MODULE 2

 PHARMACOGNOSY
 BIOCHEMISTRY
PHARMACOGNOSY
I. INTRODUCTION Indigenous  plant grows in their native countries
PHARMACOGNOSY is applied science that deals w/ the biological, Naturalized  grew in foreign land other than their native countries
biochemical & economic features of drugs of Natural Substances  found in nature that comprise whole plants & herbs
biologic origin & their constituents. Derivatives/ Extractives  refers to single substance/s which are considered
 the discipline of medicinal chemistry as chief constituents of the drugs
 study of drugs of biologic origin CRUDE DRUGS  vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances
Focuses: 1. Identification of plants and animals that have undergone only the presence of COLLECTION &
DRYING.
2. Chemistry
DRUG CONSTITUENTS
3. Evaluation, preservation & use or
application of crude drugs Natural  directly obtained from nature
4. Toxicology  Ex: Camphor from Camphor Plants
5. History, distribution, collection and Semi-synthetic from chemical modification of a natural constituent
selection Ex: Camphor  pinene  pine trees
6. Preparation and commerce Totally Synthetic manufactures from chemical synthesis
Three disciplines (Basic) devoted to drugs Ex: Camphor from Cyclopentacliene
1. Pharmacology  which dealt w/ drug actions & effects
2. Pharmacognosy  covering all information on medicines PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
from natural sources plants, animals, Collection  select the species to cultivate
& microorganism
Harvesting  gathering the samples at a specific & proper period or
3. Medicinal Chemistry  the science of synthetic drugs
season
Constituents:
 manual labor or mechanical devices
1. Active Constituents  compounds that are responsible for
Drying  removal of moisture
the therapeutic effect.
 -bacterial & fungal growth
2. Inert Constituent  are differentiated to active
 -hydrolysis
constituents
 facilitates milling & grinding
 have no pharmacologic activity
 Examples: Cellulose, Starch, Lignin,  remove bulk  convert the drug to a form that is
Albumin, Suberin, more convenient for handling.
Coloring matter  fixes the constituent
Secondary Constituents  ensure good keeping qualities
 are influenced by three principal factors Curing  special drying process
1. Heredity (genetic composition)  drying + curing agent
2. Ontogeny (Stage of Development)  enhance the properties of the active ingredient
3. Environmental Factors  can produce variations  ex: Cascara sagrada
in secondary plant
reduced glycosides MgO x 1 yr oxidized glycoside
constituents include soil,
(irritating) (less irritating)
climate, associated flora,
& methods of cultivation Garbling final step in the preparation of crude drugs
Drug Biosynthesis/ Biogenesis  study of the biochemical physical process of removing extraneous material
pathways leading to the Packaging, storage, preservation
formation of secondary for protection & marketability
constituents used as drugs. Preservation of Crude Drugs:
Exposure of the drug to 65C Temperature  simplest form in preventing
BRIEF HISTORY insect attacks & other form of destruction
Papyrus Ebers  Egyptian document Methyl Bromide  is used in the fumigation of large lots of crude drugs
 Details the use of plant & animals in medicine Chloroform (Carbon Tetrachloride)  used to control Insect Attack by
 By George Ebers adding few drops to the container
Dioscorides  Greek Physician Methods of Evaluation of Crude Drugs
 De Materia Medica Organoleptic or morphological (leaves, barks, roots, stem)
description of ~600 medicinal plants

 color, odor, taste, size, shape, & special features,
Claudius Galen Greek pharmacist-physician
 “Galenical Pharmacy” like touch, texture
method of processes of preparing Microscopic  detects cellular tissues, trichomes, stomata, starch
formulas containing animal & plant drugs granules, calcium oxalate crystals aleurone grains
C.A. Sydler  Coined the term Pharmacognosy Chemical  isolation, purification, identification
 pharmakon “drug”
Physical  moisture contents, specific gravity, optical rotation,
 gnosis “knowledge”

