Bce All Modules Combine PDF

Complete syllabus
• Importance of Interdisciplinary approach in Civil Engineering: Role of Engineer in national development, Importance of an
interdisciplinary approach in engineering. Importance of various areas of Civil Engineering: Surveying, Construction engineering, Fluid
Mechanics, Transportation engineering, Irrigation engineering, Project management, Structural and Earthquake engineering, Geology,
Environmental engineering, Infrastructure Development.
• INFRASTRUCTURE and Project Management: Project feasibility studies, Interdisciplinary infrastructure provisions, monitoring and
maintaining projects, software used in project management, Drone Survey, Management and control of resources, Smart cities.
• Advanced Survey Techniques : Conventional Survey: Contouring, Types of maps, and their uses, Google Maps; Modern survey methods
using levels, Theodolite, EDM, laser, total station and GPS, GIS, Measuring areas from maps using digital planimeter, Surveying software,
surveying by total station, Photographic and Aerial Surveys.
• Modern Construction Techniques and Materials: Introduction to automation in construction, MIS, MS Project, Conventional materials,
Eco-friendly materials in construction, Introduction to Smart Materials.
•Integrated built environment and byelaws : Principles of Planning(only Introduction), Byelaws, Concept of built up area, carpet
area, plinth area, Plot area, FSI, Role of byelaws in regulating the environment, Concept of Green building.
• Sustainable development and waste management: Methods of Harnessing the energies, Effect of pollution on environment,
Engineer’s role in achieving sustainable development, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Solid waste management, e waste
management
Basic of Civil
Engineering
Module 1
Importance of Interdisciplinary approach in
Civil Engineering
Vision of Institute
To be a leading University of Excellence, promoting
the “Culture of Peace” through Value-based
“Universal Education System”, with a firm belief that
“Union of Science and Religion / Spirituality alone
will bring peace to mankind”
To be a world class space of intellectual distinction in
creating extensively trained professionals who will
stand for eternal human values and world peace as
complete global citizens
Mission Of Institute
§ To create a synergy of academics with technology, technology with research, research with industry, industry
with economy and economy with social innovation, leading to world peace and positive change in the society
§ To identify, enhance, hone and nurture the strength of every student to apply scientific knowledge to touch the
life of human beings
§ To foster the spirit of inquiry and imagination in students, to push the envelope of human knowledge and come
up with innovative and ground-breaking solutions for well-being of the world
§ To create value and intellectual capital for society that will act as a prime mover for development of the society
§ To promote the ‘Idea of India’ by sensitizing students about the ethos of democracy, vision of leadership and
culture of good governance
§ Co-creation and partnership with individuals and organizations that can support students realize their supreme
potential
Program Outcomes
• Engineering Knowledge
• Problem analysis
• Design/Development of Solutions
• Conduct investigations of complex problems
• Modern tool usage
• The engineer and society
• Environmental and sustainability
• Ethics
• Individual and teamwork
Course Objectives
1. To impart inter-disciplinary approach essential for an engineer.
2. To prepare engineering students with modern techniques used in Civil
Engineering.
3. To prepare students to make drawings using different software.
4. To prepare engineering graduates with the knowledge of bye laws of
construction and sustainable development using concept of environment.
Course Outcomes
1. Differentiate between various branches of civil engineering and
understand the significance of an inter-disciplinary approach needed
for an engineer.
2. Apply modern survey methods in relevant field applications.
3. Understand the role of a civil engineer in planning, regulating
constructions and achieving sustainable development.
Branches of Civil
Engineering
Surveying
Infrastructure Construction
Development Engineering
Earthquake Fluid
Engineering Mechanics
BRANCHE
Town
Planning S IN Transportation
Engineering
CIVIL
ENGINEERIN
Quantity G Irrigation
Surveying Engineering
Environmental Project
Engineering Management
Geotechnical & Structural

Foundation
Engineering Engineering
1. Surveying
It is a branch of civil engineering which enables the
engineer:
1. To prepare maps and plans of the existing features of ground from the
field observations taken in the horizontal plane.
2. To determine or to establish relative positions of the points on the
surface of the earth. Surveying.
Linear measurement, angular measurement in

horizontal and vertical plane.
• Classification of Surveying
Plane surveying Geodetic surveying
Type of surveying where the curvature Type of surveying where the curvature
of the earth is neglected. Assumed to be of the earth is taken into consideration.
a flat surface.
Used for a small portion of earth’s Large distance and areas are to be
surface and area involved is less than covered. Government agencies.
250 sq. km.
• Surveying Instruments
Auto Level
Digital
Theodolite Total Station
Vernier Theodolite Survey
Compass
(Prismatic
compass)
• Applications
1. Maps and plans of existing area of land or
ground can be prepared
2. Relative positions of the points on the earth
surface can be determined.
3. Alignment of road, railway line, electric
tower line, tunnel, bridges, electric poles and
marine structure can be fixed
4. Elevation of various points can be found out
5. Slope or gradient for water supply, drainage,
gas line and for road work can be laid
6. Contour maps can be prepared to get an idea of ground
profile from which the projects such as dam, canal,
buildings, roads and railway track are further carried out.
This is known as topographical survey
7. Plotting of irregular boundaries of plots & existing
structure on paper
8. Carrying out the survey on lakes, rivers, nala and sea to
study the bed profile. This is known as hydrographic
survey.
9. Carrying out aerial photography of earth’s surface using
aerial cameras to get the information about town planning,
understanding forest cover, ground water hydrology
10. Carrying out city surveying
• Remote sensing
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon,
without making physical contact with the object.
Advanced method of surveying where pictures of the earth surface are taken from
unmanned satellites revolving around the earth in orbits.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N49PzLDUIFQ) (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7_0Z_tm2Z8)
A. Emission of electromagnetic radiation: The Sun or an EMR source

located on the platform
B. Transmission of energy from the source to the object: Absorption
and scattering of the EMR while transmission
C. Interaction of EMR with the object and subsequent reflection and
emission
D. Transmission of energy from the object to the sensor
E. Recording of energy by the sensor: Photographic or
non-photographic sensors
F. Transmission of the recorded information to the ground station
G. Processing of the data into digital or hard copy image
H. Analysis of data
• Applications
2. Construction Engineering
Definition : It is a branch or basic
area of civil engineering in which
construction of various structures
is involved.
Construction activities : -
Excavation, foundation, footing,
masonry, concreting, finishing etc.
• Components of structure
Structure
Super Structure Substructure
Building above
Foundation
the plinth level
Structure
Load
Framed
Bearing
Framed structure
Load bearing wall
• Applications of Construction Engineering
Constructing substructure and superstructure according to
IS codes.
To apply modern techniques and machinery for safe and
speedy construction.
Selecting proper methods, processes and techniques for
achieving good quality of construction.
Using appropriate materials and of right quality and
quantity.
Ensuring desired strength , stability and durability of
constructions.
Monitoring the workmanship (actual methods and stages
of construction).
3. Fluid Mechanics
Definition : It is a branch or
basic area of civil engineering
which deals with the study and
behavior of the fluids such as
liquids and gases at rest or in
motion.
Fluid
Mechanics
Fluid Fluid Dynamics
Statics
Fluid kinetics (Fluids in Fluid kinematics

motion considering forces in (without considering the
motion) forces causing motion)
• Examples of FM
Flow through pipes and canals
Flow through pumps and turbines
Flow blood in veins of the body
Drag and lift forces experienced by bodies
moving in air
• Applications of Fluid Mechanics
Design of dams regulation of canals and water reservoirs
Design of gates which are used to control the floodwater
Design of spillways, irrigation channels and flow through
pipes
Dimensional less analysis and model studies help in solving
complex problems
Design of hydraulic machines such as centrifugal pumps,
reciprocating pumps and turbines
Used in Irrigation engineering, Chemical engineering, Naval
engineering, Aeronautical engineering, Environmental
engineering.
4. Transportation engineering
Definition : It is a branch or basic area of civil engineering which deals with
design, development, construction and maintenance of roadways, railways ,
airports, harbors, docks, tunnels and bridges.
Roads: According to Location
Expressway National highway State District Village

(15 m) (7m to 15m) Highway road road
Classification of roads(7m on Materials ( 5m to 8m)
to 10m)
Based
Earthen Water bound Bituminous or Cement Concrete

roads Macadam road Tar roads roads
(W.B.M.)
• Cement Concrete Road
Types of pavements
Flexible pavement Rigid pavement

Earthen, gravel, water bound macadam Cement concrete roads
and bituminous roads
Top surface takes to shape of the Rigid pavement have more stiffness and
sub-surface soil capacity to bridge over loose soil pockets
in the sub-grade
Due to flexibility, there are ups and Due to more stiffness and thickness, there
downs on WBM roads and bituminous are no ups and downs on concrete roads
roads
Initial construction cost is less but Initial construction cost is more but
Maintenance cost is more. Maintenance cost is less.
Less durable. More durable.
• Railways:
Mass transportation and for long distances
Cheapest means of transportation of goods
Railway is also termed as “Permanent way”.
Gauges :A clear distance between inner faces of rail is
termed as ‘gauge’ of track.
Gauges Clear distance between the

inner faces
Narrow 0.765 m
Meter 1.000 m
Broad 1.676 m
• Typical Cross Section of Railways
Parts:
steel rails
wooden or precast concrete sleepers
ballast (crushed stones and metals)
sub grade(compacted soil
underneath the ballast )
• Comparison between roadways and railways
Particulars Roads Railways
Service Door to door Station to Station
Distance Suitable for any distance Long distance
Speed Low or medium Higher speed

Load carrying capacity Less More
Right of entry Any automobile Only trains

Operational Control No such major control Signaling and interlocking o
f rails
Accident rate more Less
Maintenance Less More than roads
• Indian railways are divided into nine zones
a) Central railways
b) Eastern railways
c) Western railways
d) North – Eastern railways
e) Southern railways
f) South – Central railways
g) South – Eastern railways
h) North – Eastern railways
i) North – east frontier zone
• Application :
Easy and quick transportation of labor,
machines, animals and goods
Remote areas and rural areas become accessible
and communicable
During emergency e.g. wars quick and easy
transportation of soldiers, food and ammunition
Transportation through airways used to connect
remote areas and different countries.
Airways are useful in difficulties during floods
e.g. helicopter, airplanes .
5.Irrigation Engineering
Definition : It is a branch or basic area of civil
engineering which deals with the
development of water sources and proper
arrangement of distribution of water from the
source developed.
Irrigation engineering is used for the purpose
of cultivation of crop and for drinking and
industrial use
The water source is developed by
construction of dam on a river.
Ground water storage can be developed
• Application
Development of water resource at the right place
Determines the reservoir capacity
Ensures water supply
Construction and maintenance of dams, canals, and
regulatory works for supply of water
Crop rotation can be done effectively
New techniques such as sprinkler irrigation and drip
irrigation
To study flood control devices
Helps to study the design of different structures such as
spillways, weirs and canals
6. Project Management
engineering which deals with monitoring the
project using management principles.
Civil Engineering projects involves 4 ‘M’ s
and time.
Project manager plans every activity in
connection with site say procurement of
material, site layout, requirement of labor,
schedules of starting, finishing and
sequencing of construction activities.
If the project is finished within time,
then generally the expenditure is also
with in proposed estimate
Therefore the project manager uses
tools like bar-chart, Critical Path
Method(CPM), Project Evaluation
and Review Technique(PERT) to
plan all activities, their timings and
sequences.
• Application
Overall planning and step by step planning for each
activity.
Optimum and efficient use of various resources
required for any project(4M and Time).
Scheduling and sequencing of activities for
completion of projects within allotted budget and
planned time.
Reducing wastage of materials and achieving
economy without compromising quality.
7. Structural Engineering
It deals with designing the structural
members(supporting members like columns ,
beams) and connections for economical and safe
design of members as well as the whole structure
for different type of load combinations.
Firstly, it includes calculation of different types
of load acting on any structure viz. Dead load,
live load, wind effects, seismic force etc.
It deals with stability and safety of the structures.
• Application
Design the structural members as well as the
structures itself for given loads to ensure safety
of structures.
Design of special type of steel or
R.C.C(Reinforced Cement Concrete ) structures
, bridges, rigid pavements etc.
To ensure desired factor of safety for members
of structures and connections like rivets, bolts
etc.
Analysis of failures of structures.
Retrofitting and rehabilitation of structures
8. Geotechnical Engineering
engineering which deals with the study of soil, its
behavior on application of load and its application as
an engineering material.
It is also known at Soil Mechanics.
With the help of geotechnical engineering, bearing
capacity of soil can be determined.
• Trial pits
• Plate load test
It is related to foundation engineering.
• Application
Classification of soil can be done by studying soil profile
Properties and strength characteristics of different types of soils
Helps to determine the safe bearing capacity of soil
Intensity of stresses on soil strata at different depths underneath the
ground under different loads can be properly studied
Helps in designing the earthen dam and earthen embankment
Helps to find the thickness of various layers of pavements
Characteristics of soil related to permeability, compaction and
consolidation can be studied
Helps to design of different types of foundation for different structures
Foundation Engineering
engineering which deals with the design, construction,
maintenance, renovation of footings, foundation walls,
pile foundation and other structural members which
acts as foundation of various structures.
Foundation :- it is a part of structure below ground level
also called as sub-structure, which directly receive the
load of superstructure and transmit it to the soil or hard
strata below safely.
• Application
It is helpful to determine the proper type of foundation to be provided. (shallow foundation or
deep foundation)
It helps tin deciding different type of shear failure.
Helps to determine foundation settlement, settlement rate and suggests to minimize foundation
settlement
Design of foundation under sea and design of the machine foundation
Helps in solving vibration related problem (earthquake, mining, pile driving, explosions, traffic
vibration, machine vibration
Suggests different methods to protect foundation structure from chemicals attack
Helps to design of different types of foundation for different structures
8. Geology
Definition : It is an Earth science concerned with
the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed,
and the processes by which they change over time.
Geology describes the structure of the Earth on and
beneath its surface, and the processes that have
shaped that structure.
It also provides tools to determine
the relative and absolute ages of rocks found in a
given location, and also to describe the histories of
those rocks.
• Methods of Geology
Geologists use a number of field, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to
decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the
Earth.
In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related
to petrology (the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and
structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation).
geologists also study modern soils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; investigate past and
current life and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate
the subsurface.
1. Field methods
2. Petrology
3. Structural Geology
4. Stratigraphy
Sub-specialities of geology
1. Distinguish endogenous
2. Exogenous geology.
• Application
Geology is used in exploration for energy and mineral sources.
It is useful in finding crude oil and natural gas which is found in sedimentary rock along rifted continental
margins and in intracontinental basins.
It is used in developing variety of applications for geothermal energy.
It is useful in finding the mineral deposition.
It is useful in earthquake prediction which is a major concern of seismologists.
Geologists and geophysicists have led the exploration for fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas, etc.) and
concentrations of geothermal energy, for which applications have grown in recent years.
The fields of engineering, environmental, and urban geology are broadly concerned with applying the findings
of geologic studies to construction engineering and to problems of land use.
It is useful in different civil engineering fields like surveying, geotechnical engineering, foundation
engineering, transportation engineering etc.
It has many application in interdisciplinary branches like petroleum engineering, polymer engineering,
chemical engineering etc.
9. Environmental Engineering
engineering which deals with water supply, disposal
of waste water from domestic and industrial use and
environmental pollution control.
IS 3025 (all parts)
Classification : Environmental Engineering
Water Supply Sanitary Environmental

Engineering Pollution
[A] Water Supply :- sources of water, potable or drinkable or fit for
drinking
1. Alum in sedimentation tank (turbid or earth particles are removed)
2. It passes through sand filter and chlorine dose is added to kill
bacteria.
3. In this way water is treated and made potable and then supplied
by the network of pipes to the people
[B] Sanitary Engineering :- it deals with the disposal of waste ad
wastewater.
In big cities the waste water is carried away by network of
pipelines called sewers and treated further and is made harmless.
[C] Environmental Pollution
1. Air Pollution
2. Sound Pollution
3. Land pollution
4. Water pollution
Pollution is due to deforestation, industrialization, and urbanization

Effect of pollution is observed on human beings, plants, animals,
buildings and building material.
Preventive and corrective steps are being taken by the government
to reduce the pollution
• Application
• To treat the water and make it potable or drinkable
• It deals with the collection of wastewater using pipe network called sewers
• To treat the waste water and make it harmless
• It helps to control pollution to protect human life
• To protect environment by using various measures of pollution control like
ESP (Electro Static Precipitator) for dust control, filters for reducing water
pollution.
• It provides preventive and corrective steps to reduce different types of
pollutions
• Deals with determining impact of any development activity on environment
called as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
• Deals with collection, transport, treatment and management of solid waste
(garbage)
10. Quantity surveying (Estimation)
Definition : It is a branch or basic area of civil engineering which deals
with the measurements of items of construction and multiplies it by
the present market rate so as to know the probable cost of the
construction.
Before starting any construction work of the structure such as building,

road, bridge, dam, tunnel, canal etc a civil engineer always requires to
know the probable cost of the construction to achieve the provision of
budget for the construction.
Estimation:-’Estimate’ is a procedure or mathematical method of working

out the probable cost of construction based upon the measurement of
various items of the construction work.
Valuation :- It is a art of assessing the present fair value of a property. It

may change with respect to time.
Valuation
Valuation :- It is a art of assessing the present fair value of a property. It may change with respect to time.
Purpose of Valuation
•Buying and selling of property
•Taxation
•Security of loans
•Rent determination’
•Compulsory acquisition
•Speculation
•Private development
• Insurance
•Reinstatement
• Types of Values
Values
Scrap Value Salvage Value Market Value Book Value
Scrap Value :- It is the value of dismantled materials of a property at the end of its utility period.
Salvage Value :- The property after being discarded at the end of utility period, is sold as it is
without being broken into pieces and the amount realized, over and above the cost of its
removal and sale is known as the salvage value of the property.
Market Value:- It is defined as an amount which can be reasonably realized at any time from the
open market when the property is put in the market for sale
Book Value :- It is defined as an amount shown in the account book of a particular year after
making due provision for the depreciation of the previous years.
• Application
Probable cost of the work before construction
It enables the engineer to know quantities of various items of the

building, which can be estimated from plan, section and specifications
of the building
Quantities of material required can be found out. e.g. no of cement bags,

steel, bricks, stones, metals etc.
Engineers can manage the cash flow so that the activities onsite can be
well planned accordingly.
It helps to raise the funds.
Economical balance of the project can be achieved by the method of

Quantity Surveying.
Useful in Buying and Selling of the properties.
Used for security of loans.
Useful to determine the rent and private development.

