Intellectual Humility
Admission of Wrongness: The
Importance of Admission of Wrongness
by Brian Resnick
● “Things you believe in might actually be
wrong”- Mark Leary
● Julia Rohrer- personality psychologist
○ Loss of Confidence Project
○ Academic safe space for
researchers- cultural issue
○ Relevance: scientific findings
have been doubtful
● “Not knowing the scope of your own
ignorance is part of the human condition
● technology makes it easier to lie and
spread false information incredibly
quickly,
● 3 main challenges
○ Appreciate cognitive blindspots:
our minds are more imperfect
and precise than we would like to
admit; ignorance can be invisible
○ Errors =/ punishment
○ Perfect intellectual humility
cannot be achieved; choose
convictions thoughtfully
● Intellectual humility =/ lack of confidence
○ Method of thinking
○ Openness to being wrong
○ Asking “what am I missing here?”
○ A process of monitoring your own
confidence and thinking about
your limits
● Cognitive reflection (analytical thinking)-
ability to discern fakeness
● Hearing opposing views- more attentive
to evidence and stronger self awareness
● Admitting you are wrong leads you
closer to the truth
● Overconfidence and arrogance- often
rewarded
● Perceptions are not absolute truth
NOTES:
The Nature of Knowledge
○ naive realism- the feeling that
our perception of the world is
truth
○ Effortlessness =/ accuracy
○ Problem is we are overconfident
and arbitrary about our
interpretations
○ Same observations can lead to
different conclusions
● Dunning- Kruger effect - people who
perform worse on a task are supremely
confident in performing that task
○ Treating human memory like a
videotape
○ First rule: you do not know you
are a member of it
○ We cannot see our ignorance but
we see other people’s
● Truth is people are unlikely to judge you
for admitting you are wrong based on a
study by Adam Fetterman
○ Actually turn out to be more
communal and friendly
○ Had them shown The Thinker
(think rationally and less likely to
be faith-based)
● Intellectual humility requires support
from peers and institutions
● Often hard to instill since it could affect
careers and attention in science
● Solutions:
○ Humility needs to be built into
standard practices of science
through transparency by
committing to a study design
○ There needs to be a celebration
of failure, and a culture that
accepts it
● We must be open to adjusting
convictions, seek out their flaws, never
stop being curious about why and what
believe in
Commonsense Psychology
- We are psychologists in our everyday
life
- Problem: has limitations, bias, not
systematic, difference in framing
Fritz Heider 1958
Naive scientists
- Why do people behave the way they
do? What is the motivation for that
behavior?
George Kelly 1969
Persons as scientists
- asking questions, testing the hypothesis,
drafting conclusions
*Relative behavior- we act based on how we
construct and interpret our experiences
*Elizabeth Loftus’ research- words are very
powerful; how we construct them is associated
to relationships, health & well-being, afterlife
Methods of Thinking
Method of Tenacity
- Habit, superstition, ideology, tradition,
belief through repetition
- Problem: inaccurate
Method of Intuition
- hunches , instinct
- Problem: unsystematic, unjustifiable;
availability, confirmation bias
Method of Authority
- Opinion based in assumed expertise
- Problem: expert bias, uncritical trust,
non generalizable
Rationalism
- Without data
- Deduction
- Problem: inaccurate, incomplete
assumption, difficulty of logic
Empiricism
- Direct observation; data collection;
generalizing from experience
- Induction
- Problem: misinterpretation due to
expectations, selective observation,
premature closure, halo effect, false
concerns
Gravetter: Chapter 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Why take a Research Methods Course?
- Collect and interpret information needed
to make the best possible decisions
● professionals in the behavioural science
use it to gather and interpret information
● used instead of subjective
interpretations or potentially biased
reports of others
● provides a carefully developed system
for answering questions to achieve
accurate and complete answers
1. Conducting a Study
○ to keep up to date in your
profession wherein reading and
understanding research
publications is necessary
2. Reading and Evaluating Other People’s
Studies
○ useful in reading and critically
evaluating journal articles
○ reading results in these studies
would provide knowledge (which
ones work best) and may be
applicable to daily life situations
○ it will help in evaluating others’
research by analysing and
evaluating the jump from results
to discussion
3. Understanding brief descriptions of
Studies
○ helps in understanding
abbreviated descriptions of
studies as supporting evidence to
conclusions or theories
○ introduces you to the lingo or
vocabulary of research
methodology— to fill in the gaps
in typical descriptions of studies;
other things might seem
nonsensical, helps you remember
studies
 4. Gathering and Evaluating Information in
Your Daily Life
○ Necessary to be educated
consumers of information by
discerning the original source
○ To be able to critically and
logically identify flaws and
restraints in the methods for
collecting info and interpreting
results
○ So you can discern truths on your
own and not rely on experts--
make educated decisions based
on claims presented
○ Begin decision process by
evaluating information
1.2 METHODS OF KNOWING AND
ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
- Methods of acquiring knowledge
refers to the methods people use to
discover answers
- The goal is always to obtain better
quality answers