refractive, melting point, viscosity, & solubility
J.A. Schmidth First one to use the term Pharmacognosy in
literature Biological  antifertility activity, anti ulcers activity, etc.
Joseph  French Pharmacist
Caventou  Quinine w/ the collaboration of Pelletiere CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
Pierre  Phytochemist Morphologic  Based on the part used
Robiquet  Codein Classification  Ex: Root crop, seed gums, etc
 Narcotine
Taxonomic  Based on the natural relationship or
Rudolf Brandes  German Pharmacist
 Hyoscyamine
Classification phylogeny
Philip Geiger  Atropine w/ the collaboration of Rudolf Brandes  Ex: Plant Families: Rutaceae
Theophrastus  Father of Botany Pharmacologic  Based on therapeutic activity
Classification  Ex: Hallucinogens, Anticholinergic
Chemical  Based on the chemical class of the
Classification constituents
II. CARBOHYDRATES & RELATED COMPOUNDS A. Monosaccharides  simplest CHO units
Carbohydrates  most abundant group of organic molecules in  cannot by hydrolyzed into simpler sugar
nature  undergoes mutarotation
 is the first product formed during Photosynthesis 1. Diose (2C)  Hydroxyacetaldehyde
2. Triose (3C)
First product of synthesis is Glucose  Aldotriose: Glyceraldehydes
 Ketotriose: Dihydroxyacetone
Polyhydric aldehydes & Ketones 3. Tetrose (4C) – Erythrose
Aldehyde: RCOH 4. Pentose (5C)
Ketones: RCOR ▪Ribose  aldopentose
product of gum hydrolysis
Contain C, H, O in the Empiric Formula
found in RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
▪Ribulose Ketopentose
Functions: -Source of Energy (Glucose
▪Xylose  Aldopentose
-Storage of Energy
 “wood sugar”
Plants: STARCH
from woody part of plant
Animals: GLYCOGEN
 not found free –Xylan Polymer
-Cell components: Glycoproteins
-Structural Component: Cellulose, Chitin diagnostic aid for intestinal absorption
absorbed by not metabolized
Classes: Sugar: Monosaccharides ▪Xylulose – Ketopentose
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides Test for Pentoses:
-Bials Test
Anthrone Test  general test for Carbohydrate -Benzidine Test
which yields a blue or green solution 5. Hexose (6C)  most important monosaccharides
▪Glucose – aka Dextrose
Energy: 1 gram of Carbohydrate = 4 kcal of Energy  Aldohexose
 aka “grape sugar”
“physiologic sugar”
“blood sugar”
“corn sugar”
 -D-glucose  most abundant in nature
 primary product of photosynthesis
 controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
 nutrient
 Normal value in the blood: 80-120mg%
Preparation (Forms) –Glucose
Dextrose excipient  crystalline dextrose
monohydrate
 less rigrous purification
 pharmaceutic necessity
Liquid glucose  product of incomplete (acid)
hydrolysis of starch
Dextrates  mixture of saccharides 93% dextrose
 pharmaceutic necessity
▪Fructose  aka Levulose
 Ketohexose –Seliwanoff Test
 “Fruit Sugar” (from Honey); “Sweetest Sugar”
 sweetest sugar but bitter after taste
 from the inversion of aqueous solutions of
Sucrose  Glucose + Fructose
 from hydrolysis of inulin (fructose polymer)
 nutrient
 high fructose sweetener
=from glucose glucose isomerase fructose
Streptomyces spp.
▪Galactose  aldohexose
 “Brain Sugar”
 most rapidly absorbed from the small intestines
 C4 epimers w/ glucose
 found in milk (lactose = glucose + galactose)
Nerve Fibers compose of Galactose
6. Heptose (7C) – Sedoheptulose
7. Nonose (8C) – Sialic Acid (or neuraminic acid)
B. Disaccharides  two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bond C. Oligosaccharides  3-10 monosaccharide units
1. Sucrose  “Table Sugar”; “Invert Sugar” 1. Maltose  3 glucose units (-1,4)
 glucose + fructose ( 1,2) intermediate product of acid hydrolysis
 non-reducing sugar (no free carbonyl)
 is the only disaccharide that occurs in free state 2. Dextrin several glucose units
almost disaccharides are bound  responsible for the browning of bread
 Sources: -Sugar Beets (Beta vulgaris)  product of partial hydrolysis o starch
cut into limpsilver = Cosettes
-Sugar Cane (Saccharum officinarum)
-Sugar Mapple (Acer saccharum)
 Preparation: 1. Sugar Cane Juice is boiled w/ Lime
Lime  basic compound
neutralize plant acids
 coagulate albumins
 Uses: ▪Pharmaceutic Necessity
Syrup, NF mask disagreeable taste of drugs
85% sucrose
sufficient bacteriostatic
sel-preserving
▪Demulcent
▪Nutrient
Saccharose  is almost universally distributes sugar in
green leaves & in stems
Invert Sugar  is darker & sweeter than sucrose
2. Maltose Malt Sugar
 Glucose + Glucose ( -1,4)
 reducing sugar
 major degradation product of starch hydrolysis
3. Lactose  Milk Sugar
 Glucose + Galactose ( -1,4)
 reducing sugar
found in cow’s milk (Bos Taurus)
Uses: ▪Tablet diluent
▪Infant feeding (nutrient)
establishes normal gul flora
(Lactobacillus spp.)
4. Milk Products
Whole Milk
-churned