Estimation Valuation
It gives the approximate cost of the It gives present value of property already
construction work to be done. constructed.
It consist of finding the quantities, rate It consists of finding the quantities and
analysis and cost of the construction from present value of the property.
the working drawing.
Estimated quantities and cost of the Market value of property to be found out by
construction work is found out by the the method of valuation.
method of Estimation.
Estimation is helpful to manage the flaw of Valuation is help to buy or sell the property.
cash.
Estimation if helpful to raise the funds from Valuation is useful for rent determination ,
government agencies for big projects private development etc.
11. Town Planning
Definition : It is a branch or basic area of civil engineering which deals with the
planning aspects and siting of industries in such a way that the natural
resources are conserved and utilized in the best possible manner.
The open spaces to be kept in the cities for various public utility services
such as parks, roads, recreational facilities etc. are to be planned well in
advance.
Town planning is an integral aspect of Infrastructure development of an area.
It helps to reduce illegal construction in the area by formulation Development
Control (DC) rules for the specific area.
As per new government policies government is promoting the development
of townships and SEZs (Special Economic Zones) in various states including
Maharashtra
Preparing proper development plans, identification of natural hazards and
mitigation plan for the same are integral parts of the same
• Principles of Town Planning
12. Earthquake Engineering
Definition : It is a branch or basic area of civil engineering which
deals with the study of zones of probable seismic intensity
upon the different area so that any preventive care can be taken
against earthquake.
During an earthquake, the ground may move horizontally in any

direction and vertically up and down, shifting the building
foundation correspondingly.
Hypocenter:- Earthquakes are produced by sudden release of

tremendous amounts of energy within the earth by a sudden
movement at a point called as “hypocenter”.
Epicenter:- The point on the surface of the earth directly above the
hypocenter is called “epicenter”
IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 'Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structures : Part 1 General provisions and Buildings’
IS 1893 (Part 4): 2005 'Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structures : Part 4 Industrial Structures Including Stack Like Structures'
1. Zone II – Low damage risk zone
2. Zone III – Moderate damage risk zone
3. Zone IV – High damage risk zone
4. Zone V – Very high damage risk zone
• Meteorological Department
• There is vertical and
Horizontal waves like
motion of the ground in
case of Earthquake. Most
Destructive Force is in
horizontal Direction.
• Applications of Earthquake Engineering
Design and construction of earthquake resistant foundations and structures.
Research and development for new materials of construction for better

earthquake resistance
Earthquake studies, monitoring and early warning systems for minimizing the
loss of lives, structures and materials.
Revision of rules, regulations and bylaws for more safety.
Preparing and revision of seismic –zone map.
Efficient and safe design of connections and joints of the buildings, structural
members etc.
Newer techniques of construction for effective resistance against the

vibrations and dynamic loads due to earthquakes.
Strengthening the existing structures for seismic loads.

Earthquake Protection:
A square or a compact rectangular plan should be adopted.

All parts of a building should be tied together and braced at corners in such a manner
that the whole structure will tend to move as a unit.
Parapets, cornices, cantilevers and projections exceeding 75 cm should be avoided.
The maximum foundation pressure under dead load and live loads combined with
seismic forces shall not exceed by 10% of the normal safe bearing pressure.
In highly plastic or soft cohesive soils, like silt and some types of clays and very
loose cohesion less soil, such as fine sand with very low bearing capacity, the
foundation should be carried in a firm stratum by means of piles, piers or wells.
A raft foundation is designed to with stand load evenly over its whole surface. A raft
foundation is designed to withstand load evenly over its whole surface. A raft
foundation is more suitable for very high buildings and suitable in very poor soils.
Building structure can be protected from earthquake by studying zonal map and
estimating maximum strength to new and old structure.
13. Infrastructure Development
Definition : It is a branch or basic area of civil engineering which deals with
provision of good infrastructure facilities which help to develop the rapid
growth of a particular area.
Provision of tar or concrete road for better communication
Provision of well planned water supply distribution system
Provision of a well planned waste water collection system
Provision of electric power plant
Provision of in land communication lines i.e. telephone lines
Provision of proper landscaping within the area under development
Provision of the open space for garden and playground

• Applications/Advantages of Infrastructure
Development
Rapid social and Economic development of the area.
Planned growth of the area.
Reduced regional imbalance (between rural & urban area).
Overall economic growth of areas leading to the advancement

of region, state and the country.
All sectors of economy get boost via services, manufacturing

etc. Thus overall employment generation is possible for all
people through different types of jobs, activities.
• Example of Infrastructure Development
MIDC (Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation) IT Park near Pune.
Development of New Mumbai or Vashi Area
Nigadi Pradhikaran in Pune.
Balewadi Stadium near Pune.
Flyovers in Mumbai.
Interdisciplinary approach in engineering
Many projects pertaining to different fields required engineers of different

branches.
Mechanical Engineering,
Electrical Engineering,
Chemical Engineering,
Electronics and Telecommunication
Computer Engineering
Information Technology
Inter disciplinary Projects
Dams
Hydroelectric Power Plant
Traffic Control Systems
Airport
Metro rail
Mining
Tunnel
Stadium
Monorail
• Construction of Dams and hydroelectric power
plant
1. Selection of site
2. Survey
3. Catchment area studies – rainfall measurement and collection
4. Geotechnical investigation
5. Reservoir capacity – decide the reservoir capacity according to demand of water, 20 to 30 yrs. growth
6. Hydraulic Design - width, length and height of dam, spillways, energy dissipater, canals
7. Estimate – cost of project, compensation to land owners, helps to raise funds
8. Planning and design of hydro – electric power plant – planning and designing and construction, with help of civil
engineer, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer
9. Socio – economic role – land evacuation, rehabilitation of people, social economical and political aspects
10. Structural design – foundation, retaining wall and spillway
11. Construction and execution

• Power generation projects
Design of turbines, Maintenance of construction equipments, Fabrication : mechanical engineer
Design of transformers and electricity distribution system : electrical engineer
Hydraulic and geotechnical instruments : Instrumentation engineer
Design of control panel, process automation : Electronics engineer
Design software : computer engineer
Information technologist
• Expressway construction
Maintenance of construction equipments :
mechanical engineer
Exhaust system in tunnels, street lighting, tunnel
lighting : electrical engineer
Design of software : computer engineer
Designing layout of underground internet cables,
telephone lines : telecommunication engineer
Exercise based on module 1
• Shortly brief the role of an engineer in national development.
Thank you
BCE
(CVE 102B)
Module 2 – Infrastructure and
Project management
Topics
• Interdisciplinary infrastructure provisions
• monitoring and maintaining projects,
• Management and control of resources
• Project feasibility studies
• software used in project management
• Drone Survey
• Smart cities.
Introduction to Project management &
organization
Management
•Art of getting work done through people with satisfaction
of employer, employees and public.
•Management – Art as well as science

- Scientific basis – technique can be measured
- Art – getting work done from others.
.
Concept of Project
• A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product
or service
• Projects can be large or small and take a short or long time to complete
• Project Attributes / Characteristics
• A project:
• Has a unique purpose: every project should have a well defined objective.
• each project has a definite beginning and a definite end.
• Requires resources, often from various areas
• Should have a primary customer or sponsor
• Involves uncertainty
.
Project Management
Project management is “the application of knowledge, skills, tools and
techniques to project activities to meet project requirements”
• Categories of project
1. National
2. International
• National project
1. Non industrial
2. Industrial – Non conventional R n D
High technology
Conventional technology
Low technology
.
• High technology
Mega
Major
Medium
Mini
• Major Project
Grass root, Expansion or modification
• Expansion project
Normal, Crash or disaster
.
Project Life Cycle
• A project life cycle is a collection of

project phases that defines:
• What work will be performed in each
phase
• What deliverables will be produced and
when
• Who is involved in each phase
• How management will control and
approve work produced in each phase
• A deliverable is a product or service

produced or provided as part of a
project
.
.
.
Importance of Management
• No enterprise can survive without mgmt – huge money,

excellent m/c, expert manpower lead to confusion.
• Guide and control activities
• Coordinates different activities of departments
• Provide new ideas and vision
• Tackles business problems
• Meet challenge of change
• Provides stability to the enterprise
• Helps personality development.
Functions of Management
1. Forecasting
2. Planning
3. Organizing
4. Staffing
5. Directing
6. Coordinating
7. Controlling
8. Decision making
.
1. Forecasting
• estimates future work – sales or production
• Relates to cost, finance, purchase, profit or loss
2. Planning
• Manager anticipates future and discovers alternatives
• Systematic way of making decisions
• Essential for utilizing available facilities
3. Organizing
• Organizing people, materials, jobs, time, etc
• Determining activities
4. Staffing
• Manager select, train, promote and retire their subordinates
• Developing and placing of qualified people in jobs
.
5. Directing
• Motivating, guiding and supervising subordinates
• It involves
Leadership
• Quality of behaviors of manager
• Get max cooperation from subord and guide them
Communication
• Process –ideas are transmitted
• Verbal, written, orders, reports, instruction
• Ineffective communication – confusion, misunderstanding, dissatisfaction or
strike.
Motivation
• Inspiring subordinates – work effectively and efficiently
Supervision
• Work is going as plan
.
• Workers are doing as they directed
6. Coordinating
• Achieving harmony of individual effect towards the accomplishment of
company objectives
• Making plan to coordination activities of subord.
7.Controlling
• Measures current performance
• Controlling set stds, measure job perf, take correct action.
8. Decision making
• Selecting course of action for getting desired results.
.
Management Hierarchy
• An organization can have many different managers, across many different titles, authority
levels, and levels of the management hierarchy.
• The three levels of management typically found in an organization are low-level

management, middle-level management, and top-level management.
• Top-level managers are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization.
• Middle-level managers are responsible for executing organizational plans which comply
with the company’s policies. These managers act at an intermediary between top-level
management and low-level management.
• Low-level managers focus on controlling and directing. They serve as role models for the
employees they supervise.
Resource Management
• Resource management is the process

of planning, scheduling, and
allocating resources in the best
possible way.
• The ultimate aim is to maximize
your resources’ efficiency. This in
turn will help the success of your
project, task, or monthly goals.
• Resources can be anything from
people to machinery.
Creating a Resource Management Plan
• So those are the basic terms and processes. But how can you use them to
create a process, schedule your resources throughout the project cycle,
and monitor those resources within the boundaries of your budget,
without overburdening them and risking team burnout? Lucky for you,
we’ve covered the basics of resource planning before, and it can be
distilled into a super basic three-step process:
• First, note all your resources, including people, equipment and material.
• Next, figure out how many of those resources are needed to get the
project done.
• Finally, make a schedule for the resources.
Drilling down, however, it’s important to make sure you have all the
components of a good resource plan. It should include:
Creating a Resource Management Plan
1. All the resources necessary to complete the project:- That’s everything from people to
machines and even any office space you’ll need. Spend a good amount of time with this list,
the more complete it is, the more accurate your schedule will be.
2. Timeframes for the planned effort of each resource:- By noting the duration of time
needed for each resource, you have a clearer picture of how it will fit into your overall
schedule.
3. Number of each resources you’ll need per day/week/month:- Again, you want to break
your resource needs out on a daily, weekly and monthly rotation to better grasp what you’ll
need and when.
4. Quantity of resource hours required per day/week/month. You’ve figured how what you
need, but how many hours for each of those resources are you going to allocate over time?
5. Identify assumptions and constraints. An assumption is what you think might be true,
while the constraints are the schedule, cost and scope of your project. So, you want to know
what they are and how they’ll potentially impact your plan. Think strategically. Are you
assuming a team will be available in 3 months? Do you know for a fact they won’t get
assigned by another group leader for a separate project? Have you taken into account
holidays and scheduling shifts? Identifying all your assumptions is a critical component to
planning your resources wisely.
Importance of Resource management
• It provides you with an overview of everyone and everything involved

in your project;
• It enables utilization planning;
• It makes the planning and management process more transparent;
• It helps you see problems before they start;
• It gives you control over your project.
Management control Resources
The Control Resources process relates to the management of resources assigned to the project.
This includes physical resources such as IT systems, hardware, office space and materials but
does not include human resources as these are dealt with in the Manage Team process.
1. Controlling Resources commences with using the Project Plan to determine what resources are
needed, then assigning them to the various tasks on the project at the correct time.
2. The Control Resources process also monitors the utilization of the resources against the plan and
where necessary will result in corrective action to shorten or extend the time that the resources are
needed.
3. The Control Resources process is applied from the start of the project and throughout on a regular
basis to provide efficient and timely use of project resources.
4. This process extends beyond the scheduling and availability of resources. The quality, quantity and
usability of the resources need to be managed as well to ensure the products meet the quality
expectations of the project.
5. The resources required by a project can be scarce and expensive, so the Control Resources process
also needs to ensure resources are not wasted or unused as this will have an adverse impact on the
project budget.
Project feasibility studies
• A feasibility study is an assessment of the practicality of a proposed
project or system.
• A feasibility study aims to objectively and rationally uncover the
strengths and weaknesses of an existing business or proposed venture,
opportunities and threats present in the natural environment,
the resources required to carry through, and ultimately the prospects for
success.
• Project Appraisal is a tool used to study the feasibility of project.
Project Appraisal Criteria's
• Project appraisal is the structured

process of assessing the viability of a
project or proposal.
• It involves calculating the feasibility
of the project before committing
resources to it.
• It is a tool that company's use for
choosing the best project that would
help them to attain their goal.
Social Appraisal
• The project undertaken should be beneficial to society and should not

be harmful to the society in any case.
• A project can create employment opportunities to the population and
can provide better facilities and in general may become a source of
uplift of the area and can raise standard of living of the nearby
population. In such case project is accepted by the people.
• However , if the project in any way creating difficulties in any manner
to the population in adjoining area and adverse effect on environment,
project will not be accepted by people.
Environmental appraisal
• Environmental appraisal is the process of assessment of environmental
effect or consequences of a proposed project.
• Project Should not detrimental to environment.
• Review and suggestions must be considered before commencement of
project.
• Two types of approaches are followed
a . Reactive Approach:- Sole purpose of getting clearance.
b. Proactive Approach:- Environmental Impact Assessment
Technical appraisal
• Technical appraisal is an in-depth study to ensure that a project is

soundly designed, appropriately engineered and follows accepted
standards.
• Technical appraisal of the project consist of knowing the complete
requirement of technical staff required, technical work to be carried
out, requirement of needed machinery and materials and the method of
procurement of the same before commencement of the project.
• These considerations differ from project to project.
Financial appraisal
• Thus financial appraisal means knowing the periodical supply of

money needed for the project from start to end without any kind of
interception.
• Financial appraisal – approximate estimate of the expenditures on the
project and the income receivable from the sale of the finished product
of the project.
• After knowing material and manpower required for project, duration is
estimated.
• Depending upon duration of project, proper escalation in price of
material, increase in salary has to be considered
• Now organization is aware of financial outlay needed for completion
of the project.
Economic appraisal
• It is a type of decision method applied to a project, programme or policy

that takes into account a wide range of costs and benefits, denominated in
monetary terms or for which a monetary equivalent can be estimated.
• Economic appraisal is a key tool for achieving value for money and
satisfying requirements for decision accountability.
• It is a systematic process for examining alternative uses of resources,
focusing on assessment of needs, objectives, options, costs, benefits,
risks, funding, affordability and other factors relevant to decisions.
• The main types of economic appraisal are:
1. Cost-benefit analysis
2. Cost-effective analysis
Software used in project management
• WBS
• BAR chart
• Network Analysis- C. P. M. Activity on Arrow (AOA)
• Critical path & type of floats,
• Activity on, P. E. R. T.,
• Nodes-Precedence network analysis,
• Line of balance techniques

WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE (WBS)
Breaking work into smaller tasks is a common productivity technique used to make the work more
manageable and approachable.
For projects, the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is the tool that utilizes this technique and is one of
the most important project management documents.
It singlehandedly integrates scope, cost and schedule baselines ensuring that project plans are in alignment.
Dividing complex projects in to simpler & manageable task.
It is developed by starting with end objective.

It can assist key personnel in effective allocation of resources, project budgeting, procurement
management, scheduling, quality assurance, quality control, risk management, product delivery and
service oriented management.
Bar chart
Developed by H L Gantt
Pictorial representation of various
activities of a project
Two coordinate axes
Bar represent one activity
Advantages of Bar chart
1- Time-scaled
2- Simple to prepare
3 - Can be more effective and efficient if CPM based - Still the
most popular method
4- Bars can be dashed to indicate work stoppage.
Limitation of Bar chart/Gantt chart
1. Lack of degree of details

Bar shows only major activities and not sub activities
Showing sub activities become clumsy
2. Interdependencies between activities
Does not show interdependencies between activities
3. Review of project progress
Does not show progress of work
Cannot be used as a control device
4. Time uncertainties
Unable to reflect uncertainty in estimation of time, mainly in R n D project
Used for small conventional project
NETWORKING
• Network is a flow diagram consisting of activities and events connected logically
and sequentially.
• Activity
Actual work or task to be performed
Requires time and resources
Definite start and finish time
Denoted by arrow
E.g excavating earth
Guidelines for construction of network
• A network has only one starting node and only one ending node.
• Initial event has only outgoing arrows.
• Final event has only incoming arrows.
• No activity can start until it’s tail event occure.
• An event can not occure until all the activity leading up to it are completed.
• The network should be drafted such that all activities are completed to reach end objective.
• All Constrained and interdependencies should be shown properly on the network using
dummies.
• Network flow is usually shown from Left to Right.
• No event occure twice and hence network looping is not permitted
Critical Path Method (CPM)
The critical path method (CPM) is an algorithm for scheduling a set of project activities
CPM is a step-by-step project management technique to identify activities on the critical

path.
Developed in the late 1950’s By Morgan R. Walker and James E. Kelley
Main objectives of CPM

1. Planning the project so that it is completed as quickly as possible
2. Identifying activities where a delay in their execution will effect the overall end.
CPM (Critical Path Method)
• Critical path:- The longest path in a network is nothing but critical path.
• Earliest occurrence time (Eot)(TE)
“It is the earliest time at which an event can occur in a network.”
• Latest Occurrence Time (LOT)(TL)
“It is the latest time by which an event must occur to keep the project on schedule.”
Float
The amount of time that a task can be delayed without affecting the deadlines of
other subsequent tasks, or the project’s final delivery date.
It can be positive or negative
Activity for which float is zero are known as critical activities & Path is known as
critical path.
Types of float
Total float
Free float
Independent float
Interfering float
•Total Float :- Time span by which starting/finishing of an
activity can be delayed without affecting completion of
project
•Free float :- Positive portion of total float that can be used by
an activity without delaying any succeeding activity.
•Independent float :- Excess of min time available over the
required activity duration.
•Interfering float :- Difference between total float and free
float.
Critical Path
• Critical path refers to the duration wise longest path

• It is Path with zero float or slack. i.e ( TE=TL )
• Activities on a critical path are called critical activities while
remaining activities are non-critical
• If critical activity is delayed, the completion of the project will be
delayed by an equal amount.
• Non-critical activities have some cushion available and delay of these
activities will not delays project completion.
• A project can have more than one critical path as well.
CPM analysis
• Draw the CPM network
• Analyze the paths through the network
• Determine the float for each activity
1. Compute the activity’s float
2. float = LS - ES = LF – EF
• Float is the maximum amount of time that this activity can be delay in its completion
before it becomes a critical activity, i.e., delays completion of the project
• Find the critical path is that the sequence of activities and events where there is no
“slack” i.e.. Zero slack
• Longest path through a network
• Find the project duration is minimum project completion time
Programme Evaluation and Review technique (PERT)
Developed by U S Navy in collaboration with a consulting firm of

engineers Booz, Allen and Hamilton
Used for non repetitive type projects (uncertainty)
Probabilistic approach
Benefits of CPM/PERT
Useful at many stages of project management
Mathematically simple
Give critical path and slack time
Provide project documentation
Useful in monitoring costs

Limitations to CPM/PERT
• Clearly defined, independent and stable activities

• Specified precedence relationships
• Over emphasis on critical paths
• Deterministic CPM model
• Activity time estimates are subjective and depend on judgment PERT assumes a beta
distribution for these time estimates but the actual distribution may be different
• PERT consistently underestimates the expected project completion time due to
alternate paths becoming critical To overcome the limitation, Monte Carlo
simulations can be performed on the network to eliminate the optimistic bias
Computer Software for Project Management
Microsoft Project (Microsoft Corp.)

