compared to other
cell types, Li-ion has the advantages of high voltage, low self-discharge, and high efficiency.
Li-ion Performance and Technology

Non-acqueous Cylindrical or
electrolytes prismatic shapes

Potentially catastrophic failure can occur if the cell is overcharged or deeply discharged. On one
hand, overcharging the cell can lead to cell swelling and pressure buildup within the cell. On the
other hand, over discharging can potentially short circuit the cell and lead to excessive overheating,
possibly leading to fire. Safety features such as vents, thermal switches, and external short-circuit
switches, are the common built-in features of the cell. Regardless of these safety features, terminal
cell voltage and thermal management, are key issues in the application of Li-ion technology in a
battery pack.
Thermal runaway is a well-known catastrophic failure mode of Li-ion cells. It can be particularly due
to mechanical failure modes, involving accidental cell puncture and rupture or overcharge or deep
discharge.

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 Li-Ion Safety issues

Increase in
reaction rate

Failure THERMAL
RUNAWAY
Overcharging Over discharging

Thermal Short-circuit
Vents
switches switches

Conclusion
The key points to remember are:
 Batteries are based on electrochemical reactions needing an external flow of electrons.
 Today the best technology is Li-ion for electric vehicle use.
 The main parameters to define a battery pack are voltage, capacity, and power.
 Of course, safety precautions must be taken in order to avoid short circuit, overheating or
fire.

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