Butter
Buttermilk
Separation

Cream
Skimmed Milk
Rennin

Whey
Coagulum treated Cheese
▪Condensed Milk  partial evaporation in vacuum &
consequent sterilization
sterilized, sealed in hermetic
container by autoclaving
▪Malted Milk  evaporated w/ Malted Extract
▪Kumyss fermented Milk
▪Whey  the liquid separated from coagulum
 liquid left after skimmed milk is treated w/
rennin
▪Rancid Flavor of Butter left at room temperature
is due to Butyric Acid
5. Lactulose (Duphalac®, Lilac®)
 semisynthetic sugar, from the alkaline rearrangement of
lactose
 Fructose + Galactose (-1,4)
 laxative, to reduce straining in defecation
 MOA: SI: Not absorbed.
LI: Lactulose is fermented by bacteria to lactic acid
& acetic acid
laxative action
D. Polysaccharides  “glycans”
 complex, high MW polymer of monosaccharides
1) Homoglycans  only 1 type of monosaccharide
1. Cellulose  structural polysaccharides in plant; -1,4
 dietary fiber
 makes up the cell wall of plants
 Forms: Purified Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
Powdered Cellulose
Microcrystalline Cellulose Forms of starch:
Purified Rayon ▪Starch paste – dispersing starch in
Cellulose Derivatives: cold water
-Methylcellulsoe
-Ethylcellulose boiled granules swell & rupture
-Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose resulting to
-Pyroxylin: Soluble guncotton/ translucent
Cellulose Trinitrate mixtures solution
to make collodions ▪Pregelatinized Starch –all the granules have been
ruptured in the presence of
 obtained by the action of
water
nitric & sulfuric acid in
serve as plasma expander in
cotton
 Collodion = Pyroxylin + Ether/ Alcohol
6% concentration
 Flexible Collodion = Collodion + ▪Hetastarin –water-soluble form;
3% Castor oil+  >90% amylopectin;
Camphor  plasma expander
-Cellulose acetate phthalate
-Caboxymethylcellulose
2. Chitin  structural polysaccharides in animals & fungi
 homopolyglycan of N-acetylglucosamine
Galacturonic Acid  present in Chitin that cannot be ▪Sodium Starch Glycolate – a semisynthetic sodium
found in cellulose salt of carboxymethyl
3. Starch  Storage of Polysaccharide In plants ether of starch
 reserve carbohydrate of plants – disintegrating agent in
components: tablet formation
Amylose Amylopectin ▪Glutens – tacky proteins removed from corn & wheat
-amylose -amylose in the preparation of starch
Linearity Linear Branched 4. Glycogen – storage polysaccharides in animals
- 1,4 (every 25-30 units) more branched than starch
- 1,4 & -1,6 (branches every 10 units)
Solubility Less soluble More soluble in  stored in the liver & skeletal muscles
in H2O in water water  similar structure w/ Amylopectin
Size 250-300 >1000 units 5. Inulin  Polyfructan
units  abundant in the substance
Iodine Dark-blue Blue-violet members of family Asteraceae
Iodine Test  confirmatory test for starch  Improve digestion
 consists of a greater proportion of amylopectin than  used in culture media as a fermentative identifying
amylase agent for certain bacteria & in spinal laboratory
Amylose  hydrolysis product of starch methods for the evaluation of renal function
responsible for forming a Diagnostic aid to estimate GFR
dark complex w/ Iodine (Glomerular filtration rate)
*-amylaseenzyme in pancreatic juice & saliva -filtration
*-amylaseremoves maltose units from the -reabsorption
non-reducing ends of -secretion
polysaccharide molecules 6. Dextran – homopolyglycan -1,6
 usually isolated from: Rhizome  from sucrose by the action of transglycolase
Fruit enzyme system in Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Seed  plasma expander
Official Sources of Starch:  iron dextran – hematin IV/IM
▪Corn ( Zea mays) 2) Heteroglycan  more than one type of polysaccharides
▪Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Ex: D-gluco – D-mannan
▪Rice (Oryza sativa)
▪Wheat ( Triticum aestivum)
Unofficial Sources of Starch:
▪Arrow root ( Maranta Arundinacea)
Uses of Starch:
Dusting powder
Tablet-diluent,binding,(starch paste)
Tablet disintegrant
Antidote for iodine toxicity
E. Metabolically-related Drugs
1. Acids
Cherry juice – Prunus cerasus
 Malic Juice
 to make cherry syrup
Citric acid – tricarboxylic acid
COOH
HO COOH
COOH
 lemon juice; -first isolated by Scheele
 buffer, acidulants in effervescent formulations
 salt = Systemic Alkalinizer – Potassium Citrate
(Acalka®)
Anticoagulant – Citrated Tubes
Lactic Acid  Alpha Hydroxy Propionic Acid
– lactic fermentation of sugars
 acidulant in infant feeding formulation
 substance accumulates in the muscle as a
result of vigorous exercise
Tartaric Acid – dicarboxylic acid
 by product of the wine industry
buffer,acidulant in effervescent formulation
 Denige’s Test – used to differentiate
citric & tartaric acids
(citrates & tartrates)
Sugar Acids  produce from the oxidation of Disaccahrides &
Monosaccharides (except sucrose)
Aldonic Acid  produce from the oxidation of sugar’s
aldehyde group (group 1)
Oxalic Acid  an organic acid found in fruits of
Averboa balimbi
is used as Bleaching Agent
Acetic Acid  laxative action; used as Food Preservative
Concentrated Acid  change monosaccharide to Furfural
2. Alcohols
Ethanol  >92.3% by weight,
94.9% volume of ethyl alcohol at 15.56C
 from fermentation & distillation
 70% = localanti-infectives
Diluted alcohol – 48.4 to 49.5 % ethanol at 15.56C
Distilled Spirits: (produced by Distillation)
Brandy – distilled fromWine
Whiskey – distilled from Malted Grain
Rum – distilled from Molasses