- The scientific method forms a
combination of the following:
5 non scientific approaches:
1. Method of Tenacity
2. Method of Intuition
3. Method of Authority
4. Rational Method
5. Method of Empiricism
The Method of Tenacity
- Holding onto ideas and beliefs since
they have been accepted for a long time
because of superstition (habit or
superstition)
- Caused by habit or belief perseverance;
frequent exposure makes statements
easier to believe in
- Used by advertisers
- Examples:
- “You cannot teach new tricks to
an old dog”
- “opposites attract”
- Breaking a mirror means 7 years
of bad luck
- Black cats as bad luck
- Lucky pencils in exam
- Problems:
1) information may not be accurate
2) No method for correcting
erroneous ideas or very difficult
to change
The Method of Intuition
- Information is accepted as true because
it feels right *keyword “feel right”*
- Quickest way to obtain answers esp in
ethical decisions
- We pick it up from people around us--
psychics
- Problem: no mechanism for separating
accurate from inaccurate knowledge
The Method of Authority
- Relying on experts
- Consulting an expert, going to a library,
searching the web
- Often lead to method of faith because
we trust others’ statements given their
authority
- Problems: inaccurate info
1) Authorities can be biased and
end up with conflicting
testimonies-- have own
orientation (ex. Psychodynamic
vs. behavioral psychologist)
2) Subjective or personal opinion
3) Assumption that our question is
covered by a person’s expertise
(ex. Athletes in advertisements
promoting most nutritional soup)
4) People accept answers quickly
without question; no second
opinion
5) Not all experts are experts- some
may actually lack training,
experience and credentials
● Example of conflict: Galileo’s
Heliocentric view; applications of cloning
● How to increase confidence in
information from authority
○ Evaluate the source of info-
expert? Objective or subjective?
 ○ Evaluate info on your own-
reasonable? Agrees with prior
knowledge?
Method of Faith
- Examples: children trusting parents and
religion
- Problem:
1) no mechanism to test accuracy of
the information
2) Accepting truth without
verification
The Rational Method
- Rationalism; getting answers through
logical thinking
- Using premise or assumptions/facts
presumed to be true, then conclusions
- Argument is a set of premises logically
combined to reach conclusion
- Answers are not simply accepted but
are verified
- Has been said to be a way of
establishing truths without evidence, as
there are no observations made
- Problem:
1) Possibility of
misinformation
2) Premise statements’
absolutely true?
3) Limited in the sense that
conclusion is ONLY
applicable to situations
described by the premise
4) People are easily
confused and can make
mistakes in logical
reasoning
- Application: thinking through the
problem, considering solutions and
consequences before actually applying
the solution
The Empirical Method
- Empiricism; answers qs through direct
observation and experience (through the
senses)
- Senses used to verify information
- Opposite of rational method
- Limitation: horizontal-vertical illusion
- Problem:
1) Senses can deceive us
2) Prior knowledge,
experiences, feelings, etc.
can affect perceptions (ex.
Knowledge to be in conflict
with your sense of taste or
method of tenacity)
3) Making accurate
observations but
misinterpret what you see
(sun rising vs. earth is
turning toward the sun)
4) Time consuming and
dangerous (trying out
mushrooms to determine if
they are poisonous)
1.3 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- A carefully developed system/ approach
to acquiring knowledge by asking
questions and systematically seeking
out answers
- Contains a combination of the elements
of methods mentioned beforehand
- It is not linear; circular process moving
higher each time knowledge is gained
Steps
1. Observe Behavior of the Phenomena
2. Form a Hypothesis
3. Use hypothesis to generate a testable
prediction
4. Evaluate the prediction by making
systematic, planned observations
5. Use the observations to support, refute,
or refine the original hypothesis
Observe Behavior of the Phenomena
➢ Observations not necessarily
planned;
➢ can come from personal
experiences (method of
empiricism) or from others’
observation (method of authority)
➢ Induction means using small set
of specific observations to form a
 general statement about a larger
set of observation (specific to
general); few to many
Form a Hypothesis
➢ A proposal to be tested or
evaluated
➢ Begins by identifying factors or
variables related to your
observation
➢ Variables are characteristics that
change or are unique to different
individuals (ex. Economy,
intelligence, age, gender)
➢ After this, choose one of the
many possible explanations to be
evaluated in a research study;
choose the most plausible and
interesting
Use hypothesis to generate a testable
prediction
➢ Trying to apply the hypothesis to
specific and observable,
testable situations
➢ Observations may support or
refute hypothesis
➢ Deduction uses general
statements to get into predictions/
a conclusion about specific
examples (general to specific);
from many to few
Use the observations to support, refute, or
refine the original hypothesis
➢ Compare actual observations
with prediction or hypothesis
➢ Some would indicate support and
would make you consider forming
a new prediction and testing
again
➢ Lack of agreement means
hypothesis is wrong; faulty
predictions from misuse of
hypothesis
Other Elements of the Scientific Method
- Empirical
- Public
- Objective
Empirical
➔ Answers obtained by structured and
systematic observations/empirical
verifications
➔ Observations provide empirical test of
hypothesis