MacProject (Claris Corp.)
PowerProject (ASTA Development Inc.)
Primavera Project Planner (Primavera)
Project Scheduler (Scitor Corp.)
Project Workbench (ABT Corp.)
Comparison between CPM and PERT
CPM PERT
Activity oriented Event oriented
Only one time estimate required Three time estimates required
Deterministic approach Probabilistic approach
Used for repetitive works i.e construction uncertainty in time estimate involved i.e
projects R&D, satellite launching project.
Drone Technology
• Photogrammetry combines
images that contain the same
• A drone survey refers to the use point on the ground from
of a drone, or unmanned aerial multiple vantage points to
vehicle (UAV), to capture aerial yield detailed 2D and 3D
data with downward-facing maps.
sensors, such as RGB or
multispectral cameras, and
LIDAR payloads. During a drone
survey with an RGB camera, the
ground is photographed several
times from different angles, and
each image is tagged with
coordinates.
• From this data, a photogrammetry software can create geo-referenced
orthomosaics, elevation models or 3D models of the project area.
These maps can also be used to extract information such as
highly-accurate distances or volumetric measurements.
• Unlike manned aircraft or satellite imagery, drones can fly at a much
lower altitude, making the generation of high-resolution,
high-accuracy data, much faster, less expensive and independent of
atmospheric conditions such as cloud cover.
Advantages of drones in surveying
• Reduce field time and survey costs
Capturing topographic data with a drone is up to five times faster than with land-based methods
and requires less manpower. With PPK geo-tagging, you also save time, as placing numerous
GCPs is no longer necessary. You ultimately deliver your survey results faster and at a lower
cost.
• Provide accurate and exhaustive data
Total stations only measure individual points. One drone flight produces thousands of
measurements, which can be represented in different formats (orthomosaic, point cloud, DTM,
DSM, contour lines, etc). Each pixel of the produced map or point of the 3D model contains 3D
geo-data.
• Map otherwise inaccessible areas
An aerial mapping drone can take off and fly almost anywhere. You are no longer limited by
unreachable areas, unsafe steep slopes or harsh terrain unsuitable for traditional measuring tools.
You do not need to close down highways or train tracks. In fact, you can capture data during
operation without an organizational overhead.
Use of drones in surveying/application
• Land surveying / cartography

Survey drones generate
high-resolution orthomosaics and
detailed 3D models of areas where
low-quality, outdated or even no data,
are available. They thus enable
high-accuracy cadastral maps to be
produced quickly and easily, even in
complex or difficult to access
environments. Surveyors can also
extract features from the images, such
as signs, curbs, road markers, fire
hydrants and drains.
• Land management and

development
Aerial images taken by drones
greatly accelerate and simplify
topographic surveys for land
management and planning. This
holds true for site scouting,
allotment planning and design, as
well as final construction of roads,
buildings and utilities.
• Precise measurements
High resolution orthophotos
enable surveyors to perform
highly-accurate distance and
surface measurements.
• Stockpile volumetric measurements
With 3D mapping software, it is also possible to obtain volumetric
measurements from the very same images.
This fast and inexpensive method of volume measurement is particularly
useful to calculate stocks in mines and quarries for inventory or
monitoring purposes.
With a drone, surveyors can capture many more topographic data points,
hence more accurate volume measurements.
They can also do this in a much safer way than if they had to manually
capture the data by going up and down a stockpile. Since drones are
capturing the data from above, operations on site won’t be interrupted.
The short acquisition time enables capturing a site snapshot at a specific
point in time.
• Slope monitoring
With automated GIS analysis, it is possible
to extract slope measurements from DTMs
(Digital Terrain Model) and DSMs (Digtal
Surface Model) generated by drone
imagery. Knowing the steepness of the
ground’s surface, the areas can be classified
and used for slope monitoring purposes,
including landslide mitigation and
prevention.
With orthomosaics taken at different times,
it is possible to detect changes in earth
movement and to measure its velocity. This
data can help predict landslides and prevent
potential damage to roads, railways and
bridges.
• Urban planning
The development of increasingly dense
and complex urban areas requires
intensive planning and therefore
time-consuming and expensive data
collection. Thanks to drones, urban
planners can collect large amounts of
up-to-date data in a short period of time
and with far less staff. The images
produced in this way allow planners to
examine the existing social and
environmental conditions of the sites
and consider the impact of different
scenarios.
Why do we need smart cities?
• Urbanization is a non-ending phenomenon.
• Today, 54% of people worldwide live in cities, a proportion that’s
expected to reach 66% by 2050.
• Combined with the overall population growth, urbanization will
add another 2.5 billion people to cities over the next three decades.
Environmental, social, and economic sustainability is a must to keep pace
with this rapid expansion that is taxing our cities’ resources.
• 193 countries have agreed upon the agenda of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), in September 2015 at the United Nations.
But we all know how centralized decisions and actions can take
time, and the clock is ticking.
• Citizens and local authorities are certainly more agile to launch
swift initiatives, and smart city technology is paramount to success and
meeting these goals.
• Bhubaneshwar
• Pune
• Surat
• Kochi
• Vishakhapatnam
• Indore
• Coimbatore
• Guwahati
• Bhopal
What is smart city?
A smart city is an urban development using Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) and Internet of Things (IoT) to provide
useful information to effectively manage resources and assets.
This includes data collected from citizens and mechanical devices, that are
processed and analyzed to monitor and manage traffic and transport
systems, power plants, water supply networks, waste disposal, etc.
Specificities
• Also called eco-city or sustainable city, the smart city aims to improve
the quality of urban services or reduce its costs.
• It stands out for its specificities:
smart management,
lifestyle,
mobility,
housing,
smart economy.
• Their main goal is to reconcile technological innovation with the
economic, social and ecological challenges of the city of tomorrow.
Their leitmotiv is the quality of life: how to live better together while
respecting our environment.
Typical features of smart city
• Some typical features of comprehensive development in Smart Cities are described below.
1. Promoting mixed land use in area based developments–planning for ‘unplanned areas’ containing a range of
compatible activities and land uses close to one another in order to make land use more efficient. The States
will enable some flexibility in land use and building bye-laws to adapt to change;
2. Housing and inclusiveness - expand housing opportunities for all;
3. Creating walkable localities –reduce congestion, air pollution and resource depletion, boost local economy,
promote interactions and ensure security. The road network is created or refurbished not only for vehicles and
public transport, but also for pedestrians and cyclists, and necessary administrative services are offered within
walking or cycling distance;
4. Preserving and developing open spaces - parks, playgrounds, and recreational spaces in order to enhance the
quality of life of citizens, reduce the urban heat effects in Areas and generally promote eco-balance;
5. Promoting a variety of transport options - Transit Oriented Development (TOD), public transport and last
mile para-transport connectivity;
6. Making governance citizen-friendly and cost effective - increasingly rely on online services to bring about
accountability and transparency, especially using mobiles to reduce cost of services and providing services
without having to go to municipal offices. Forming e-groups to listen to people and obtain feedback and use
online monitoring of programs and activities with the aid of cyber tour of worksites;
7. Giving an identity to the city - based on its main economic activity, such as local cuisine, health, education,
arts and craft, culture, sports goods, furniture, hosiery, textile, dairy, etc;
8. Applying Smart Solutions to infrastructure and services in area-based development in order to make them
better. For example, making Areas less vulnerable to disasters, using fewer resources, and providing cheaper
services.
Strategies for smart city
• The strategic components of area-based development in the Smart Cities
Mission are
city improvement (retrofitting),
city renewal (redevelopment),
city extension (greenfield development)
plus a Pan-city initiative in which Smart Solutions are applied covering larger
parts of the city.
• The smart city proposal of each shortlisted city is expected to encapsulate either
a retrofitting or redevelopment or greenfield development model, or a mix
thereof and a Pan-city feature with Smart Solution(s). It is important to note
that pan-city is an additional feature to be provided.
• Below are given the deions of the three models of Area-based smart city
development:
Strategies
• Retrofitting will introduce planning in an existing built-up area to
achieve smart city objectives, along with other objectives, to make the
existing area more efficient and liveable.
• In retrofitting, an area consisting of more than 500 acres will be
identified by the city in consultation with citizens. Depending on the
existing level of infrastructure services in the identified area and the
vision of the residents, the cities will prepare a strategy to become smart.
• Since existing structures are largely to remain intact in this model, it is
expected that more intensive infrastructure service levels and a large
number of smart applications will be packed into the retrofitted smart
city.
• This strategy may also be completed in a shorter time frame, leading to
its replication in another part of the city.
Strategies
• Redevelopment will effect a replacement of the existing built-up
environment and enable co-creation of a new layout with enhanced
infrastructure using mixed land use and increased density.
• Redevelopment envisages an area of more than 50 acres, identified by
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in consultation with citizens.
• For instance, a new layout plan of the identified area will be prepared with
mixed land-use, higher FSI and high ground coverage.
• Two examples of the redevelopment model are the
1. Saifee Burhani Upliftment Project in Mumbai (also called the Bhendi
Bazaar Project)
2. East Kidwai Nagar in New Delhi
being undertaken by the National Building Construction Corporation.
Strategies
• Greenfield development will introduce most of the Smart Solutions in a previously vacant
area (more than 250 acres) using innovative planning, plan financing and plan
implementation tools (e.g. land pooling/ land reconstitution) with provision for affordable
housing, especially for the poor.
• Greenfield developments are required around cities in order to address the needs of the
expanding population. One well known example is the GIFT City in Gujarat. Unlike
retrofitting and redevelopment,
• Greenfield developments could be located either within the limits of the ULB or within the
limits of the local Urban Development Authority (UDA).
• Pan-city development envisages application of selected Smart Solutions to the existing
city-wide infrastructure.
• Application of Smart Solutions will involve the use of technology, information and data to
make infrastructure and services better.
For example,
1. Applying Smart Solutions in the transport sector (intelligent traffic management system)
and reducing average commute time or cost of citizens will have positive effects on
productivity and quality of life of citizens.
2. Waste water recycling and smart metering which can make a huge contribution to better
water management in the city.
Thank You
Module 3
Conventional and Advanced Survey
Techniques
Maps and their uses
⚫ A map is a picture or representation of the Earth’s surface,
showing how things are related to each other by distance,
direction and size.
⚫ Types
1) Topographic
2) Location
3) Cadastral
4) Forest
5) Geological
6) Environmental
7) Biogeographic
Topographic maps
⚫ Shows 3 dimensional world in 2 dimensions using contour
lines.
⚫ Many hikers use especially in areas where there are no roads
with signs
⚫ Useful to geologists to record the types of rocks
⚫ Useful to engineers for planning roads, buildings or any other
structures
⚫ Scale 1cm = 2.5km (R.F. _____?__)
Location map
⚫ Map shows boundary locations of site w.r.t. neighbour
hood marks
⚫ R.F. for this map 1:2500 to 1:500
Cadastral map
⚫ Word cadastral is derived from the French cadastra, Greek katastikhon
⚫ It is a map showing the boundaries and ownership of land
⚫ Purpose of map
1) Provides a cartographic record of official and private land surveys and
subdivisions.
2) Facilitates the administration and transfer of lands
3) Records land ownership
4) Assists in the valuation and taxation of land
5) RF - 1:1000,1:2000,1:5000,1:25000
Forest map ⚫ Shows data like national parks,
santuries, biosphere reserves, forest
classes, boundaries and density of
vegetation
⚫ Satellite updated vegetation
information like dense and open
forests, scrubs, mangroves etc. can
be provided.
⚫ Scale 1: 50000, 1:250000
Geological map
⚫ Shows geological features
⚫ Rock units or geological strata
are shown by colour or
symbols to indicate surface
coverage.
⚫ Use – 1) Determine the
relationships between different
rock formations which can be
used to find mineral resources,
oil and gravel deposits.
2) To know what type of rock
or support strata you have for
your structure, to avoid any
mishap such as differential
settlement, tilt or total collapse
of structure
Environmental map
⚫ Types of map which include the
environment in which we all
live.
⚫ Maps that illustrate
“physiographic” features such as
forests, grassland, woodland ,
tundra, grazing land, ocean
floors and ocean sediments.
⚫ “ Meteorological” maps shows
climate, weather and wind
⚫ Use – Meteorologists,
oceanographers, geographers,
city planners depend greatly on
these maps to record and
forecast their specific field.
Bio-geographical map
⚫ Scientists involved in the study
of animals, plants, and other
living organisms use maps to
illustrate where these groups
live or migrate.
⚫ Use – 1) important to many
zoologists
2) People who monitor
endangered species need to
know if the range of migration
have become larger or smaller
through time.
Representative Fraction (R.F.)
Definition :- when a scale is
represented by a fraction
whose numerator is
invariably unity, it is called a
representative fraction.
To form the RF , both the
numerator and the
denominator must be reduced
to the same denomination.
Scale 1 cm = 1 km
RF 1: 100,000 (1cm =
100000cm)
Google map
Exercise :- Illustrate any five applications of
Google map. ⚫ Google Maps is a web
mapping service developed
by Google. It offers satellite imagery,
street maps, 360° panoramic views
of streets (Street View), real-time
traffic conditions (Google Traffic),
and route planning for traveling by
foot, car, bicycle (in beta), or public
transportation.
⚫ Google Maps' satellite view is a
"top-down" or "birds eye" view;
most of the high-resolution imagery
of cities is aerial photography taken
from aircraft flying at 800 to 1,500
feet (240 to 460 m), while most other
imagery is from satellites.
⚫ It is updated on a regular basis.
Primary classification of Surveying
• Surveying is the field of applied science and
engineering that deals with spatial information about
positions of point on, above or below the earth’s
surface.
• Surveying is primarily divided into two types

considering the curvature of earth’s surface.
i. Plane Surveying
ii. Geodetic Surveying
Primary Divisions of Surveying
Plane Surveying
⚫ The plane surveying is that type of surveying in which
earth surface is considered as a plane and the curvature of
the earth is ignored.
⚫ In such surveying a line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight.
⚫ The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a
plane triangle, and the angles of the triangle are
considered as plain angles.
⚫ Surveying is carried out for a small area of less than 250
km2 .
⚫ It is carried out by local or state agencies like Irrigation
department, Railway department.
10/7/2020 13
Primary Divisions of Surveying
Geodetic Surveying
⚫ The geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in
which the curvature of the earth is taken into account.
⚫ It is generally extended over larger areas.
⚫ The line joining any two stations is considered as curved
line.
⚫ The triangle formed by any three points is considered to
be spherical and the angles of the triangle are considered
to be spherical angles.
⚫ Geodetic surveying is conducted by the Survey of India
Department and is carried out for a larger area
exceeding 250 km2
10/7/2020 14
Plane surveying& Geodetic surveying
Difference between plan
surveying and geodetic
surveying
No. Plan surveying Geodetic surveying
1. The earth surface is considered as a The earth surface is considered as a

plane surface. curved surface
2. The curvature of earth surface is The curvature of earth surface is taken
ignored. in account.
3. Line joining any two points is Line joining any two points is
considered to be straight. considered to be curve.
4. The triangle formed by any three The triangle formed by any three
points is considered as a plane points is considered as a spherical
triangle. triangle.
5. The angle of triangle is considered The angle of triangle is considered as
as plane angle. spherical angle.
6. Carried out for a small area <250km2 Carried out for a large area >250km2
Fundamental Principal of Surveying
Two basic principles of surveying
i. Always work from the whole to the part
ii. To locate a new station by at least two measurement

form fixed reference points
i. Always work from the
whole to the part
• The entire area or a very large
area (town, field) is to be
surveyed first.
• This main framework is in the
form of polygons or triangles.
• The main framework is further
subdivided into smaller areas
for detail surveying.
• This principle prevents the
accumulation of errors in the
surveying and localizes the
errors of measurement.
ii. To locate a new station by at least two
measurement form fixed reference point
• If positions of ‘P’ and ‘Q’ are
known and position of ‘R’ is to
be located it can be done by:
⚫ Two lengths ‘PR’ and ‘QR’
(fig a)
⚫ Perpendicular distance ‘RS’
and distance ‘QS’ (fig b)
⚫ Angle at ‘Q’ and length
‘QR’ (fig c)
⚫ Angle at ‘Q’ and ‘P’ (fig d)
⚫ Angle at ‘Q’ and length
‘PR’ (fig e)
Classification of
Surveying
Based on
Based on Based on Based on
nature of
Instrument Methods Purposes
field
Classification based upon Instrument
a. Chain Survey
b. Compass Survey
c. Chain and Compass Surveying
d. Plane Table Survey
e. Theodolite Survey
f. Tachometry Survey
g. Leveling Survey
h. Photogrammetric Survey
i. EDM(Total Station) Survey
Classification based on methods
a. Triangulation
b. Traversing
c. Trilateration
Triangulation
⚫ Triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition that if one
side and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides
can be computed
Traversing
⚫ Type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines
form the framework and the directions and lengths of the survey
lines are measured with the help of angle measuring instrument
and Tape.
Open Traverse Closed Traverse