*Molasses  is the residual dark colored syrup left

upon crystallization of sucrose.
*Wine is sometime used medicinally as a mild
stimulant & tonic
*Whiskey & Brandy  CNS Depressant
*In making Wine,
Tannin  acts as Clarifying Agent
Yeast  acts as enzyme for fermentation.
Mannitol – manna –dried saccharine
exudates of Fraximus ornus
 laxative property: PO
 osmotic diuretic: Parenteral
decrease intracranial
pressure
usual diagnostic dose of Mannitol Injection:
200mg/kg body weight in a 15-25%solution IV in
3-5 minutes
Sorbitol  D- glucitol
 mountain ash (Gorbus acuparia)
 half as sweet as sucrose
 humectants,non caloric sweeteners
 osmotic laxative at high doses
 accumulates in lenses of diabetics & produces
cataracts
F. GUMS & MUCILAGES Carrageenan  highly-sulfated polygalactans
Gums  natural plant hydrocolloids  Chondrus (C. crispus)
-non-ionic  Irish Moss (Gigartina mamillosa)
-anionic: Ca or Mg Salts  Stabilizer, gelling agent
 transluscent & amorphous – closely related hydrocolloids that are obtained
 swells when dispersed in water to form gels from various red algae ore sea weed
product of plat injury as a protective  toothpaste
 readily dissolve in H2O KAPPA () IOTA() LAMBDA()
 precipitated by alcohol & lead acetate Stable Helix Stable Helix No stable
Gums Mucilages Gelling agent Gelling agent helix
readily soluble form slimy Non-gelling
agent
in H2O masses in H2O Thickener
pathologic physiologic Danish Agar, Furcellaran  Furcellaria fastigiata
products products  similar to -carragenan
gelling agent
1) Shrub & Tree exudates
Tragacanth – Gum Tragacanth 3) Seed Gums
 Astragalus gummifer Plantago or Psyllium Seed (Metamucil®, C-lium®)
Bassorin -2/3 H2O -sweet Spanish/ French Platago psyllium, Psyllium indica
Tragacanthin -1/3 H2O -dissolve Indian/ Blorde – Plantago ovate
Bassorin – swelling property of Tragacanth  ripe seed coat  bulk laxative
 60-70% present In Tragacanth swells in water
 swells in the presence of water Cydonium  Quince Seed
but does not dissolve  Cydonia vulgaris
Tragacanthin – composes the 30% of the  thixotropic hydrocolloid
gum which is more water Guar gum  endosperm of guaran (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus)
soluble component  galactomannan
 most acid-resistant hydrocolloid  bulk laxative
 suspending agent (5-6%) emulsifying agent  thickener, disintegrant
Vermifrom Tragacanth Ribbon & flake
Sorts Locust Bean Gum  endosperm of carob or St. John’ Bread
Source Natural Natural Man-made (Ceratonia siliqua)
injuries injuries transverse  galactomannan
incision of  thickener, stabilizer; chocolate substitute
main stem of
branches
4) Microbial Gum
Appearance Worm-like, Irregular Ribbon-like,  Xanthan Gum  high molecular weight gum
twisted into tear flaked from the action of
coils shaped Xanthomonas campestris
Color Yellowish Yellowish Clear on a suitable CHO.
brown brown (preferred
grades
 pseudoplastic flow
Acacia  Egyptian gum, Gum Arabic  toothpaste & ointment
hold/ retain shape, spread easily
 Acacia Senegal
Dextran Gum
 Arabin = Ca, Mg, K salts of Arabic Acid
5) Plant Exudates – Pectin
 swell in water
Pectin  intercellular cementing material
 Stable below 60% alcohol  general term for a group of polysaccharides present on
 low-viscosity, but stable in wide pH range 2-10 the primary cell wall & intercellular cement
 suspending agent (35-38%)  fruit rinds
Demulcent, emollient, adhesive & binder  from dilute acid hydrolysis (H2SO4) of fruit rinds
Ghatti Gum  Indian Gum is precipitated from the solution by an excess of alcohol
is more stable in cold acid solution
 Anogienssus latifolia
 Sources:
 more viscous than acacia; substitute for acacia Pomelo  Citrus grandis
Karaya Gum  Sterculia Gum Orange  C. aurantum
 Sterculia urens, S. villosa, S. tragantha Dalanghita  C. nobilis
 bulk laxative, emulsifying, suspending Ponkan  C. sinensis
 one of the least soluble plant gums Calamansi  C. microcarpa
 swells in water  discontinuous mucilage Grapefruit  C. paradise
Lemon  C. limon
Apple pomace  Pyrus malus
2) Marine Gums
 Forms:
Algin  Sodium alginate Protopectin Unripe fruit Acid heat
 Macrocystis pyrifera Pectin Soluble from, Propectose
 suspending agent ripe fruit
Agar Japanese Isinglass Pectinic Acid Overripe fruit
 Gellidium cartilagenium Uses: Protectant
Suspending Agent
 Gracilaria confervoides Kaolin-pectin mixture = antidiarrheal
Rhabdophycacea coat the toxin
Agarose sulfate Protopectase  attacks protopectin yielding soluble
Agropectin sulfate pectin
Exudate  natural product of plant injury
 laxative, suspending & gelling agent, solid bacteriostatic 6) Starch & cellulose Derivatives
III. GLYCOSIDES