Evaluate the prediction by making systematic,

planned observations

➢ After having a testable prediction

(rational method), next is to
evaluate the prediction using
direct observation (empirical
method)
➢ Data collection stage Public
➢ Goal: provide unfair and
unbiased test of hypothesis by ➔ Makes observations available to others
observing whether the prediction especially to scientists
is correct ➔ For evaluation, verification and
➢ Must not be biased or subjective replication purposes
➔ Appropriateness of methodology and
flaws evaluated
 ➔ Enough detail should be provided for is evolving while Pseudoscience
replication; provide check and balance remains to be stagnant
of errors for the research 4. Based on established theories vs
➔ Researchers can commit fraud and creating new disciplines. Science is
deliberately falsify or misinterpret actually based on established theories
outcomes of research of learning and empirical support while
Pseudoscience creates new jargons and
Objective only make it seem connected to science
to show legitimacy
➔ Observations are structured to minimize
bias and influence the outcome 1.4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
➔ Science as a dispassionate search for
knowledge - From a general idea to actual data
➔ Bias often comes from belief of a theory collection and interpretation of results
(to be tested) - It only produces tentative answers and
➔ Keep people uninformed of the study to explanations; not linear; open to
reduce bias; researcher is blind to the challenge and may be refuted
details
STEPS
Science vs. Pseudoscience
1. Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic
- System of ideas presented as science and Search the Literature to Find an
but are actually lacking of key Unanswered Question
components essential to scientific
research
- Examples:
- Aromatherapy
- Astrology
- Intelligent design
- Unsupported by empirical evidence
1. Testable vs refutable hypothesis. A
theory is only scientific if it can specify
how it can be refuted. the theory must
be able to describe exactly what
observable findings would demonstrate
that it is wrong. If a research study
produces results that do not support a
theory, the theory is either abandoned
or, more commonly, modified to
accommodate the new results. In
pseudoscience, on the other hand, the
typical response to negative results is to
discount them entirely or to explain them
in a way without altering the original
theory.
2. Objective and unbiased vs.
subjective evidence (testimonials,
anecdotal reports). Pseudoscience a. Selecting a general topic area
ignores failure and cherrypicks reports b. Reviewing literature to find out
that demonstrate success other relevant factors (and how
3. Adapting new evidence vs. treating they are related)
personal attacks as criticism. Science
 ● Must actually be interested
about the topic as
research can be
demanding
● Involves determining still
unanswered questions
● Ask what might happen
had the characteristics of
the studies were changed
● Follow suggestions and
work through limitations
2. Form a Hypothesis and a Prediction
Hypothesis
a. Logical- based on previous theories and
results of other previous research which
provide a justification of your hypothesis
b. Testable- defined, observable and
measurable; real people and situations
c. Refutable- can be demonstrated to be
false; possible for the outcome to be
different from prediction
d. Positive- positive statement about the
existence of something as it is used to
test the prediction; to prove existence
Prediction
a. General description of individuals,
variables and expected outcome
● If your question requires to determine
the relationship between variables
● Being able to make a reasonable
argument for your hypothesis means it
will likely be correct
● The hypothesis gives a foundation of the
research by determining the variables
and their relationship
● Results of the study may either refute or
support the hypothesis
3. Determine how you will define and measure
your variables
● Determine how to define and measure
variables
● Mainly transforming hypothesis into an
empirically testable form
● Necessary in making hypothesis specific
and making a well-defined study
4. Identify and Select Participants of the study
● Humans are called participants;
otherwise subjects
5. Select a Research Strategy
a. Type of question asked
b. Ethics and constraints
● What general approach to take in
evaluating the study
6. Select a research design
● Making decisions about specific
methods
● Does it require observation of a group or
individual? Should you observe one
group of individuals as they experience
a series of dif- ferent treatment
conditions, or should you observe a
different group of individuals for each of
the different treatments? Should you
make a series of observations of the
same individuals over a period of time,
or should you compare the behaviors of
different individuals at the same time?
7. Conduct the Study
● Decide whether it will be conducted in
the lab or field
● Implement all your earlier decisions
about manipulating, observing,
measuring, controlling, and recording
the different aspects of your study.
8. Evaluate the Data
● Use various statistical methods to
examine and evaluate data (graphs,
computing means or correlations to
describe data, using inferential statistics
to help determine whether results can
be generalized to the rest of the
population
9. Report the Results
● Accomplished through a written report
about findings and interpretation
● What was done, how, how findings are
interpreted
10. Refine and Reformulate your research data

● Extend your research to a new domain

as in finding answers, new questions
are generated by
a. Test the boundaries of the result.
Test in a new group; is there a
relationship with other factors?
b. Refine the original research
question. Is there a relationship?
If yes, what causes the
relationship?