Trilateration
⚫ Trilateration is the process of determining absolute or relative
locations of points by measurement of distances, using the geometry
of triangles.
⚫ In contrast to triangulation, it does not involve the measurement
of angles.
⚫ GPS is based on
Trilateration.
Conventional Survey Methods
Prismatic compass
Parts of prismatic Compass
• Needle
• Graduated ring
• Eye vane
• Object vane
• Prism
• Prism cap
Bearings
⚫ The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it
makes with a reference line (meridian).
⚫ Depending upon the meridian , following are the type of
bearings :
1) True Bearing: The true bearing of a line is the horizontal
angle between the true meridian and the survey line. The
true bearing is measured from the true north in the clockwise
direction.
2) Magnetic Bearing: The magnetic bearing of a line is the
horizontal angle which the line makes with the magnetic
north.
3) Arbitrary Bearing: The arbitrary baring of a line is the
horizontal angle which the line makes with the arbitrary
meridian.
⚫ A line passing through
the geographical North
pole, geographical South
pole and any point on the
surface of earth is known as ‘True/ Geographical Meridian’.
⚫ Angle between true meridian and a line is known as True Bearing.
⚫ The direction indicated by freely suspended and properly balanced
magnetic needle is called ‘Magnetic meridian’.
⚫ The angle which a line makes with magnetic meridian is called as
‘Magnetic Bearing’.
Observing Bearing of Line
⚫ Consider a line AB of which
the magnetic bearing is to be
NORTH
taken. OBJECT B
⚫ By fixing the ranging rod at
station B we get the 180
magnetic bearing of needle
with respect to north pole.
⚫ The enlarged portion gives 90 270
actual pattern of graduations
N, 0
marked on ring.
0
W, E,
270 A
90
LINE OF SOUTH
SIGHT
S, 180
Whole Circle Bearing
⚫ Whole Circle Bearing System

(W.C.B):- The bearing of a
line measured with respect to
magnetic meridian in
clockwise direction is called
magnetic bearing and its value
varies between 0ᴼ to 360ᴼ.
Quadrantal Bearing
• Quadrantal Bearing System
(Q.B):- In this system, the
bearing of survey lines are
measured with respect to north
line or south line which ever is
the nearest to the given survey
line and either in clockwise
direction or in anti clockwise
direction.
⚫ When the whole circle bearing is
converted into Quadrantal
bearing, it is termed as
“REDUCED BEARING”.
The reduced bearing is similar to
the Quadrantal bearing.
Whole circle bearing and Reduced Bearing
Fore bearing and Back bearing and
computation of angles
⚫ The bearing of a line measured in the forward direction of

the survey lines is called the ‘fore bearing’(F.B.) of that
line
⚫ The bearing of a line measured in direction backward to
the direction of the progress of survey is called the ‘back
bearing’(B.B.) of the line.
FB of AB = θ1(from A to B)
NORTH BB of AB= θ2(from B to A)
Remembering following points:
NORTH
1) In the WCB system ,the
B differences between the FB and
G ) BB should be exactly 180˚.
RI N
A θ2
θ1 E BE ) Remember the following relation :
O R N G
(F A RI BB = FB + 180˚/ FB - 180˚
K BE
C + is applied when FB is <180˚
A (BA
- is applied when BB is >180˚
2) In the reduced bearing system the
FB and BB are numerically equal
but the quadrants are just opposite.
Computation of Angles
⚫ Observing the bearing of the lines of B

a closed traverse, it is possible to
calculate the included angles, which A
can be used for plotting the traverse. C
⚫ At the station where two survey lines
meet, two angles are formed-an D
exterior angles and an interior angles.
The interior angles or included angle
is generally the smaller
angles(<180ᴼ).
Included angle and excluded angle
• AT STATION B, FB of BC
and BB of AB were
measured. Difference of
these two bearing give
included angle B.
• AT STATION B , BB of
AB and FB of BC were
measured. Difference of
these two bearing will give
you exterior angle B.
Example 1
The following are bearings taken on a closed compass traverse.
Compute the included angles and correct them for observational
errors. Determine the correct bearings of the lines.
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing

AB 45˚ 30’ 225˚ 30’
BC 193˚ 30’ 14˚
CA 337˚ 156˚ 30’
Example 2

AB 120˚ 300˚
BC 60˚ 246˚
CD 318˚ 136˚
DA 200˚ 16˚
Example 3

AB 71˚ 05’ 250˚ 20’
BC 110˚ 20’ 292˚ 35’
CD 161˚ 35’ 341˚ 45’
DA 220˚ 50’ 40˚ 05’
EA 300˚ 50’ 121˚ 10’
Levelling
(An art of measuring the relative heights or elevations of the points or
objects on the surface of the earth is called as levelling.)
Important terms used in levelling
• Level surface
• Level line
• Horizontal line
• Horizontal surface
• Vertical line
• Datum surface
• Mean sea level
• Bench mark (B.M.)
Definition of some terms
• The Geoid is the shape that the surface of the oceans would take
under the influence of Earth's gravitation and rotation alone, in
the absence of other influences such as winds and tides.
• The Level Surface is any surface parallel to the mean
spheroidal surface of the earth.
• The Level line is a line laying on a level surface.
• The Horizontal line is a straight line tangential to the level line
and perpendicular to plumb line.
• The Horizontal surface is any surface tangential to level surface
at given point.
• The Vertical line/ Plumb line is a line at any point normal to
the level surface
• The Datum Surface – Line is any arbitrarily assumed level
surface or line from which vertical distances are measured.
Bench Marks
It is a fixed reference point whose elevation with
respect to some datum is known.
1) GTS Bench Mark
Department of Survey of India
GTS maps
2) Permanent Bench Mark
Established from GTS Bench Mark
PWD, Irrigation department
3) Arbitrary Bench Mark
4) Temporary Bench Mark
⚫ Auto level practical
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cbgt7yJRAhI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lVVbF1M198Q
Levelling staff
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxOBdKbhjd8
Change point
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K61Qhf2CcTY
Fly levelling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jIxCx0oSWOY
Parts of dumpy level
• Tripod stand
• Levelling head (base plates,
Three foot screws)
• Telescope (Eyepiece, Object
glass)
Dumpy Level
Axes of Dumpy Level
• Line of collimation
• Axis of telescope
• Axis of the level tube
• Vertical axis
Levelling Staff
• The least count is 5 mm.

• It consists of three telescopic lengths
(1.2m+1.3m+1.5m).
• The reading on a self reading staff
appears to be inverted and hence the
readings are taken from top to
bottom.
• Show the reading 2.585m on the
staff
Temporary adjustment of Dumpy Level
Setting up the Focusing the Focusing the

Levelling
dumpy level eyepiece object glass
Simple Levelling
Differential Levelling, Fly Levelling
Methods of calculating Reduced
Level of different points
• Rise and Fall method

• H. I. Method
1. Calculate diff. between two
1. H. I. = R.L. of B. M. + BS consecutive points
Reading
2. Rise ( Difference is + ve )
2. R. L. of IS Station = H.I. – IS
Reading 3. Fall (Difference is - ve )
3. R. L. of (CP) FS Station = H.I. – 4. R.L. of point = Previous R.L. +
FS Reading Rise
4. New H.I. = R.L. of FS(CP). + BS 5. R.L. of point = Previous R.L. –
Reading Fall
5. Arithmetic Check 6. Arithmetic Check
∑B.S.- ∑ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L. ∑B.S.- ∑ F.S. = ∑Rise - ∑Fall = Last
R.L. – First R.L.
Video links for levelling
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hj9-UvyMQQ8&feature=youtu.be
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxOBdKbhjd8&feature=youtu.be
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HskvUezC6bM&feature=youtu.be
Collimation Plane Method
Problem :- 1 The following readings were taken with
dumpy level.
1.580, 0.635, 2.035, 1.765, 1.660, 0.925, 1.035, 1.960.
The instrument was shifted after third and fifth readings.
The R. L. of the first point was 950.00m. Rule out the
page of the level book and calculate the R.L.s of all the
other points by collimation plane method. Apply usual
checks. (Ans :- 950.000, 950.945, 949.545, 949.650, 949.540, 948.615,
Arithmetic check - -1.385)
Solution of problem 1
Statio B.S. I.S. F.S. Collimation Plane / Reduced Level Remark

n Height of Instrument (R.L.)
(H.I.)
1 1.580 951.580 950.000 Bench Mark (B.M.)
2 0.635 950.945
3 1.765 2.035 951.310 949.545 Change Point (C.P. 1)
4 0.925 1.660 950.575 949.650 Change Point (C.P. 2)
5 1.035 949.540
6 1.960 948.615 Change Point (C.P. 3)
∑B.S.=4.240 ∑ F.S.=5.655
Arithmetic Check: - ∑B.S.- ∑ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

4.240-5.655 = 948.615 – 950.000
-1.385 = -1.385
Solution
1) Collimation plane st 1 = RL of BM + BS reading of st 1= 950.000 + 1.580 = 951.580 m
2) RL of st 2 = Collimation plane st. 1 – IS of st 2 = 951.580 – 0.635 = 950.945 m
3) RL of st 3 (CP1) = Collimation plane st. 1 – FS of st 3 (CP1) = 951.580 – 2.035 = 949.545 m
4) Collimation plane st 3 (CP1) = RL of pt 3 (CP1) + BS of pt 3 (CP1) = 949.545 + 1.765 = 951.310 m
5) RL of pt 4 = Collimation plane CP1 – FS of st 4 (CP2) = 951.310 – 1.660 = 949.650 m
6) Collimation plane st 4 (CP2) = RL of pt 4 (CP2) + BS of pt 4 (CP2) = 949.650 + 0.925 = 950.575 m
7) RL of pt 5 = Collimation plane CP2 – IS of st 5 = 950.575 – 1.035 = 949.540 m
8) RL of pt 6 = Collimation plane CP2 – FS of st 6 (CP3) = 950.575 – 1.960 = 948.615 m
Collimation Plane Method
Problem :- 2 The following readings were observed on a
continuously sloping ground. The readings were taken on
the C/L of the road, with a 4m levelling staff, at a
horizontal interval of 20 m , the first reading was taken on
a B.M. of R. L. of 250.000m. Tabulate the readings in the
level page of field book by collimation Plane Method.
2.960, 1.625, 0.875, 3.780, 2.560, 1.245, 3.885, 2.375,
1.245, 0.540.
i) Calculate R.L.s of all points.
ii) Determine the longitudinal gradient of the road.
(Ans :- 250.000, 251.335, 252.085, 253.305, 254.620, 256.130, 257.260,
257.965, Arithmetic Check- 7.965, slope-1:17.6)
Solution of problem 1
Stat Hori. B.S. I.S. F.S. Collimation Plane / Reduced Level Remark
ion Dist. Height of Instrument (R.L.)
(H.I.)
1 0 2.960 252.960 250.000 Bench Mark (B.M.)
2 20 1.625 251.335
3 40 3.780 0.875 255.865 252.085 Change Point (C.P. 1)
4 60 2.560 253.305
5 80 3.885 1.245 258.505 254.620 Change Point (C.P. 2)
6 100 2.375 256.130
7 120 1.245 257.260
8 140 0.540 257.965 Change Point (C.P. 3)
∑B.S.=10.62 ∑ F.S.=2.660
5
Arithmetic Check: - ∑B.S.- ∑ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L. Gradient of the line = 7.965/140 = 1/ (140/7.965)
10.625-2.660 = 257.965 – 250.000 = 1:17.577 (17.6)
7.965 = 7.965
Rise and Fall Method
Problem :- 3 The following readings were taken with a level
and a 4 m staff. The instrument was shifted after 5th and
8th readings. R.L. of starting point is 150.000m. Find the
R.L.s of all the point by rise and fall method. Apply usual
checks.
2.865, 3.345, 2.935, 1.950, 0.855, 2.790, 2.640, 1.540,
0.935, 0.850, 0.190. (Ans:- 150.000, 149.520, 149.930, 150.915,
152.010, 152.160, 153.260, 153.345, 154.005, Arithmetic Check- 4.005)
Rise and Fall Method
Problem :- 4 The following consecutive readings were taken
with a level and a 4 m staff on a continuously sloping
ground at common interval of 30 m:
0.855(on A), 1.545, 2.335, 3.115, 3.825, 0.455, 1.380,
2.055, 2.855, 3.455, 0.585, 1.015, 1.850, 2.755, 3.845(on
B).
The R.L. of A was 380.500m. Find the R.L.s of all the
point by rise and fall method. Apply usual checks.
Determine the gradient of AB. (Ans :- 380.500, 379.810, 379.020,
378.240, 377.530, 376.605, 375.930, 375.130, 374.530, 374.100, 373.265,
372.360, 371.270, Arithmetic Check – 9.230, Gradient – 1:39)
Problem :- 5 Data from a differential leveling have been found in the
order of B.S., F.S..... etc. starting with the initial reading on B.M.
(elevation 150.485 m) are as follows : 1.205, 1.860, 0.125, 1.915,
0.395, 2.615, 0.880, 1.760, 1.960, 0.920, 2.595, 0.915, 2.255, 0.515,
2.305, 1.170. The final reading closes on B.M.. Put the data in a
complete field note form and carry out reduction of level by Rise
and Fall method. All units are in meters.
B.S. (m) F.S. (m) Rise (m) Fall (m) Elevation (m) Remark
1.205 150.485 B.M.
0.125 1.860 0.655 149.830
0.395 1.915 1.7290 148.040
0.880 2.615 2.220 145.820
1.960 1.760 0.880 144.940
2.595 0.920 1.040 145.980
2.255 0.915 1.680 147.660
2.305 0.515 1.740 149.450
1.170 1.135 150.535 B.M.
Problem 6: The following is the page of leveling
field-book. Fill up the missing reading and complete the
page. Apply usual check.
Sr. B.S. I.S. F.S. Collimatio R.L. Rema

No. n plane rk
1 2.650 * 100.000 B.M.
2 3.740 *
3 * 98.820
4 4.640 * * 98.380 CP1
5 0.380 *
6 1.640 * * 102.060 CP2
7 2.840 *
8 * 3.480 104.900 * CP3
9 * 102.700 Last
point
Answer 6:- Arithmetic check - +2.700.
Sr. B.S. I.S. F.S. Collimatio R.L. Rema

No. n plane rk
1 2.650 *102.650 100.000 B.M.
2 3.740 *98.910
3 *3.830 98.820
4 4.640 * 4.270 *103.020 98.380 CP1
5 0.380 *102.640
6 1.640 *0.960 *103.700 102.060 CP2
7 2.840 *100.860
8 *4.680 3.480 104.900 *100.220 CP3
9 *2.200 102.700 Last
point
Problem 7: Calculate the missing readings marked with *
Sr. B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Rema

No rk
.
1 * 463.875 B.M.I
2 * 0.550 *
3 0.965 3.655 * * C.P.I
4 * 1.400 * 461.885 C.P.II
5 1.025 * 463.875 B.M.I

Answer 7: Arithmetic check - 0
Sr. B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Rema

No. rk
1 *2.100 463.875 B.M.I
2 *1.556 0.550 *464.425
3 0.965 3.655 *2.105 *462.320 C.P.I
4 *3.015 1.400 *0.435 461.885 C.P.II
5 1.025 *1.990 463.875 B.M.I

Rise and Fall Method(FLY Levelling)
Problem :- 8 During a fly levelling work the staff readings
were obtained at a regular interval of 25 m. The readings
were as under.
B.S. – 0.565, 0.990, 2.775, 2.350.
F.S. – 1.685, 1.350, 2.055, 3.450.
The work was begun from a point whose R.L. was
known to be 255.555. enter the readings for rise and fall
method to determine the RLs of all stations. Also, find the
nature and magnitude of gradient. Apply the usual checks.
(Ans :- 255.555, 254.435, 254.075, 254.795, 253.695, Arithmetic Check-
-1.860, Gradient – 1:53.76(falling))
Applications of levelling
• Calculation of the depth of cutting and filling.
• Setting out grades for sewers.
• Setting out gradients for roads, railway tracks, pipe lines.
• The estimation of reservoir capacities etc.
• Find the undulations of ground.
• Plotting the contour maps, ground profile from which
various construction works like dam, bridges, water
mains and industrial sheds etc. can be progressed.
• Useful for water supply line, railway track, electric
transmission towers, drainage pipe lines etc.
Contours
• Contour :- a contour may be defined as the line of
intersection of a level surface with the surface of ground
having same elevation above datum surface.
• Contour lines :- the elevations and depression (the
undulations)of the surface of the ground are shown on a
map by means of contour lines.
• Contour Interval :- the vertical distance between any
two consecutive contours is called the contour lines.
• Horizontal Equivalent :- The horizontal distance
between consecutive contours is termed as horizontal
equivalent.
• Station :- It is an important point on the ground at the
beginning and end of a survey line.
Uses of Contour lines or
Contours
⚫ Using contour maps, information regarding the
topography of country is obtained. e.g. flat, undulating,
mountains.
⚫ Most economical or suitable site for engineering work
such as reservoir, canal, sewer, road or railway
⚫ Quantities of earthwork may be computed.
⚫ Determine the area of the drainage basin and the capacity
of the reservoir.
⚫ Ground profile can be easily drawn in any direction
⚫ Intervisibility of two given points can be ascertained
⚫ A road, rail or canal for a given slope and grade can be
aligned.
Characteristics of contour
⚫ All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

⚫ Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely separated and
steep-slope where they run close together.
⚫ A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced
⚫ A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
A series of closed contour
lines on the map indicate
a depression if the higher
values are outside
Characteristics of Contour Lines
Hill ,Vertical cliff