Glycosides  plant constituents which produce sugars upon hydrolysis

 Components:
Glycone Aglycone B. Cardiac Glycosides
(Genin)  have low margin of safety.
Sugar component Non-sugar component *Toxicity is more likely in the presence of Hypokalemia.
Common denominator Basis for classification   Test for Cardiac Glycosides:
Inactive Therapeutically active - Baljet’s Test
 (Beta) – only form of Glycoside that occurs in plants - Legal’s Test
 yield sugars as product of hydrolysis - Keller-Keliani’s Test
 are condensation product of sugar w/ various organic aglycone: steroidal
hydroxyl compounds  test: Lieberman- Bustard Test
 has beta--D-glucose as its most frequently occurring sugar Salkowski Test
 C, S, N; O – glycosides Cardenolides Bufadienolides
”sugar ether” (R-O-R) More common Less common
 Ether Bond From toad skin (Bufo spp.)
Anthocyanins  pigments of flowers which is of Glycosidic Optimum activity Less activity
character C23 C24
Glycone: 2 deoxysugar
Test: Keller-kellani test
A. Anthraquinone Exert action on the cardiac
 Aglycone: Anthraquinone  Borntragers test muscles:
 derivatives are colored orange-red + inotropic -cardiac
 Penicillium islandium –used to study these glycosides contractility
 commonly used as cathartics chromotropic - cardiac
1. Cascara Sagrada  sacred bark (Rhamnus Purshianus) rate
 Cascaroides A,B – optical isomers of Barbaloin MOA: Na-K ATPase pump
C,D – optical isomers of Chrysaloin USE: for Heart Failure
– has reduced
 Lane’s pills: Casanthrol 1. Digitalis fox glove (D. purpurea)
cured with MgO x 1yr  Grecian Foxglove (D. lanata)
Magnesium oxide – used to treat Cascara Constituents:
Sagrada Extract to reduce ▪Digoxin  water soluble
its bitter taste.  easy to control in TDM
2. Frangula  Blackthorn bark (Rhamnus frangula) (Therapeutic Drug Monitoring)
 Movicol = Frangula + Karaya Gum  0.5 to 2 mg/mL
3. Aloe – dried latex or juice of the leave of: ▪Digitoxin  lipophilic
Curacao Aloe: A. barbadensis, A. vera  computely absorbed
Cape Aloe: A. spicata, A. ferox  most powerful glycoside for digitalis
 constituents:  most lipid-soluble of the cardiac glycoside
 chief principle: used in therapeutics
-barbaloin (Aloin A)  long half-life (increase for toxicity)
-Isobarbaloin (Aloin B)  1 digitoxigenin – aglycone
 aloin  C-glycoside 3 digitoxone – glycone
aloe-emodin  O-glycoside ▪Des-acetyllanatoside (Deslanoside)
Uses: Cathartics initial rapid loading of digitalis
Pharmaceutical aid in compound Benzoin Tincture digitalization
Management of burn wounds (Aloe vera gel) Deslanoside is more soluble than Lanatoside
4. Rhubarb – dried rhizome/ root 2. Convallaria  Lily of the Valley (C. majalis)
Chinese/medicinal – Rheum officinale, R. palmatum convallatoxin
Ornamental – R. rhaponatum 3. Apocymum  Black Indian hemp (A. cannabinum)
Indian/ Himalayan – R. emodi, R. webbianum
cymarin
 Principal Constituent: Rhein Anthrone 4. Adonis – Pheasant’s Eye (A. vernaliz)
5. Senna (Senokot®) – cultivated on lands resembling rice paddies  adonitoxin
 dried leaflets of 5. Cactus Grandi florus – Night blooming cereus
tinnevelley senna – whole leaves of (Selenereus grandiflorus)
Cassia Angustifolia 6. Black Hellebore – Helle borus niger = Christmas nose
alexandria senna – broken leaves of  hellebrin
Cassia acutifolia
7. Strophantus – S. kombe, S. hispidus, S. gratus, Acokanthera shimperi
contains Senosides A & B K- Strophantin – less toxic
Sennoside is amore potent laxative than G-Strophantin  toxic form (Ouabain)
Cascara Sagrada 8. Squill bulb – Mediterranean/ White Squill: Urginea maritima
6. Chrysarobin  mixture of neutral principles  Indian: Urginea indica
from Goa powder (Andira avaroba) Sullarenin - bufadenolide
Hot Benzene– is used to extract 50-70% yield
Chrysarobin from Goa powder
Not a Cathartic, keratolytic, when dissolve in benzene
C. Cyanophore/ Cyanogenic Glycosides
cyanogenic = produce CN upon hydrolysis E.Isothiocyanate Glycoside
 rosaceous plants (Rosacease)  mustard glycosides
 Test: Guignard Test  glucosinolate
 Amygdalin – most common cyanophore glycosides  Cruciferus plants (Brassicaceae)