Contour lines never run to
one another except in case
of a vertical cliff
⚫ Overhanging cliff
Contour lines cannot merge
or cross each other on map
except in case of an
overhanging cliff
Characteristics of Contour
Lines
⚫ Ridge Line and Valley Line
Identify the contour characteristics
Method of contouring
⚫ Direct Method
- Radial Method
⚫ Indirect Method
- By cross sectioning
- By method of squares
- Tacheometric
contouring
Radial method
Modern Survey Methods
Modern Survey methods
• Levels- Dumpy Level, Auto Level, Digital Level
• Theodolite – 20” Theodolite, 1” Theodolite, Digital
Theodolite
• Electronic distance meter (EDM)
• Laser level
• Total station
• GIS, GPS
• Digital planimeter
Theodolites - Types of Theodolites
Theodolites are used for finding horizontal angles, vertical
angles, layout work of buildings, establishing of points in
one line or alignment work in surveying.
• Vernier Theodolite
• Optical Theodolite
• Digital Theodolite
Vernier Theodolite
Parts of Digital Theodolite
⚫ Telescope
⚫ Clamp screws- horizontal clamp, vertical clamp
⚫ Leveling head
⚫ Circular level
⚫ Optical plummet
⚫ Display window
⚫ Tripod
Special features of Digital Theodolite
• Duel side display and key board
• Built in illumination for night operations
• Rechargeable battery with auto power cutoff
• Compatibility with EDMs
• Co-axial clamps and slow motion screws
• Least count is 1”
Applications of digital Theodolite
• For long road or railway bridges, alignment of piers and

their centre to centre dist. can be measured.
• Measures horizontal angle and vertical angle precisely
upto 1” even during night time
• Triangulation work can be completed with highest
precision
• Ease of operation, day-night observations are possible
EDM(Electronic Distance Meter)
⚫ It is a new advanced ,well

modified, electronic
equipment which gives
very high accuracy and
quick work in distance
measurement.
Basic Principle of EDM
• Let the distance between P and Q be ‘d’ which is to be
measured.
• A wave is transmitted from the transmitter at the station P with
certain phase angle . There is a reflector at the other end Q
which consists of prism. The wave reflects from pt. Q.
• It is received back at the transmitter end at P with different
phase angle.
• For finding the distance the phase difference between
transmitted wave and reflected wave is measured and converted
into distance .
Types of waves
• Electromagnetic waves:- measuring waves.
Frequency in the range of 500 mHz to 705 mHz.
They cannot be transmitted.
• Carrier waves :- Electromagnetic waves can be superimposed
on another wave called the carrier wave.
High frequency
The process of superimposing one wave to another wave is
called as modulation
At the receiver end, the reverse process of modulation is
demodulation occurs in which the measuring wave is separated
and from phase difference distance is measured.
Parts of E.D.M.
• Levelling Head
• Control panel
• Horizontal clamp and tangent screw
• Vertical clamp and tangent screw
• Optical plumet
• Telescope
Advantages of EDM
• Measurement of horizontal distance precisely.
• Measurement of vertical distance more accurately.
• Measurements of N and E co-ordinates.
• Measurement of inclined distance on slope.
Types of E.D.M.
Types of E.D.M.
1. Telescope mounted
instruments
Line of sight of theodolite and
EDM are parallel.
2. Total station
EDM and digital theodolite
3. Distomat
EDM uses infrared light waves
( 20m to 10 km).
Instrument uses infrared beam
with amplitude modulation to a
frequency of about 15 MHz
Temporary adjustments of the
theodolite consist of
i) Centeringii) levelling
iii)focussing
4. E.D.M. s based on range
Short range :- upto 5 km.
Medium range :- upto 100 km.
Long range :- greater than 100 km.
5. The Geodimeter
Emits carrier waves or modulated pulses of light from a tungsten
filament that are returned by a reflector system having prism at the
other station.
Frequency 10 MHz
The reflected light returned to the instrument is
converted into electrical pulses by photocell.
Distance upto 25 km.
Application of Electronic Total Station
⚫ Measurement of sloping distance, horizontal and
vertical distance
⚫ Vertical and horizontal angles are accurately
measured
⚫ Measurement of area
⚫ Measurement of N and E coordinates
Digital planimeter
• Rollers
• Tracing arm
• Control panel
• Unit, Scale, hold, memo
GPS (Global Positioning System)
⚫ GPS is a fast and accurate method of determining the
locations of any point of interest anywhere on the face of
earth of any time.
⚫ The technology collects and processes signals from
satellites in orbit around the earth to determine the location
of points of interest on the ground.
⚫ Types of GPS
Single Frequency
Dual Frequency
Applications of GPS
• Determining the boarders, making existing utilities like
highway, piling. municipal amenities.
• Monitoring well, soil boring and other types of sampling
locations.
• Establishing state plane coordinates or geodetic coordinates
• Used in topographic survey
• Used in mine exploration
• Used in baseline survey and traverse control survey or traverse
verification surveys
• Used in natural resource mapping
• Used in communication tower site survey
Application of GPS
GIS (Geographic Information System)
• GIS is a tool of mapmaking and analyzing things that exists and event
that happen on the earth surface
• It is a computer based system designed to accept large volume of
geographic data derived from variety of sources, effectively store it,
analyze the things and display these data in a required format.
GIS (Geographic Information System)
GIS (Geographical Information System)
• GIS may be defined as a computer based information
system which attempts to capture, store, manipulate, analyse
and display spatially referenced and
associated data.
• GIS data consists of two different data
namely,
Spatial data - In the form of vector
used for map making
Attribute data – In the form of Charts,
tables, descriptive text about the
places located in the map.
Data stored in layers
GIS gives you power to-
• Create map
• Integrate information
• Analyze the data
• Solve complicated problems
• Present powerful ideas
• Develop effective solutions
Application of GIS
• GIS is used to improve organizational integration. Data can be
collected once and used many times
• GIS is used to make better decision.
• GIS is used for making maps.
• GIS is used for every organizations of the defense industry for
many nations around the world.
• Architect makes the design, planning in proper and precise way
quickly with the help of GIS
• GIS provides the analytical capabilities that form the hub of
successful precision agricultural system
• GIS is used in libraries and museums, in education, in
conservation fo water and wastewater, in transportation in
universities, in mining and earth sciences.
Applications of GIS
Natural
Resources
Business
Education
Government
Transportation
planning
Mapping &
charting Public Safety
Digital Mapping
• New tool that is being used in modern surveying along with
the advanced instruments
• Advancement in mapping technique is replacing conventional
stereo-plotters
• Made map making more efficient and accurate.
• Advantages
Map making is quick.
Scale of map can be easily changed and viewed
Maps can be made as per users requirement
Updating the existing map with latest information is neat
and easy
Creating 3 D maps are very easy
Application of Total Station
Application of Total Station
• General purpose angle measurements
• General purpose distance measurements
• Provision of control surveys
• Contour and detail surveys
• Contour and detail mapping
• Setting out and construction work
• Area and volume calculations
• Co ordinate Geometry calculations
• Road alignment 2D and 3D
• Different surveys (Topographic, Hydrographic, Cadastral ,
Project construction, Road and Rail, Mining)
Photogrammetric Survey
Photogrammetric Survey
Definition :- Photogrammetric surveying or photogrammetry is the
science and art of obtaining accurate measurements by use of
photographs.
Purpose (Use) :-
1. Construction of planimetric and topographic maps
2. Classification of soils
3. Interpretation of geology
4. Acquisition of military intelligence
5. Preparation of composite pictures of the ground
Types :-
1. Terrestrial Photogrammetry
2. Aerial Photogrammetry
Aerial Survey
Aerial photography is the taking
of photographs of the ground from an
elevated/direct-down position. Usually
the camera is not supported by a
ground-based structure. Platforms for
aerial photography include
fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters,
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs or
drones"), balloons, blimps
and dirigibles, rockets, pigeons, kites,
parachutes, stand-alone telescoping
and vehicle-mounted poles. Mounted
cameras may be triggered remotely or
automatically; hand-held photographs
may be taken by a photographer.
Aerial Survey
Uses:- Aerial Survey should be
• Archaeology distinguished form satellite imagery
• Fishery surveys technologies because of its better
• Geophysics resolution, quality and atmospheric
• Hydrocarbon exploration conditions.
• Land survey In order to carry out aerial survey, a
• Mining and mineral exploration sensor needs to be fixed to the interior
• Monitoring vegetation and ground or the exterior of the airborne platform
cover with line of sight to the target it is
• Reconnaissance remotely sensing.
• Monitoring wildlife and insect
population
• Transportation projects in
conjunction with ground surveys
(Roadways, bridges, Interstate)
BCE
(CVE 102B)
Module 4 – Modern construction
techniques and Materials
Topics
• Basics of construction
• Construction techniques
• Conventional materials used in construction
• Ecofriendly materials
• Smart material
• Automation in construction
Basics Of Construction
Components of structures
Components of structure
Structure
Super
Substructure
Structure
Foundation
Building above
the plinth level
Components of structures
• Substructure
• Plinth
• Super structure
• Substructure :Substructure is the part of structure lying below
the ground surface such as footing, piles.
• Plinth : Plinth is part of structure lying above the GL and below
Superstructure
• Super structure: Super structure is the part of structure lying
above the ground surface such as wall, doors, windows, slab.
Types of Structure
• Load Bearing Structure

• Framed structure
• Composite Structure
Load Bearing Structure Construction
• A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a
wall that bears a load resting upon it by
conducting its weight to a
foundation structure.
• The materials most often used to
construct load-bearing walls in large
buildings are concrete, block, or brick.
• Load bearing structure, the loads are
directly transferred to the soil through the
walls that are designed to specifically
carry the loads.
• Economical upto 2 storeys
• Less important Buildings
Load Transfer Mechanism for Load Bearing Structure
Framed Structures
• Frame structures are the structures
having the combination of beam,
column and slab to resist the lateral
and gravity load.
Advantages
• The floor area of a R.C.C framed
structure building is 10 to 12 percent
more than that of a load bearing
walled building.
• Construction can be done upto multi
storeyed building.
• Speedy construction
Load Transfer Mechanism for Framed Structure
• It consist of frame work of

columns, beams and floor.
• The loads are taken by slab,
beam, column and then
transfer to the foundation
Composite Structure
• Combination of Load Bearing and

Frame Structure
• The outer walls can be load bearing
type where as column and beam
structure can be provided internally
• Thus floors and roofs are supported by
walls as well as frames
• Used in Industrial sheds or warehouses
where spans are large.
Foundation
Foundation
Definition
• Foundation is the lower most part of the structure which provides the
base for the superstructure and transmits the load of superstructure to the
subsoil without any failure.
Functions of Foundation
The foundation is provided for following purpose.
• To distribute the total load coming on structure on a larger area.
• To support the structures.
• To give enough stability to the structure against various disturbing
forces such as wind and rain.
• To prepare a level surface for concreting and masonry work.
• To minimize the chances of unequal settlement by distributing the
load over wide area.
Factors affecting Design of Foundation
• Load from building.

• Soil type and ground water condition.
• Structural requirement and Foundation.
• Construction Requirement.
• Site condition and Environmental Factors.
• Economy.
Bearing capacity
• The shear failure may result in sinking or tilting of the loaded mass
• Entire structure may collapse due to unequal settlement
• The maximum load per unit area which the soil or rock can carry without
displacement is termed as the bearing capacity of soils.
• To know maximum load carrying capacity of the underlying soil
• Load = intensity of pressure x area
• Safe bearing capacity of soil may be defined as ultimate bearing capacity of soil
divided by factor of safety.
• The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the maximum gross pressure
intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil does not fail in shear.
Safe bearing capacity = ultimate bearing capacity / factor of safety
• Safe bearing capacity, black cotton soil- 150kN/m2 , gravel – 450 kN/m2
Settlement of Foundation
It is the vertical downward movement of loaded base.
TYPES OF SETTELEMENT:
• Uniform Settlement
• Differential Settlement
Uniform Settlement and Differential Settlement
Uniform Settlement:
• If the downward vertical movement of total base of structure is equal,
the settlement is Uniform.
• Uniform settlement will not cause any damage to the structure. But
excessive uniform settlement will damage the underground utility
services like water supply line, drainage line, telephone cable, electric
cable.
Differential Settlement
• If the downward vertical movement of total base of structure is
unequal, the settlement is Differential.
• Differential Settlement will occurs when one part of structure settles
more than the other part.
Differential Settlement
The ratio of differential settlement to the distance between the point under consideration
is called as angular distortion (θ).
Θ = (Smax – Smin) / (L)
Where
θ = Angular distortion.
Smax = Maximum Settelement.
Smin = Minimum Settelement.
L = Distance between the points
under considerations
Types of foundation
1. Shallow foundation (D≤B) 2. Deep foundation(D>B)

Shallow foundation(D≤B)
• When the depth of foundation is less than or at

the most equal to its width, the foundation is
called shallow foundation
Shallow foundation
Provided in following cases
• When hard strata available at shallow depth.
• When bearing capacity of soil is good.
Limitation of shallow foundation:

• It cannot be used under a Marshy land and water logged area. The
load carrying capacity is less as compared to deep foundations.
Shallow foundation
Strap or Mat or
Spread footing Combined footing
cantilever raft
Rectangular footing footing
Trapezoidal
Strip footing Isolated or pad Grillage foundation

footing
Simple Square
Rectangular
Stepped
Circular
Sloped
Deep foundation(D>B)
• When the depth of foundation is
more than its width, the
foundation is called Deep
foundation.
• Deep foundation are provided
when the soil immediately below
the structure with a reasonable
depth is not capable of supporting
the building load safely. e.g. Black
Cotton Soil
Deep foundation
Pile Pier Caisson/Well

Box
Function Material
based Pnumetic
based
End bearing Open well
Concrete
Friction (precast, cast-in-situ) Circular
Compaction Timber Rectangle
Tension Steel Twin-
Anchor (H-piles, Pipe,sheet) circular
Tender and dolphin Sand
Composite
Sheet pile (concrete and timber,
Concrete and steel)
Pile foundation
Pile Foundation
Pile is defined as a slender column capable of transferring the structural loads to deep
underlying layers
The Pile is a column like structure which is used in following circumstances.
• When the hard strata is at higher depth.
• Higher loads to be transmitted.
• When bearing capacity of soil is very low like Black Cotton Soil and Marshy soil .
• When there is a standing water table.
• When there is intermediate compressible layer.

Function Pile Foundation
• To transfer the load from the structure to the foundation at a greater
depth where the bearing capacity of soil is efficient to withhold the
structure loads.
• Pile controls the soil settlement which can be accompanied by surface
foundations.
• Piles are used to increase the safety factor for high loaded structures.
• Piles enable the scope of construction in very low bearing capacity
soils.
Application of Pile Foundation
The Piles are applicable at the places where
• The load coming on the structure is very high and the distribution of
load on soil is uneven.
• The subsoil water level is likely to rise or fall appreciably.
• The structure is situated in sea shore or river bed
• The Pumping of subsoil water is too costly for keeping the foundation
trench in dry condition.
• The construction of raft foundation is likely to be very expensive
Classification of pile Based on function vertical
support :
Two basic types of Piles
– End bearing pile - point loading
- load transferred by friction resistance

– Friction pile
between the pile and the earth
Basic material used in construction
Basic materials used in construction
• Cement
• Sand (Fine Aggregate, Coarse Aggregate)
• Bricks
• Stone
• Steel
• Concrete
• Precast concrete
Basic materials and its use
• Basic materials used in construction are cement, sand, bricks and

stone.
• Cement is used as a binding material in the construction work.
• Sand is used for making mortar and concrete.
• Bricks and stone are used for the construction of masonary wall.
1. Cement
• Cement is adhesive substances, the binding materials used in building and civil
engineering construction.
• Cements of this kind are finely ground powders of limestone which contain
argillaceous and calcareous matter.
• When it is mixed with water, set to a hard mass.
• Setting and hardening result from hydration, which is a chemical combination of the
cement compounds with water that yields submicroscopic crystals or a gel-like
material with a high surface area.
• Because of their hydrating properties, constructional cements, which will even set
and harden under water, are often called hydraulic cements. The most Important of
these is “Portland cement”.
• Cement is used in the form of mortar or concrete.
• Mortar – cement + sand + water (Mix in proportion)
• Concrete – Cement + fine aggregate+ coarse aggregate + water
(Mix in proportion)
• Chemical composition • Manufacturing process
Cao (Lime)
SIO2 (Silica)
Al2O3 (Alumina)
Fe2O3 (Iron Oxide)
MgO
Alkalines (K2O, Na2O)
SO3
Types of Cement
The most commonly used cement is Ordinary Portland cement.
1. Rapid Hardening Cement
2. Low heat Cement
3. Sulphate resisting cement
4. Blast furnace slag cement
5. Air entraining cement
6. White and coloured cement
7. High alumina cemnt
8. Pozzolana cement
9. Quick setting cement
Use of cement
• Cement is use in cement mortar and cement concrete.
• Construction of buildings: ordinary portland cement is generally used for
making cement mortar and concrete.
• Construction of highway slabs: rapid hardening cement is used
• Construction of dams, retaining wall, bridge abutment (mass concrete): low
heat cement is used
• Marine structures and other underground works: Blast furnace slag cement
• Canal lining culverts or structures where surface is exposed to severe
sulphate action, sulphate resisting cement is used.
• Terrazo surface, face plasters, ornamental works white and coloured
cement is used.
• cement is used for construction of buildings, road pavements bridges,
underground and over head water reservoirs, chimneys, marine structures.
Water pipes and sewers, runways, dams, tunnels, shells, domes etc.
2. Sand
• It is a form of silica, which may be siliceous,
argillaceous according to composition. It is
formed by decomposition of sandstones due
to various weathering effects.
• Sand obtained from pits, shores, river beds,
sea beds is known as Natural sand.
• Sand obtained from crushing of stones is
known as artificial sand.
• Sand is used as inert material in mortar and
concrete.
• Sand may be divided in to two categories
depending upon its fineness
1. Coarse aggregate
2. Fine aggregate
• Sand passing through an Indian Standard sieve of 4.75 mm is called
as fine aggregate.
• Sand retaining on 4.75mm sieve is called as coarse aggregate.
• Sand increases the volume of mortar thereby making the mortar
economical and also prevents excessive shrinkage of cement paste.
• It also prevents excessive shrinkage of mortar thereby avoiding cracks
during setting. Fine sand occupies the voids in coarse aggregates.
• This help in making a concrete solid, waterproof material, very fine
and coarse sands are objectionable in a sense that fine sand is
uneconomical where as coarse sand gives harsh less workable mix.
Use of Sand
1. Used in cement mortar for stone masonary, brick masonary and
plastering.
2. Used in plain cement concrete, reinforced cement concrete,
prestressed concrete.
3. Coarse sand is applied in form of face plaster on external walls of
the buildings.
3. Steel
• Steel is an intermediate form between cast
iron and wrought iron.
• It is an alloy of iron and carbon containing
carbon from 0.25% to 1.25%.
• Steel highly elastic, ductile, malleable,
forgeable and weldable.
• Generally mild steel, tor steel and high tensile
steel is used in various construction activities.
• Mild steel is used as structural and non
structural steel in the form of various section
like I section, channel, angle, flat and also in
the form of round bars as reinforcement in
concrete.
• Tor steel is extensively used as reinforcement
in R.C.C works.
• Mild steel bars are designated as Fe 250 due to the
yield strength of 250 N/mm2.
• When mild steel plain bars are subjected to cold
working by tensioning and twisting raises both yield
and ultimate strength. These are known as High Yield
Strength deformed (HYSD) bars or tor steel.
• Tor steel bars are available in two grades namely Fe
415 and Fe500 where 415 and 5oo denotes their
yield strength in N/mm2 and in variety of diameters
ranging from 8mm to 40mm.
• Wires of high tensile strength (tendons) are used in
prestressed concrete. These are available in the
range of 1.5mm to 8mm diameter with their ultimate
stress ranging from 1500 N/mm2 to 2350 N/mm2.
• Generally tendons are grouped in the form of cables
containing 7 to 8 individual wires.
Use of Steel
1. Structural material in trusses, stanchions, beams in the form of
various sections.
2. Non structural component for grills, stairs, windows and doors
3. In fabrication of steel pipes, tubes, tanks, ducts etc.
4. Used as corrugated sheets which act as roof over the structures.
5. Mild steel is used as distribution steel in reinforced cement
concrete members.
6. Tor steel is used as main steel in reinforced cement concrete
members.
7. High tensile steel cables are used in prestressed concrete girders.
4. Concrete
• Cement concrete may be defined as a building material
obtained by mixing cement, fine aggregates (usually sand),
coarse aggregate (usually crushed stone) and water in
definite proportion.
• Fresh concrete is a workable and mouldable plastic
mixture which flows easily so that it can be transported,
placed and compacted to attain the required shape.
• The product is then allowed to cure for gaining strength.
• The strength of concrete depends upon the properties of
the ingredients.
• Classification of cement concrete
a. Plain Cement Concrete (P.C.C)
b. Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C)
c. Precast Concrete
d. Prestressed Concrete
a. Plain cement Concrete (PCC)
• It is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate and water.
• The proportion of these ingredients depends upon the grade of mix
required for meeting the requirements of a particular job.
• The grades of PCC are generally designated as M15, M20, M25, M30 etc.
where M stands for mix and the no stands 2for compressive strength of
that mix after 28 days expressed in N/mm .
• The procedure for deciding the proportion of various ingredients for a
particular mix is termed as concrete mix design.
• A mix of 1:2:4 i.e 1 part cement, 2 part fine aggregate, 4 part coarse
aggregate along with water in proportion to w/c ratio makes a concrete
of grade M15.
• The concrete is manufactured either by hand mixing or machine mixing
using volume batching or weight batching techniques for measuring the
quantities of the ingredients.
• Plain cement concrete has very less tensile strength and therefore it is
not used for flexural members.
• Its use is more common in levelling course over plinth or below footing
and in lean concrete mixes used to fill columns in the terraces.
b. Reinforced cement Concrete (RCC)
• As PCC has a little usable tensile strength
(1/10th of strength in compression) it is
reinforced with a tensile material usually steel.
• The reinforcement is in the form of mild steel or
tor steel bars are used to make RCC.
• Due to bonding between steel and concrete,
stresses are transferred from one material to
another thus concrete caters for compressive
stresses and steel for tensile stresses.
• Recently use of M15 concrete for any type of
RCC work is prohibited by IS codes. The
minimum grade of concrete to be used is M20.
• The concrete manufactured on site is termed as
‘in-situ concrete’.
Use of PCC and RCC
1. Concrete is used in almost all types of construction either in the
form of PCC or RCC.
2. PCC is used for levelling course below footing and over plinth.
3. PCC can be used for mass concrete work for heavy wall.
4. PCC can be used for levelling course below masonary.
5. PCC can be used in lean concrete mixes to fill the column in terrace.
6. RCC is used for concreting the general work like beams, columns,
slabs, lintel, footing etc.
7. RCC can be used for machine foundation.
c. Pre-cast concrete
• The term precast concrete is applied to individual
concrete members of various types, which are
cast in separate forms before they are placed in
the structure.
• Precast members are cast either on building sites
or in casting yards located at some distance from
the site or in precast concrete factories.
• Precast members are then transported to the site
and then placed in position by cranes or other
devices if they are heavy like beam or slab units.
• Due to controlling measures employed in factory
regarding quality and quantity of materials used,
precast members offer the required strength,
durability, attractive appearance better than
in-situ concrete members.
• Due to use of precast members, building erection
work can be done with greater speed.
Uses of precast concrete
1. For casting various building elements such as beams, columns,
slabs, water tanks etc.
2. For manufacturing of compound poles, electricity poles,
ornamental structures.
3. Fabrication of RCC pipes, bridge girders, bridge piers, concrete
piles.
c. Pre-stressed concrete
• This is a reinforced concrete in which concrete is
subjected to compressive stressed, before the
external loads are applied, by inducing tensile
stresses in the reinforcement to counteract tensile
stresses caused in the concrete by external loads.
• If the tensile reinforcement is subjected to tensile
stresses before the external loads are applied
compressive stresses are induced in the concrete
of the beam which absorbs or counteracts the
tensile stresses caused by external loads in
concrete.
• Thus concrete can therefore be used effectively
in resisting tensile stresses also steel cables of
high tensile strength are used as reinforcements
along with rich concrete mix (preferable above
M30).
1. Pre-tensioning
2. Post-tensioning
Uses of prestressed concrete
1. Girders for bridges
2. Railway slippers
3. Beams for large spans
4. Electric poles
5. Precast blocks
5. Bricks
• Bricks are made of clay and chiefly employed in
building construction and architectural
compositions.
• Bricks are obtained by moulding plastic mass of
suitably proportioned earth that mainly consists
of silica and alumina in timber or steel moulds.
• Moulded bricks are first allowed to dry and then
burnt in kilns to achieve strength.
• Bricks are generally rectangular in shape having
size 19cm x 9cm x 9cm, so that 10 layers when
laid in mortar will form one metre height of
masonary.
Classification of Bricks
• Clay bricks
1. Ordinary bricks
2. Fire bricks
Ordinary bricks are further classified as

1. 1st class bricks
2. 2nd class bricks
3. 3rd class bricks
Classification of Bricks
• The 1st class bricks are well burnt and of proper
rectangular shape and size with sharp edges. They do
not absorb more than 1/6th of their weight of water
after being soaked for 1 hr and give ringing sound.
• The 2nd class bricks are also fully burnt and giving a
clear ringing sound when struck. They should not
absorb more than 1/4th of their dry weight of water
after one 1 hr soaking.
• The 3rd class bricks are not burnt so fully but are
generally of uniform reddish yellow colour.
• Fire bricks are made of special fire clays. They are used
for lining in fir-places, furnaces etc. They are slightly
larger than the ordinary bricks.
• Zhama bricks are overburnt bricks having deformed
shapes and sizes.
• Bricks are laid in various coursed with frog upward to form the
brick wall.
• Cement mortar is placed below, sides of the brick and inside the
frog.
• All bricks are soaked in water for 24 hrs. before using them in
construction work.
Importance of Frog:
• Frog is indentation in the bricks provided to form a key for
holding the mortar.
• Bricks are laid in various layers with frog upward to form the
brick wall.
• Various courses are strongly bonded with the provision of frog
in brick.
5. Stones
• Stone is always obtained from rock, which is a
solid portion of earth’s crust.
• Quarried stones may be in the form of stone
blocks, stone aggregate, stone slabs, stone
lintels, stone flags etc.
• Stone has to be properly dressed and shaped
before it is used at the place of work.
Classification of Rocks
a. Geological classification c. Chemical classification
Igneous rocks Siliceous rocks
Sedimentary rocks Argillaceous rocks
Metamorphic rocks Calcareous rocks
b. Physical classification d. Classification based on hardness
Stratified rocks Very hard rock
Unstratified rocks Hard rock
Laminated rocks Medium rock
Soft rock
Classification of Stones
• The rocks which are formed due to • Re- alignment of materials due to
cooling of exposed magma are called either temperature change or
Igneous rocks. Examples- Basalt, pressure change or both results in
Granite, Dolerite. change in the texture of the rock.
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by This is known as metamorphic
deposition of broken materials like rocks.
sand, clay, disintegrated rocks, dead • Example – limestone and marl
sea organism etc. Examples- sand becomes marble, basalt and trap
stone, lime stone, slate, shale. becomes schist.
• The sedimentary rock possessing planes of
stratification can be easily split along these planes,
these are stratified rocks.
• Igneous rocks are compact granular in nature and do
not show any stratification, are there for classified as
unstratified rocks.
• All the stones are seasoned (dried) before they are
used.
Uses of Stones
1. Broken stones and stone chips are used in foundation, roofs of
building and as road metal and railway ballast.
2. Stone blocks are mainly used in walls, foundations and ornamental
facia work.
3. Quartzite is used for rubble masonary, road metaling and also as
aggregate for concrete.
4. Lime stone slabs are used for flooring, paving and roofing.
5. Slates are used as roofing and flooring material.
6. Granite is used for important works like bridge abutments, piers etc.
These days it is very common in kitchen ota.
7. Marble is extremely suitable for ornamental and superior type of
building work e.g. Tajmahal.
Smart material
Some materials have the ability to change
shape or size simple by adding a little bit
of heat or to change from a liquid to a
solid almost instantly when near a
magnetic field or electric field these
materials are called smart materials
SMART MATERIALS
• Smart materials are the materials that can significantly alter one or more
of their inherent properties owing to the application of an external
stimuli in a controlled fashion.
• The several external stimulus to which the SMART Materials are
sensitive :
• Stress
• Temperature
• Moisture
• pH
• Electric Fields
• Magnetic Fields
SMART MATERIAL TYPES
• Piezoelectric materials
• Electrostrictive materials
• Magnetostrictive materials
• Optical fibers
• Shape memory alloys (SMA)
• Electro active materials
• Smart concrete( Traffic sensing recorder)
• Strain sensitive concrete ( Detects earthquake)
• Thermochromic
Classification of Smart material
PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIAL
• Piezoelectric materials have two • It possesses the property of
unique properties which are converting mechanical energy
interrelated. into electrical energy and vice
• When a piezoelectric material is versa.
deformed, it gives off a small but • Best known example is electric
measurable electrical discharge. cigarette lighter
• Alternately, when an electrical • Airbag sensor in car.
current is passed through a
piezoelectric material it
experiences significant increase in
size (upto 4% change in volume)
• They are used to measure fluid
compositions, fluid density, fluid
viscosity or the force of an impact.
Electrostrictive Material (Electro-rheostatic-ER)
• Electro rheostatic materials are fluids,
which can experience a dramatic • ER fluids have mainly been
change in their viscosity. developed for use in clutches
• These fluids can change from a thick and valves, as well as engine
fluid to nearly a solid substance within mounts designed noise and
the span of a millisecond when vibration in vehicles.
exposed to a electric field, the effect
can be completely reversed just as
quickly when the field is removed.
• Electrostriction is a property of all
dielectric materials, and is caused by
displacement of ions in the crystal
lattice upon being exposed to an
external electric field. Positive ions
will be displaced in the direction of the
field, while negative ions will be
displaced in the opposite direction.
Magnetostrictive Material
(Magneto-rheostatic-MR)
• Magneto rheostatic materials are
fluids, which can experience a • MR fluids are being
dramatic change in their viscosity. developed for use in car
shocks, damping washing
• These fluids can change from a machine vibration,
thick fluid to nearly a solid prosthetic limbs, exercise
substance within the span of a equipment and surface
millisecond when exposed to a polishing of machine parts.
magnetic field, the effect can be
completely reversed just as quickly
when the field is removed.
Optical Fibre
• Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light
• Fiber optics, or optical fiber, particles or photons that pulse through a fiber
refers to the medium and the optic cable.
technology associated with the • The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a
transmission of information different refractive index that bends incoming
light at a certain angle.
as light pulses along a glass • When light signals are sent through the fiber optic
or plastic strand or fiber. cable, they reflect off the core and cladding in a
series of zig-zag bounces, adhering to a process
• Fiber optics is used called total internal reflection.
long-distance and • The light signals do not travel at the speed of
high-performance data light because of the denser glass layers, instead
networking. traveling about 30% slower than the speed of
light.
• To renew, or boost, the signal throughout its
journey, fiber optics transmission sometimes
requires repeaters at distant intervals to regenerate
the optical signal by converting it to an electrical
signal, processing that electrical signal and
retransmitting the optical signal.
Shape Memory Alloys
• When subjected to a thermal field, this material • Shape Memory Alloys are metal alloys which
will undergo phase transformation. can undergo solid- to-solid phase
• It is made possible through a solid state phase transformation and can recover completely
change that is a molecular rearrangement, when heated to a specific temperature.
which occurs in the shape memory alloy. • The two phases, which occur in shape memory
• A solid state phase change is similar in that a alloys are “Martensite” and “Austenite”.
molecular rearrangement is occurring, but the • It deforms to its “Martensite” condition with
molecules remain closely packed so that the low temperature and regains its original shape
substance remains a solid. in its “Austenite” conditions when heated .
• Shape-memory alloy is an alloy that can be
deformed when cold but returns to its
pre-deformed ("remembered") shape when
heated. It may also be called memory
metal, memory alloy, smart metal, smart alloy,
or muscle wire.
• In shape memory alloy, a temperature change of
only about 10° C is necessary to initiate this
phase change.
Thermochromic Photochromic
• These materials changes colour • These material changes colour in
in response to changes in response to changes in light
temperature. conditions.
• They have been used in bath • Uses includes security inks and
plugs that changes colour when dolls that tan in the sun.
the water is too hot.
Applications
• Smart Fabric
• Smart Aircraft
• Sporting Goods
• Smart Dust
• Reducing vibration
• Helicopter blades
• Robotics
• Medical Surgeries
• Security
• And many others……………
Translucent concrete-LitraCon
• Translucent
concrete is mixed
with glass fiber
optical strands,
which create a
solid but sheer
block.
Self-Repairing Concrete
• A new self-healing cement is
currently being developed
which has the ability to repair
its own cracks.
• This cement is mixed with
microcapsules that release a
glue-like epoxy resin that will
automatically repair any
cracks that form in the
sidewalk or roadway.
• In addition, this cement will
have the ability to regulate
heat.
Sensi Tile
• The concrete of the tiles is
embedded with acrylic fiber-
optic channels that transfer
light from one point to another.
• As shadows move across
Terrazzo's surface, the light
channels flicker with a
randomized, twinkling effect.
• Their tiles are available for use
as flooring, in bathrooms and
even ceilings, so you can have
twinkling lights follow you all
over the house.
Electrified Wood
• This European-designed material

incorporates a source of
electricity directly into tables and
chairs.
• Two metal layers are pressed
between the wood of the
furniture, making it possible to
pass an electrical current through
the whole thing.
Transparent Aluminum
Eco – Friendly material
Eco-friendly materials
Eco-Friendly is the act of living with intent. The intent is focused on not
creating harm to environment through interactions.
What is mean by Eco – Friendly technology ?
•Eco-friendly technologies involved making use of alternative energy
source which is abundant to generate renewable energy, reducing the
amount of resource which is limited used through the conventional like
fossil fuel.
•There are various technologies and materials developed by various
research organizations, innovators and manufacturers in India that are
beneficial in the housing construction.
Why eco-friendly materials?
• Phenomenal growth in the construction industry that depends upon

depletable resources.
• Production of building materials leads to irreversible environmental
impacts.
• Using eco-friendly materials is the best way to build a eco-friendly
building.
• Reduce pollution
• Energy conservation
Eco-friendly Building materials
•The eco-friendly building materials
represents a response from the
building sector intended to reduce the
environmental cost of making and
using buildings.
•In the construction industry, selection
of sustainable structural materials
during the design phase leads to move
towards more sustainable
construction. Therefore, there is a
need to select more eco-friendly
building materials to be used in
construction.
Conventional Eco-friendly materials
1. Bamboo, Bamboo Based Particle 10. Ferro-cement Roofing
Board & Ply Board, Bamboo Channels
Matting 11.Fly-ash Sand Lime Bricks and
2. Bricks sun dried Paver Blocks
3. Pre-cast cement concrete blocks, 12.Gypsum Board, Tiles, Plaster,
lintels, slab. Structural and Blocks, gypsum plaster fibre
non-structural modular elements jute/sisal and glass fibre
composites
4. Calcined Phospho-Gypsum Wall
Panels 13.Laminated Wood Plastic
Components
5. Calcium silicate boards and Tiles
14. Marble Mosaic Tiles
6. Cellular Light Weight Concrete
Blocks 15. MDF Boards and Mouldings
7. Cement Paint 16. Micro Concrete Roofing Tiles
8. Clay roofing tiles 17. Particle Boards
9.Ferro-cement boards for door and
window shutters
Eco-friendly House
• An eco-house with a turf roof and solar panel
Automation in Construction
1. Autonomous Machines on the Construction Site
• Perhaps the most common example of
automation in construction is the use of
autonomous machines. These are essentially
self-driving machines that can be used to
transport materials across the work site and to
haul heavy items without posing a risk to
workers.
• For example, machines can be fitted with robotic
technology solutions and sensors that enable
forklifts, diggers, trucks, and other similar
equipment to operate without a driver in the
cabin. By creating relevant paths, providing GPS
capabilities, and programming movement of the
machine itself, construction site workers can
remotely operate machinery and enjoy more
efficient processes.
Examples of automation in Construction Industry
• Roads
Asphalt Mixers and Asphalt Pavers are automatic
machines.
Concrete pavers are used for roadwork.
Use of highly automated hydraulic drill rig for piling has
become common, for all highways and flyovers.
2. Drones to Survey Working Areas and Employees
• Drones are another useful example
of construction automation, allowing
for the automated monitoring of
worksites without the need for active
supervision. Drones can be
programmed to automatically scan
the working area for any potential
hazards, after which signals can be
sent back to a centralised control
system.
• Using drones allows construction
companies to conduct pre-project
inspections and other important site
monitoring activities.
3. Robotics in Concrete Works
• Automation in construction has also found its way to concrete mixing. Control systems and robotics
are being used to mix concrete, lay the cement, polish floors, and remove surface water. This also
allows companies to prepare precast and ready-mixed concrete products that take a much shorter
time to install. Automation reduces material consumption and eliminates the human error that would
otherwise go into concrete works.
• Another area of concrete work that is enjoying the benefits of automation is concrete floor polishing.
Programmable machines are being used to polish soft concrete in both commercial and residential
structures. These machines can be programmed to pour and level concrete in the right portions while
avoiding obstacles near the work zone.
• Demolition robots are also being used to bring down walls and to dismantle concrete slabs. This
often results in lower operational costs and a safer working environment for employees.
• Ready Mix Concrete (RMC)
Few years ago all concrete was prepared on project site. But
today even small concrete plants, say 15 m3/hr. capacity , have
integrated weigh batchers at small and medium size projects.
Concrete batching plants up to a capacity of 750 m3/hr. are
used at large project sites.
The tower crane is an example of automation in material
movement.
At large projects e.g. dams and tunnel construction
automation has happened in the use of earthmoving
equipments, dumpers etc. (10 tons, 25 tons or 30 tons)
4. IoT Sensors to Collect and Process Data
• Sensors are the key devices that make automation possible.
These devices can take real-time readings of location,
temperature, pressure and other conditions. Sensors allow
construction companies to automate many different machines and
robots according to their preferences.
• Sensors can also transmit signals to machines to trigger a specific
action. For example, automation is typically achieved in welding
and fabrication machines through the use of sensors. These
sensors collect important environmental data that can be used to
trigger a relevant action in the welding machine.
5. Virtual Reality During Project Planning and Training
• Virtual reality systems are another example of automation in
construction. These systems allow for construction companies to
plan for a project even before they lay down a single brick.
• Virtual reality simulates a realistic environment that allows builders
to interact with a particular structure using a series of scanned
images. For example, builders can virtually crawl through pipes in
the building to determine if they have enough room for repair and
maintenance.
• Virtual reality is an important form of automation because it uses
programmed 3D scans that are highly accurate and not prone to
human error.
• Survey work (total station software)
• Measurement at site (profile meter )
• Automatic instruments
Future in automation
• Remote control operation
• Robots doing hazardous operations
• Sensors giving out signals for operation, say
automated toll gate on highways
• Network communication of project site, suppliers,
designers etc.
Thank You
Integrated Build Environment
Principles of Planning
Principles of Planning
◻ Plan of building: it is grouping and arrangement of

components of building in a systematic manner so as
to form a homogeneous body with a comprehensive
look out to meet its functional purpose
◻ Planning of building depends on:
◉ Functional object & requirements
◉ Component parts, sizes and inter-relationship
◉ Topography and shape of plot
◉ Climatic condition
◉ Location and neighborhood
Principles of Planning (cont.)
Aspe
ct
Econo Prospe
my ct
Eleganc Privac
e y
Orientation Furniture
requirement
Sanitatio Roomine
n ss
Circulatio Groupin
n g
◻ ASPECT: placement of different rooms of house in
accordance with our activities at different hours of day.
◻ Rooms should get enough sunlight and air, which gives
◉ Cheerful atmosphere
◉ Comfort
◉ Hygienic condition
◻ A room which receives light & air from particular direction

is said to have ‘aspect’ of that direction.
Room Recommended aspect Influencing factor
Bed SW-W-NW To receive plentiful of breeze in
summer
Kitchen E and rarely NE To receive morning sun which is
germicidal. It purifies air. It
should be well illuminated and
cool in afternoon.
Dining SE-S-SW Proximity of kitchen. It should be
cool.
Drawing SE-S-SW-W Adequate natural lighting during
winter, obviate sun during
summer
Reading N-NW Light from north being diffused
and evenly distributed and cool
Store NW-N-NE Dark and cool
Sun Diagram
◻ PROSPECT: it refers to
view as seen of the outside
from the windows and doors
in external walls
◻ It is determined by view as
desired from certain rooms
of house
◉ View of the garden or
a nearby hill
◻ At the same time, it is
naturally intended to conceal
some undesirable views
◻ PRIVACY: privacy can be of