 Emulsin – composite enzyme (found in almonds; causes  extracted via Expression
 cause hydrolysis of -glucoside 1. Black Mustard – Sinapis Nigra
 Brassica Nigra
Amygdalin Sinigrin Myrosin Allyl Isothiocyanate
Amygdalase  (mustard volatile oil)
Prunasin 2. White Mustard – Sinapis alba
Prunase   Brassica alba
Mandelonitrile  less volatile
Amygdalin  hydrolyzed into Glucose, Benzaldehyde, & Sinalbin Myrosin Acrinyl Isothiocyanate
Hydrogen Cyanide pungent –tasting oil
Vitamin B17 (aka Amygdalin)
 flavoring agent
 useful for SCA (sickle cell anemia) F. Flavonol Glycosides
 Laetrile (Vitamin B17)  aglycone: Flavonoids
Amygdalin  yellow pigment: rutin, quercitin
Anticancer claims  citrus bioflavanoids: hesperidin, hesperitin, haringen
Sources: Cherry – Prunus serotina  common colds
Apricots – Prunus armeniaca  are abundant in the ff plant families:
Almonds – Prunus amygdalus - Polygoneaceae
Barley – Hordeum Vulgare - Rutaceae
- Umbelliferae
 Vitamin P – permeability factor
D. Saponin Glycosides  rutin + hespiridin
 bitter acid taste; from colloidal solutions in water  treat capillary fragility
froth upon shaking: ID test – Froth Test  Elin (Ulmus sp.) – quercitin
Other tests: Hemolysis Test  Milk thistle (Sylibum marianum) hepatoprotectant
Capillary Tube Test Silibium (treatment of liver ailments)
stermulatory = irritate mucosal membranes Sylimarin
 lyse RBS (especially in Cold-blooded animals)  Ginkgo biloba (G. biloba)
Test: Blood agar plate hemolysis test Ginkgolides, bilobalides
aglycone steroidal sapogenins: memory enhancer
neutral or acidic has a drug-herb interaction w/ ASA
Liebermann-Burchard’s test
Precursor for Steroids Synthesis
 two types based on their Sapogenins or aglycones: G. Alcohol
-Neutral Saponin – are derivatives of steroids 1. Salicin– Saligenin + D-glucose
-Acid Saponin – possess triterpenoid structures (salicin alcohol)
1. Glycirrhiza  Spanish licorice: Glycirrhiza glabra produced by the hydrolysis of Salicin by Emulsin
Russian licorice: G. glabra variety – Glandu lifera Salicin Emulsin Saligenin + -D-glucose
 glycyrrhizin, glycirrhizic acid  Willow bark (Salix purpurea)
 sweeteners; flavorant (Salix fragilis)
 disguise the bitter taste of Quinine by paralyzing the  Antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory
taste buds. 2. Populin  Poplar Bark (Populus spp.)
 demulcent; expectorant
 anti-inflammatory properties: PUD
-Peptic ulcer disease H. Aldehyde
Addison’s Disease 1. Vanilla  Vanilla planifolia: Mexican vera cruz
-decrease hormone Bourbon vanilla
production
Vanilla tahitensis: Tahitian vanilla
 Contraindicated w/ CHF (congestive heart failure)
 Vanillin as Glucovanillin or
& HTN (hypertension)
Glucovanillic acid
it cause Na & H2O retention
 Flavoring Agent
2. Dioscorea – Mexicom vam (Dioscorea floribunda)
 Synthetic analogue ethylvanillin
 Diosgenin: Anti-inflammatory,
precursor for steroids synthesis
 botogenin, hecogenin
3. Agave (A. cantalla) – fiber, hecagenin, manogenin, gifogenin
molluscide
4. Similax – Sarsa pogenin; smilagenin
5. Strophantus – sarmantogenin
6. Ginseng – source: American – Panax quinquefolus
Asian – Panax ginseng
 Panoxosides, Gensenosides, Chikuse/ susaponins
 adaptogen
I. Lactone Glycosides
1. Coumarin  lactone of -hydroxycinnamic acid
 fragrant odor, bitter aromatic, burning taste
 Tonka Beans (Dipterex adorata)
 flavoring agent
2.Bishydoxy coumarin/ Dicumarol
 improperly cured leaves of sweet clover Melilotus officinalis
 first oral anticoagulant, precursor of warfarin
3. Cantharide  Spanish/ Russian/ Blistering Flies
(Cantharis vesicatoria)
 Cantharidin – Vesicating principle
 Irritant, vesicant  remove warts
urgenital tract priapism
 aphrodisiac
4. Psoralens  Photosensitizing furocoumarin
 Family: Rutaceae & Apiaceae
 Bishop’s Flowers – Ammi majus
 Methoxsalen : Xanthotoxin
 Uses: Repigmentation in vertigo
For symptomatic psoriasis
5. Santorin  Artemisia cing, Amaritima
 Antihelminthic, Toxic
6. Isoflavones  Soybean (Glycine soja)
 phytoestrogens – bind to estrogen receptors
alleviate menopausal symptoms
7. Skimmin
8. Aesculin

J. Phenol Glycosides
1. Uva ursi  Bearberry ( Archtostaphylo uva ursi)
Arbutin
available in the form of herbal teas
 diuretic, astringent
2. Poison- Ivy & Oak  Rhus spp.
Urushiol  a non-volatile principle producing
allergic symptoms
– cause delayed contact dermatitis

(Other) Phenol glycosides:

Arbutin (from uva ursi)
Hesperidin (from citrus fruits)
Phlrodzin (from root barks of rosaceous plants)
Baptisin (from Baptisia)
Iridin (from Iris Species)
IV. Tannins
Tannins  non-crystallizable hydrocolloid mixture of polyphenols
 amorphous, polyhydroxy-phenolic compounds
 form colloidal solutions in water
 acid puckering taste (astringent taste)
 precipitated by Cu, Pb, Cr2O72
 precipitated gelatin, alkaloids
 astringent – precipitate proteins
 carcinogenic potential
 alkaloidal Antidote
 groups of compounds that make s wood darker in color
 produced Deep Red w/ Potassium Ferricyanide & Ammonia
 animal hide tanningleather

tannins
Hydolyzable Non-hydrolyzable
Other names Pyrogallotannins Phlobatanins
condensed
Hydrolytic Pyrogallol X
products (given soluble Phlobaphenes
compounds w/ red polymerization
lead acetate) products
FeCl3 Blueblack Greenblack
Leather Type Bloom Leather Tanner’s Red
Br2 () (+)

 Hydrolyazable Tannins  consist of gallic acid or related polyhydric

compounds esterified w/ glucose
 Nonhydrolyzable Tanninc  most result from the condensation of 2 or
more polyhydric compounds esterified w/
glucose