◉ Sight (bath, w/c)
◉ Sound (confidential discussion, study room)
◉ Both sight and sound (bed room)
◻ It broadly classified in two categories i.e.
◉ Internal privacy
◉ External privacy
◻ Internal privacy: it is privacy within building, it can be
achieved by
◉ Correct positioning of doors and openings of shutters
◉ Proper grouping of rooms
◉ Providing buffer area between bed room and other

rooms
◉ Vertical segregation of rooms i.e., by providing
drawing, dining, kitchen, toilet at GF and bed and toilet
at FF
◻ External privacy: it is privacy of whole building with reference
to surroundings (buildings and road)
◻ It can be achieved by
◉ Compound wall to a height of 1.35 to 1.5 m.
◉ Planting trees along compound wall (acts as sound & sight

barrier)
◉ Providing screen walls, curtain walls and dwarf wall on
verandah
◻ FURNITURE
REQUIREMENT:
Planner should know how

much space is needed by
each function
◉ Room sizes can be
completed on basis of
■ permanent furniture to
be used
■ It’s dimensions and
arrangement
■ Clearance for
◻ ROOMINESS: it is feeling created after a room is
well-furnished with all permanent furniture as spacious
and well-planned.
◉ Max use of a room with min possible dimensions
◉ Rectangular room gives better outlook compare to square
room of same floor area.
◉ Length/breadth ratio of 1.2 to 1.5 is desirable
◉ When it exceeds 2, it creates tunnel like feeling
◉ Similarly height also plays imp role
◉ Room should have all proportional dimensions
◉ Light colours create effect of more space
◉ Light and dark colour for different walls of same room
will reduce effect of less width and more length
Roominess is greatly influence by
no and position of doors, windows,
lofts and cupboards
Type of curtain can influence
roominess
Roominess- head room
Meeting room – ceiling is low- a
feeling of close association amongst
people
In court or place of worship-ceiling
is high- to give a feeling of
supremacy
◻ GROUPING: it is arrangement of different rooms with
reference to their functions, it improves comfort, privacy and
convenience and minimises circulation
◻ Points to be considered
◉ Verandah adjacent to drawing room
◉ Dining room close to kitchen
◉ Bed room, toilet and dressing room grouped together
◉ Bath and w/c should be nearer to each other
◉ Staircase should be easily accessible from all rooms
◉ w/c should be away from dining, psychological feeling of being away
from insanitary place
◻ CIRCULATION: it is access into or out of a room, it is
internal movement inside a building
◻ Circulation area shall be straight, short, bright, lighted both
day and night, well ventilated and free from obstructions
◻ It should not affect privacy nor interfere with utility
◻ It is of two types
◉ Horizontal – circulation within same floor
◉ Vertical – circulation between different floors

circulation patterns
◻ SANITATION: it is provision and upkeep of various
components of house to keep inmates cheerful and free from
disease
◻ Factors influence sanitation are
◉ Lighting
◉ Ventilation
◉ Cleanliness
◻ Lighting: natural sunlight or artificial
◉ Intensity of natural light is affected by pollutants like smoke, dirt, dust,
gases and clouds
◉ Min window area = 1/7th floor area (hot-humid climate)
◉ Min window area = 1/10th floor area (dry climate)
◻ Ventilation: a system of supplying or removing air by
natural or mechanical means to or from any enclosed space
to create and maintain comfortable condition
◻ Orientation of building and location of windows help in
providing proper ventilation
◻ Basic requirements in ventilation
◉ Sensation of comfort
◉ Reduction in humidity
◉ Removal of heat
◉ Proper supply of oxygen
◉ Reduction of dust
◻ There are two methods of ventilation
◉ Natural: suitable for houses and flats, achieved by
designing windows and ventilators opposite to each
other.
◉ Artificial: necessary if room is to be occupied by

more than 50 persons or where space per occupant is
less than 3 m3, it is achieved by exhaust system of
supply system.
◻ Cleanliness:
◉ Dust:
■ Harbours bacteria
■ Creates health problems
■ Makes surfaces dull
■ Floors shall be smooth, impervious, non-absorbing,
uniformly sloping
◉ Dampness:
■ Root cause of infection
■ Walls and floors shall be damp-proof
■ Kitchen, bath and w/c shall be drained off quickly
◻ ELEGANCE: is grand appearance of a building,
mainly owing to the elevation which in turn
depends on plan.
◻ Depends on
◉ Elevated site
◉ Architecture
◉ Neighbourhood
◉ Conformity with nature
◉ Adjoining building and relative placement
◻ A better elegance can be obtained by
◉ Superior building materials for facing – like
paint, glass, timber, polished stones –
granite, marble, mosaic etc.
◉ Providing projections – like sunshades,
balconies, porch etc.
◉ Providing bay windows, corner windows
etc.
Elegance
Elegance
Orientation
❖ Position and direction of building
❖ In a school, college or university, orientation preference
is given for the class rooms which should not face noisy
roads and distracting surroundings. Light and ventilation
should be priority
❖ For hospitals
-patient’s wards are in use and need to be comfortable
position and have privacy too.
-outdoor patient departments are public oriented, need
light and comfort
❖ Offices- very densely crowded structures-there should be
proper ventilation and prospect for relaxation
Orientation
◻ ECONOMY: building should have min floor
area with max utility
◻ It should not achieved at the cost of strength
◻ Only with proper planning and utility of space
being maximized (passage being minimized)
◻ Can be achieved by,
◉ Simple elevation
◉ Dispensing of porches, balconies, lobbies
◉ Reducing storey height
◉ Reducing no of steps of stairs
◉ Standardization of sizes of various components

and materials
Building Bye Laws
Building Bye-Laws:
Min provisions designed from National Building

Code (NBC) by town planning authorities/Urban
development authorities/Municipalities, to protect the
safety of public with regarding to structural
sufficiency, fire hazards and health aspects
Building Bye Laws
Objectives of building byelaws
❖Disciplined and systematic growth of buildings and towns.
❖Prevent haphazard development
❖Protect safety of public against fire, noise, health hazards and structural failure.
❖Proper utilization of space.
❖Due to it, each building will have proper approaches, light, air and ventilation.
❖Give guideline to architect/engineer in effective planning.
❖To provide health, safety and comfort to people.

Building Bye Laws
◻ APPLICABILTY of BYE- LAWS:

◉ New construction:
◉ Additions and alterations to a building
◉ Occupancy of building changed
◉ Development of land
◉ Any part or whole building is demolished
Building Bye Laws
Bye-laws/regulations for different types of building:
◉ Line of building frontage ◉ Provisions for drainage

◉ Open spaces around and sanitation
residential building ◉ Provisions for safety of
◉ Min standard dimensions of works against hazards
building elements or accidents
◉ Provisions for lighting and ◉ Requirements for
ventilation off-street parking
spaces
◉ Provisions for safety from
fire and explosion ◉ Requirements for
◉ Provisions for means of greenbelt and
access. landscaping
◉ Sizes of structural elements ◉ Special requirements for
low income group
housing
Building Bye Laws
1. BUILDING FRONTAGE:
◉ it is margin to be left beyond extreme edge of road to front
of building line (including excavations for foundation and
sunshades/ balcony/ projections of super structures)
◉ i.e. it is the width of clearance of land to be left ‘within

the private plot’ to facilitate
■ Widening of roads in future
■ More site dist at corners
■ Minimizing sound pollution
■ To create a buffer space between public (road) and private (plot)
properties
Building Bye Laws
2. Open space requirement
Open space around the building is required to be provided to meet
requirements regarding lighting, ventilation, future expansion and
approach
Open space for front, rear and side yards depend upon height of building and
can be calculated by the formula.
W = Width of open space around the building in m.
W = 3 + (h/10)/3
h = ht. of the building in m. < 25m.
Open space = 3 m. When h< 10m.
But in no case less than 1.8m.
Building Bye Laws
OPEN SPACES
◉ Residential buildings: (up-to 10m height)
■ Front open space
(Road) Width of street Front open space

fronting the plot (m) minimum (m)
Upto 7.5* 1.5*

7.5 to 18 3.0
18 to 30 4.5
Above 30 6.0
Building Bye Laws
■ Rear open space:
Every residential building shall have rear open space

Avg width = 3 m, At no place less than 1.8 m
Can be reduced to
1.5 m for plot width <9m, building ht <7m
■ Side open space:

Detached bldg: min 3m either side
Semi-detached: one side open space 3m
other side open space can be 1.5m
Row-type: no side open spaces
Building Bye Laws
3. Set back distance
It is the distance measured from centre-line of road upto which plinth of
building may extend.
It is provided to facilitate future road widening, parking of vehicles, free
circulation of air etc.
Setback distance is about 1.5 to 1.67 times more for theatres, commercial
complexes, factories than residential building.
Type of road Minimum Setback Distance Ratio of column
Residential Industrial 3 to column 2
Village road 9m 15 m 1.67
Major district road 15 m 24 m 1.60
National or state highway 30 m 45 m 1.50
Building Bye Laws
◻ MIN STD ◉ Area limitation: it is achieved by satisfying
DIMENSIONS of
BLDG ELEMENTS: ‘floor area ratio (FAR)/FSI’
◉ Area limitations
◉ Ht of the building
◉ Plinth ht ■ FAR/FSI = total covered area of all
◉ Requirement of floors(Built up area) / plot area

diff types of room
◉ Parapet wall
◉ Boundary wall ■ For example, if plot size is 15m x 20m,
FAR(FSI) is 2.0 then
- max built-up area on such plot is
- 5 x 20 x 2= 600 sq.m
Building Bye Laws
• Areas included in Carpet Area
• Carpet Area is the area - All Rooms – Living Room,
enclosed within the Bedrooms, Dining Room,
Dressing Room, Other Rooms.
walls, actual area to lay - Kitchen and Bathrooms
the carpet. This area - Stores and Balconies
does not include the
• Areas not included in Carpet
thickness of the inner Area
walls. It is the actual - External and Internal walls
used area of an - Common Areas
apartment.
• Floor Area is same as
Carpet Area.
Building Bye Laws
• Built up Area is the • Areas included in Built
carpet area plus the Up Area/ Plinth Area
thickness of outer walls • Entire carpet area
and the balcony. • Internal and External
• Built Up Area or Plinth Walls
Area is the total covered • Utility Ducts within
area of the apartment or walls of the unit
commercial property
unit.
Building Bye Laws
• Super Built Up Area is • Sometimes it may also

the built up area plus include the common
proportionate area of areas such, swimming
common areas such as pool, garden,
the lobby, lifts shaft, clubhouse, etc.
stairs, etc.
Floor Space Index(F.S.I)/FAR
Floor space index (FSI)/Floor area ratio (FAR) / Floor space ratio (FSR):
Is the ratio of a building's total floor area (gross floor area) to the size of the piece
of land upon which it is built. The terms can also refer to limits imposed on such a
ratio.
Floor Space Index(F.S.I)
FSI regulates by Directorate of Town and Country
Planning (DTCP) department.
They will regulate the FSI value based on city zone, type of
building and other amenities. Construction companies or
builders can only build up to the FSI imposed by the
government.
FSI × Plot Area = Built-up Area

Problem on F.S.I-1
• A plot owner proposed G+1 Storeyed construction with
175 sq.m built up area on each floor .The plot size is 16m
X 21 m. Find the ground coverage and FSI proposed ,if all
side margins are 2m.If the F.S.I allowed in the area is 1.0,
state with reasons whether plan will be sanctioned or
not.
– Ans : F.S.I= 1.04, not sanctioned

Solution
• Plot area = 16 m x 21 m = 336 sq. m.
• Total Built up area = 175 x 2 = 350 sq. m.
• Ground coverage = 12 m x 17 m = 204 sq. m.
• Proposed FSI = 350/336 = 1.042
• FSI proposed > FSI allowed
Ans: - plan will not be sanctioned.
Problem on F.S.I-2
• Determine carpet area per floor of a two storeyed

building from the following data:
– Plot area=800 sq.m
– F.S.I Allowed=1.0
– Ratio of carpet area/built up area= 0.8.
Assume equal built up area per floor.
Ans: 320sq.m
Solution
• Plot area = 800 sq.m.
• FSI = 1.0
• FSI = Built up area/ Plot area
• Built up area = FSI x plot area
= 1 x 800
= 800 sq. m.
• Carpet area/ Built up area = 0.8
• Carpet area = 0.8 x built up area
= 0.8 x 800
= 640 sq.m.
Ans :- carpet area per floor = 640/2 = 320 sq.m.
Problem on F.S.I-3
• Determine the total carpet area of a three
storeyed building from the following data:
– Plot area = 40m X 30m
– F.S.I Allowed=0.9
– Ratio of Carpet area to built up area=0.8
Ans: 864 sq.m
Problem on F.S.I-4
• A plot owner proposed G+1 construction with 175
sq.m construction on each floor, on a plot size of
15m X 20m.If all margins are 2m and FSI allowed=1,
Find: Ground coverage, F.S.I Consumed, Whether
plan will be sanctioned or not. If not, by how much
amount the proposed area will be required to be
reduced by the owner, so that the proposal will be
sanctioned by the authorities.
• Ans:
• F.S.I- 1.17,
• Reduced Area=50 sq.m.
Green Building
Green Building
Green Building
Green Building
Green Building
Green Building
Green Building
Green Building
Green Building
LEED
• LEED – Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design which is a certification
process that provides verification that a
building is environmentally sustainable.
• LEED is a rating system developed by United

State Green Building Council (USGBC).
• LEED is the most widely used green building

rating system in the world, community and
home project types.
Rating System
• Site Planning
• Water Management Energy Management
• Material Use
• Indoor Air Quality
• Innovation and Design Process

Types of Building Quality
Certification
• Certified – 40-49 Points
• Silver – 50-59
• Gold – 60-79
• Platinum – 80 points and above

Green Buildings Project in India
Suzlon ‘one earth’
• One Earth is one of only five buildings in India to be LEED rated
and the first in the state of Maharashtra. It is also the only
building in India with the highest ratings from LEED (Platinum
rating with 57 points which it obtained in 2010) and GRIHA (Five
Star rating with 96 points).
• A hybrid wind (80%)– solar (20%; through
photovoltaic panels)
• 100% rainwater is
harvested, 100% of grey
water
• Essential resources such
as printers, fax machines,
Storage cabinets, the pantry
etc., are located to minimize
unproductive movement.
Top 10 green buildings in India
1. ITC Green Building, Gurgaon(LEED Platinum)
2. Suzlon One Earth, Pune (LEED Platinum), 5 star GRIHA
3. Patni (I-GATE) knowledge Center, Noida (LEED Platinum)
4. Olympia Tech Park, Chennai (LEED Largest Gold)
5. Infinity Benchmark, Kolkata (LEED Platinum)
6. CRISIL House, Mumbai
7. Indira Pryavaran Bhavan, New Delhi (LEED Platinum) 5
star GRIHA
8. ITC Maurya Hotel, New Delhi (LEED Platinum)
9. Infosys, Hyderabad.(LEED Platinum for software
development block 1,2,3)
10. CISCO Building, Banglore (LEED Platinum)
Sustainable Development and
waste management
Sustainable development is a multidimensional concept
which involves continuous decision making of interlinked
issues such as environment, social community and
economy.
Functions of Environment
• Provides resources, raw materials for energy
generation and product manufacturing
• Assimilates wastes generated from energy and
product manufacturing operations
Resource
Processing Energy
Raw
material
Product
Processing
Environment Manufacturing
Waste (Gaseous,
Liquid, Solid)
• There has been a rapid and steady
rise in global energy
consumption ever since the fossil
fuels came into wide spread use.
• We have entered an ‘age’ of rapid
consumption of fossil fuels,
which represents the
photosynthesis of millions of
years ago.
• Per capita consumption of energy
is not the same all over the world.
• Fossil fuels are difficult and
costly to obtain and biomass
constitutes the only source of
energy
Conventional Energy Source
• Those sources of energy
which have been produced in
nature over a very, very long
time and cannot be quickly
replaced when exhausted,
• These are exhaustible and
depleting every day
• It is beyond the capacity of the
global biosphere to absorb the
emissions of a fossil fuel
based energy system.
• Hands on experiment(glass of
water, ink)
• It is necessary to conserve
these sources
Need to Harnessing energies
• Energy consumption of a
nation is usually Global consumption of
considered as an index of
fossil fuels
its development.
• Developmental activities
are directly or indirectly
dependent upon energy.
• Wide disparities in per
capita energy use between
the developed and
developing nations.
Need to Harnessing energies
• It is beyond the capacity of
the global biosphere to absorb
the emissions of a fossil fuel CO2 pollution
based energy system.
• Concentration of CO2 a green
house gas is gradually
increasing in the atmosphere
and is likely to result in abrupt
and catastrophic climatic
disruptions by increasing the
global temperature.
• A reduction can be achieved
by limited use of fossil fuels.
Challenges
The challenge ahead is to meet the growing energy
requirements by developing new technologies that use
energy efficiently and harness the renewable energy
resources economically to ensure equal access to it by
future generations.
1. Growing energy demand
2. Reduced availability of fossil fuel
3. Limited capacity of global biosphere to cope with
the overwhelming pollution due to fossil fuel
consumption.`
Non – Conventional Energy Source
• In the decades ahead,
fossil fuel based
energy system will be
replaced and
ultimately a
sustainable energy
system based on
renewable, clean and
non-polluting energy
resources will operate.
Comparison
Conventional Energy Source Non-Conventional Energy Source
These are Non renewable These are renewable

It will be exhausted one day These are continuously available
Necessary to conserve No need to conserve
Causes more pollution Pollution free
High capital cost
High output in terms of power and efficiency Low output in terms of power and efficiency
Ease of conversion from one form to another Storage and conversion from one form to
another is difficult
Ease in carrying from one place to another Conveyance from one place to another is
difficult
Can be used as input source for large scale Cannot be explored under unfavorable
energy production atmospheric conditions
Environmental pollution- Sustainable
development
• For normal and healthy living a conducive environment is required
by all living beings, including humans, livestock, plants,
micro-organisms and the wildlife.
• The favourable unpolluted environment has a specific composition.
When this composition gets changed by addition of harmful
substances, the environment is called polluted environment.
• Environmental pollution can
be defined as any undesirable
change in the physical, chemical
or biological characteristics of
any component of the environment
(air, water, soil)which can cause
harmful effects on various forms
of life or property.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Development that meets the need of

present generation without comprising the
need of future generation.
Objective Of Sustainable Development
• To improve quality of human life

• To promote equity and fairness
• Sustaining the natural resources
• Protecting ecosystems
• To fulfill international obligations
• Long term planning and implementation
Important measures for SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Pollution
Population control
control
Production
Reduced land use efficient
consumption technology
Integrated land use Biosphere

planning conservation
Water resource Use of renewable

management energy resources
Engineers role in achieving
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
• As in many other professions, there are different kinds of
engineers, including civil, environmental, mechanical,
electrical, chemical, industrial, agricultural, mining, petroleum
and computer engineers.
• Engineers are involved with two kinds of projects:
1. They design and build projects that meet basic human needs
(potable water, food, housing, sanitation, energy,
transportation, communication, resource development and
industrial processing).
2. They solve environmental problems (create waste treatment
facilities, recycle resources, clean up and restore polluted sites
and protect or restore natural ecosystems).
Contribution of Engineer in sustainable
development
• Extracting and developing natural resources
• Processing and modifying resources
• Designing and building transportation
infrastructure
• Meeting the needs of consumers
• Recovering and reusing resources
• Producing and distributing energy
• Managing waste
• It is the process
of examining the
impacts of a
development on
the environment
• But it is also used
to mean the
document that is
the result of the
examination
• Help the decision making process by providing
information about the consequences of development
• Promote sustainable development by identifying
environmentally sound practice & mitigation
measures for developments
Which Developments???
• Major new road networks
• Airport & port developments
• Building dams & reservoirs
• Quarrying
• Large scale housing projects
• Nuclear power plants
• Thermal power plants
Objectives of EIA
• To analyze ill-effects of any upcoming projects

on environment
• To suggest remedial measures to overcome
the adverse impact thus reducing pollution
• To obtain environmental clearance from
concerned authorities like CPCB,SPCB,MOEF
• To select suitable site for project taking in to
consideration impact vs. cost-benefit analysis
Points considered for EIA
• Status of existing environmental condition

( Physical and social)
• Study of project activities
• Suggestions to minimize adverse effects
• Pollution control
• Identifying damages
(Short term-long term, Reversible-irreversible,
Direct-indirect, Local scale- global scale and
quantifying damages)
Matters covered under EIA
• Description of the proposed activities;
• Description of the base environmental and climatic conditions
• Analysis of the
land use and land use change,
waste generation
water consumption
power consumption
Social and health impacts
• An assessment of air pollution and noise generation.
• A risk assessment report and disaster management plan to
mitigate adverse environmental impacts of proposed activity;
• An indication of the likely area to be affected by the proposed
activity or its alternatives;
• A detailed environmental feasibility report of all the
information provided.
Solid Waste Management
What is a solid waste?
• Solid waste is that material which arises from

various human activities and which is
discarded as useless or unwanted.
• The waste in solid and semi-solid forms are
called Solid Waste.
Open dumping at Urali Phursungi
Leachate is the liquid that
drains or 'leaches' from a
landfill.
Impacts of solid waste on health
• Produce foul smell and breed various types of insects.

• Spoils the aesthetics of the site.
• Industrial solid waste affects productivity of land.
• Toxic substance may percolate to pollute surface as
well as ground water.
• Resulted in high algal population in rivers and sea.
• Degrades water and soil quality
• Hazardous waste is injurious to human health as well
as workers who handle and transfer the waste.
Classification of solid waste
Types Of Solid Waste
Garbage Fruit, vegetable and animal
residues
Rubbish Paper, plastic, wood,
1. Combustible- lather, rubber
2. Non combustible- Glass, metal, construction
waste etc.
Ashes and Residues- Material remaining from
burning of wood and coal
Agricultural waste residues from the growing and
processing of raw agricultural
products
Hazardous waste- Chemical, biological, explosives.
Sources and Types of Solid Wastes
Sources of solid wastes in a community are:

• Residential
• Commercial
• Institutional
• Construction and Demolition
• Municipal
• Industrial
• Agricultural
Sources and Types of Solid Wastes
Types of solid wastes Typical facilities, activities, Source
locations where wastes are
generated
Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, Single and multifamily Residential
textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood, dwellings
glass, metals, ashes, special wastes
(e.g., bulky items, consumer electronics,
white goods, batteries, oil, tires), and
household hazardous wastes
Industrial process waste, scrap Light and heavy Industrial

materials, etc. Non - industrial waste manufacturing, fabrication,
including food wastes, construction and construction sites, power and
demolition wastes, rubbish, ashes , chemical plants
hazardous wastes, ashes, special wastes
Types of solid wastes Typical facilities, Source
activities, locations
where wastes are
generated
Paper, cardboard, plastics, Stores, hotels, Commercial

wood, food wastes, glass, restaurants, markets,
metals, special wastes, office buildings, etc.
hazardous wastes
Same as commercial Schools, hospitals, Institutional
prisons, government
centers
Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc. New construction Construction and
sites, road repair, Demolition
renovation sites,
demolition of
buildings, broken
pavement
Types of solid wastes Typical facilities, Source
activities, locations
where wastes are
generated
Table 1: Sources and Types of Solid Wastes within a Community (Cont’d)
Street sweepings; landscape and Street cleaning, Municipal

tree trimmings; general wastes landscaping, parks, Services
from parks, beaches, and other beaches, other (excluding
recreational areas; sludge recreational areas, water treatment facilities)
and wastewater
treatment plants
Spoiled food wastes, agricultural Field and row crops, Agricultural
wastes, rubbish, hazardous waste. orchards, vineyards,
dairies, feedlots, farms,
etc.
Factors affecting the collection of dry
refuse
1. Location of dustbins
2. Collection frequency
3. Population density
4. No. of workers used per dumper
5. Time of collection
6. Collection routes
7. Cost of collection.
Collection methods of Solid waste
A. House to house collection

1. Curb system
2. Alley system
3. Set-out system
4. Set-out-set back system
5. Backyard system
B. Storage bin system
A. House to house collection
Curb system:-
• It is the responsibility of house owner for placing
refuse container at the curb.
• Workmen from refuse vehicles collect and empty the
containers in the vehicles.
Alley system:-
• The container is placed at the alley line from where they
are picked up by workmen from refused vehicles who
deposit back the empty container.
Set-out service:-
• The worker with refused vehicles collect the containers
from individual houses and empty the container in refuse
vehicles .The empty containers are then collected by the
owners.
Set-out-set back system:-
• In this system set out man go to individual, collect the
containers & empty them in refuse vehicles.
• Another group of person return them to house owners yard.
Backyard service:-
• The workers with them carry a bin or wheel barrow etc. to
the yard, empty the refuse container in the bin or wheel
barrow.
• The wheel barrow or bin is then taken to refuse vehicle
where it is emptied.
B. Storage bin system:-
• In this, waste is collected at specific points or
in the bin provided by municipal authorities.
• Bins made up of steel or iron placed at suitable
location.
• The house owner or street sweeper stores the
waste in these bins.
• These wastes are then collected by vehicle and
are taken to disposal site.
These Sorting Facilities are Well
Organized and Materials are Separated for
Further Processing
Separation of Recyclable and Placing
Separately
Recyclables Collected from Scavengers are
Deposited in One Place
Solid Waste Management
It is planned process of
collection, storage,
transportation and
disposal of the solid
waste in such a way that
it will not affect the
environment.
Benefits of Recycling
• USA recycles about 83 million tons of SW

annually.
• This provides an annual benefit of 182 million
metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent
emissions reduced.
• Comparable to removing the emissions from 33
million passenger cars.
• But the ultimate benefits from recycling are
cleaner land, air, and water, overall better health,
and a more sustainable economy.
Waste treatment and disposal
Waste disposal
• Sanitary Landfills
• composting
• Incineration
Sanitary Landfill
• Layer of compacted
waste covered with a
layer of earth once a
day and a thicker layer
when the site is full
• Require impermeable
barriers to stop escape
of leachates: can cause
problem by overflow
• Gases produced by
decomposing garbage
needs venting
• 1 acre/10,000 people:
acute space problem:
wastes piling up over
150 million tons/year;
Problems with landfills…
• Landfills require space
• Produce methane gas (can be used for energy or can cause
climate change)
• Leach-ate must be collected and treated
• Potential for water pollution
• NOT a long-term remedy
Composting
• Due to shortage of space for landfill, the biodegradable waste

is allowed to decompose in an oxygen rich medium.
• This method improves the soil condition and fertility.
Composting: some benefits
Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a
longer period.
1.It supplies part of the 16 essential elements needed by the
plants.
2.It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity,
acidity, or the excessive use of chemical fertilizer.
3.It makes soil easier to cultivate.
4.It helps keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter.
5.It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil
covered.
6.It helps in controlling the growth of weeds in the garden.
INCINERATION (burning):
• Significantly reduces the volume of garbage
• Produces heat energy for generating electricity
• Materials such as batteries, glass etc. are NOT
suitable for incineration
• Causes air pollution
• Creates toxic ash and other solid waste
INCINERATION (burning):
Impacts of solid waste on Environment
• Waste breaks down in landfills to form

methane, a potent greenhouse gas
• Change in climate and destruction of ozone
layer due to waste biodegradable
• Littering, due to waste pollutions, illegal
dumping, Leaching: is a process by which
solid waste enter soil and ground water and
contaminating them.
Preventive Measure
• Proper management of solid waste
• Involving public in plans for waste treatment and disposal
• Provide the public accurate, useful information about the
whole projects, including the risks and maintain formal
communication with public
• Educate people on different ways of handling waste.
• Waste Minimization is a process of reducing waste produce
by individuals, communities and companies, which reduces
the impact of chemical wastes on the environment to the
greatest extent.
• Household level of proper segregation of waste, recycling
and reuse.
• Process and product substitution e.g. use paper bag instead
of plastic bags.
Thumb rules to manage solid waste
E- Waste Management
Electronic waste, popularly known as ‘e-waste’ can be defined as
electronic equipments or products connected with power plug,
batteries which have become obsolete due to:
1. Advancement in technology
2. Changes in fashion, style and status
3. Nearing the end of their useful life.
Increase in E-waste due to
1. Increase in use of electronic and electrical products
2. Use and throw approach in developed and developing
countries.
3. Less resell value.
Classification of e-waste
E-waste encompasses ever growing range of obsolete
products classified as
1. Electronic devices such as computers, servers, main
frames, monitors, TVs & display devices
2. Telecommunication devices such as cellular phones &
pagers, calculators, audio and video devices, printers,
scanners, fax machines, refrigerators, air conditioners,
washing machines, and microwave ovens.
3. Recording devices such as DVDs, CDs, floppies, tapes,
printing cartridges, military electronic waste, automobile
catalytic converters.
4. Electronic components such as chips, processors,
mother boards, printed circuit boards, industrial
electronics such as sensors, alarms, sirens, security
devices, automobile electronic devices.
Composition of E - waste
1. Steel and Iron – 50%
2. Plastic – 21%
3. Non-ferrous metal-13%
( copper, aluminum, silver, gold, platinum)
4. Remaining is lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium etc.
Need of E-Waste Management
• Industrial Revolution.
• Advancement in Information Technology.
• There mismanagement can lead to the pollution.
• From the data collected, in a single year the production is
around 1200 tons of electronic scrap.
• Production of E-Waste is on mass basis in many developed
countries including India.
• This waste is not Eco-friendly.
• Hence there is a need to check this
electronic waste pollution by
proper management.
• It is taking up valuable landfill space.
• E-waste contains hazardous material
Sources of E-Waste
Effects of E-Waste constituent on health
Source of e-waste Constituent Health effects
Solder in printed circuit Lead (PB) Damage to nervous and blood
boards, glass panels and systems. Kidney damage. Affects
gaskets in computer brain development.
monitors
Chip resistors and Cadmium (CD) Toxic irreversible effects.
semiconductors Accumulates in kidney and liver.
Relays and switches, Mercury (Hg) Neural damage. Damage to brain.
printed circuit boards Respiratory and skin disorders.
Front panel of CRTs Barium Muscle weakness, Damage to heart,
(Ba) liver and skin.
Cabling and computer Plastics Immune system damage,

housing including PVC Interfere with regulatory hormones.
Motherboard Beryllium (Be) Lung cancer, Skin diseases such as
warts.
Management Of E-waste
• Due to advancement in techniques the old instruments are
becoming outdated.
• This necessitates implemental management measures.
• India as a developing country needs simpler, low cost technology
for proper management of E-waste.
• In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of
generation.
• Waste minimization in industries involves adopting:
1. inventory management,
2. production-process modification,
3. volume reduction,
4. Recovery and reuse.
Thank You
Reuse Recycle Dispose
• Preventing waste in • Make use of take • The least preferred
the first place is the back programs option is to landfill
preferred mngt • Through recycling electronic waste.
option units are either • This should only
• This can be reused or come as a last
achieved through dismantled for option but care to
repairing,upgrading recycling. consult with state
used electrical • The silver,gold,lead regulations on
equipment and other heavy disposal of any
• Example- adding metal are recyclable hazardous waste.
memory to a
computer,upgrading
software
Air pollution
Air pollution is the presence of harmful gases or
particulates in the air which cause diseases,
damage to other living organisms or the
environment.
Classification of Air pollutants
• Natural and Manmade
• Mobile and Stationary
• Primary and Secondary
• Organic and Inorganic
• Increase in Population
• Deforestation
• Emission from Vehicles
• Rapid Industrialization
• Burning of Fossil Fuels and fires
• Agricultural activities
Green house Effect
Acid Rain
• Acid Rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is
unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of
hydrogen ions (low pH).
• It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and
infrastructure.
• Acid rain is caused by emissions of SO2 and NOx, which react with
the water molecules in the
atmosphere to produce acids.
WATER POLLUTION
• Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies e.g.
lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water
pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly
discharged into water bodies
without adequate
treatment to
remove harmful
compounds
NOISE POLLUTION
• Noise pollution is displeasing human, animal or
machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or
balance of human or animal life.
Noise Pollution Causes by…
• Traffic Noise
• Air craft Noise
• Noise from construction and civil engineering works.
• Noise from the Industries.
• Noise from other sources.
Noise Pollution Effects:
• Hearing Loss
• High Blood Pressure
• Stress
• Sleep Disturbance
Land Pollution
• It is the destruction of Earth's land surfaces through misuse of
land resources by human activities. Polluted land has deposits
of liquid and solid waste such as rubbish, garbage, paper, glass
and plastic objects.
• Land Pollution Causes by…

Accidental Spills
Industrial Accidents
Landfill and illegal dumping
Agricultural practices
Mining and other industries
Oil and fuel dumping
Buried wastes
Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil.

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Complete syllabus

Geotechnical & Structural

Linear measurement, angular measurement in

A. Emission of electromagnetic radiation: The Sun or an EMR source

Super Structure Substructure

Fluid kinetics (Fluids in Fluid kinematics

Roads: According to Location

Expressway National highway State District Village

Earthen Water bound Bituminous or Cement Concrete

Flexible pavement Rigid pavement

Gauges Clear distance between the

Speed Low or medium Higher speed

Right of entry Any automobile Only trains

Classification : Environmental Engineering

Water Supply Sanitary Environmental

Pollution is due to deforestation, industrialization, and urbanization

Before starting any construction work of the structure such as building,

Estimation:-’Estimate’ is a procedure or mathematical method of working

Valuation :- It is a art of assessing the present fair value of a property. It

Scrap Value Salvage Value Market Value Book Value

It enables the engineer to know quantities of various items of the

Quantities of material required can be found out. e.g. no of cement bags,

It helps to raise the funds.

Economical balance of the project can be achieved by the method of

Useful in Buying and Selling of the properties.

Used for security of loans.

Useful to determine the rent and private development.

During an earthquake, the ground may move horizontally in any

Hypocenter:- Earthquakes are produced by sudden release of

Research and development for new materials of construction for better

Revision of rules, regulations and bylaws for more safety.

Preparing and revision of seismic –zone map.

Newer techniques of construction for effective resistance against the

Strengthening the existing structures for seismic loads.

A square or a compact rectangular plan should be adopted.

Provision of tar or concrete road for better communication

Provision of well planned water supply distribution system

Provision of a well planned waste water collection system

Provision of electric power plant

Provision of in land communication lines i.e. telephone lines

Provision of proper landscaping within the area under development

Provision of the open space for garden and playground

Planned growth of the area.

Reduced regional imbalance (between rural & urban area).

Overall economic growth of areas leading to the advancement

All sectors of economy get boost via services, manufacturing

Development of New Mumbai or Vashi Area

Nigadi Pradhikaran in Pune.

Balewadi Stadium near Pune.

Many projects pertaining to different fields required engineers of different

3. Catchment area studies – rainfall measurement and collection

7. Estimate – cost of project, compensation to land owners, helps to raise funds

10. Structural design – foundation, retaining wall and spillway

11. Construction and execution

Design of transformers and electricity distribution system : electrical engineer

Hydraulic and geotechnical instruments : Instrumentation engineer

Design of control panel, process automation : Electronics engineer

Design software : computer engineer

•Management – Art as well as science

• A project life cycle is a collection of

• A deliverable is a product or service

• No enterprise can survive without mgmt – huge money,

• The three levels of management typically found in an organization are low-level

• Resource management is the process

2 1.556 0.550 464.425

3 0.965 3.655 2.105 462.320 C.P.I

4 3.015 1.400 0.435 461.885 C.P.II