1. Hamamelis  Witch Hazel leaves (Hamamelis virginiana)

 hamamelitannin
 astringent, hemostatic
hemorrhoidal preparations
insect bites & stings
teething preparations
2. Nutgall  hardened excrescence from the
young twigs of Quercus infetoria,
when a hymenopherous insect (Cynips tinctora) bores
holes to deposit ova
Tannic Acid (Gallotannic Acid)  is a mixture of esters of
gallic acid w/ glucose
principal constituent of Nutgall
used as astringent
 components of Universal Antidotes:
1. MgO – neutralize acid
2. Tannic acid – precipitate alkaloids
3. Activated Charcoal – adsorp poisons
3. Japanese & Chinese Galls – Rhus chinensis ; gallic acid
4. Apple  tannin-rich plant used in medicine as Astringent.
 Pyrus mallus
V. LIPIDS A. Fatty Acids  are absorbed in the small intestines as Such.
Lipids  compounds that are insoluble in water, 1. Saturable – no double bonds
soluble in organic solvent. caproic  6:0 palmitic  16:0
Fats Fixed Oils Waxes capryllic  8:0 stearic  18:0
esters of Fatty acids esters of Fatty acids esters of Fatty acids cupric  10:0 arachidic  20:0
+ + + lauric  12:0 behenic  22:0
glycerols glycerols High molecular weight myristic  14:0 lignoceric  24:0
monohydric alcohol 2. Unsaturated  at least one double bond
Solid Liquid Solid, undecylenic acid  11:1
(except: (except: Myristica Semisolid, from the pyrolysis of castor oil (Ricimus communis)
Cod liver oil) theobroma oils) Liquid antifungal, Zn salts
Saturated Unsaturated Saturated, Palmitoleic  16:1
Fatty Acids Fatty Acids Unsaturated Oleic  18:1
Fatty Acids Linoleic  18:2
Animals Plants Plants, animals Linolenic  18:3  essential fatty acid (Vitamin F)
Energy Storage Energy Storage Protection, etc Arachidonic  20:4
3. Miscellaneous
USP Tests: Sodium Morrhuate  sodium salts of the fatty acids in cod-liver oil
#𝑚𝑔 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐴 (Gaddus morrhua)
𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 =
1𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒  Antisclerosing agent for varicose veins
Azelaic Acid  saturated dicarboxylic acid, 9C
Saponification value  from ozomolysis of castor oil
#𝑚𝑔 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝐴
 Anti-acne
 𝑠𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑦 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐾𝑜𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑑𝑜𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑟 # = Palmites  a fatty acid which is essential but cannot be synthesized
1𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
in Human
#𝑔 𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = Fatty Acids & Glycerols  are the starting materials for the
100𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 synthesis of fats in plants.
Acrolein  produces when fat are strongly heated
Types of Fixed Oil
Drying >120 iodine Linseed oils  Unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points than
saturated fatty acids
Fish oils  Vegetable Oil  are generally liquid @ room temperature
Cod-liver oils  can be transformed into solid fats by the
Semi-drying 100-120 Cottonseed oils process of Hydrogenation
Sesame oils  Animal Fat  are generally solid @ room temeprature
Non-drying <100 Olive oils B. Fixed Oils
Almond oils have a higher proportion of liquid glycerides or polyunsaturated
*When exposed to air, drying oils undergo oxidation with the glycerides
formation of a tough, hard film upon exposure to air. 1. Castor oil  castor bean (Ricinus communis)
*The drying quality is caused by the presence of unsaturated  tririnolein = 1 glycerol + 3 ricinoleic acid
fatty acids of a distinctive character, such as linoleic &  stimulant cathartic
linolenic acids  cathartic (can lead to dehydration)
 works primarily in the small intestines
Saponification  alkali catalyzed by hydrolysis of fats & fatty acids.  ricin =toxic principles
Methods of Extraction  aromatic castor oil = castor oil + flavorant
▪Expression  hydraulic presses (vegetable oils)  hydrogenated castor oil = castor wax
Cold presses  virgin oils  polish, cosmetics
 processed w/out heat  should not be used by pregnant women because it may
Hot pressed  w/ heat induce premature labor
▪Rendering  for fats  used as a plasticizer in flexible collodion
 steamed, until fat melts & rises to the top 2. Olive oil  mono
 separate the fat by decatation  aka Sweet Oil, Oil of Europe, Salad Oil
 cleared by filtration  ripe fruit of Olea europeae
 bleached w/ ozone  forms:
▪Solvent Extraction  non-polar solvents are used virgin/ cold-pressed – w/out heat
technical = from boiling H2O
General Uses: tournant – from fallen of decomposed fruits
emollient sulfur – from solvent extraction, CS2
lubricant laxative  test for Olive Oil: Millon’s Test
vehicles for the medicament  Oleic Acid
manufacture of soap  Emollient
Nutrient in TPN (hyperalimentation)  Pharmaceutic aid: Retardant in dental cement
high caloric value 9cal/g Preparation of Green Soap, USP
Plasters, liniments
low osmotic pressure
Official Fixed Oils
Fats Fixed oils Peanut Oils
solid liquid Sesame Oils
Except; Cod-liver oil Except: Theobroma oil Corn Oils
Cottonsedd Oils
liquids at room
temperature
3. Peanut Oil – mono Color Reaction *nagHaCot ng
 Arachis Oil (Arachis hypogea) -Cottonseed Oil  Halphen’s Tets Sebo sa
-Sesame Oil  Boudoin’s Test Vegetable si
 Contains: Oleic, Linoleic Ser Milon para
-Vegetable Oil  Serger’s Reaction
 Peanut oil cake  the residue upon expression of the oil kay Olive
-Olive Oil  Milon’s Test
4. Sesame Oil – Poly
C. Fats
 aka Teel Oil, Benne Oil, Gingelly Oil
contain a higher proportion of solid glycerides or saturated glycerides
 Sesamum indium
yields the largest calories per gram
 Oleic, Linoleic, Sesamolin
1. Lanolin – hydrous wool fat
Phenolic constituent
 purified fat like substance from sheep wool (Ovis aries)
Confers stability
 25-30% H2O
 Test: Bauduin Test (+) pink color w/ fuming HCl
 ointment base
5. Corn Oil  Poly
2. Anhydrous  aka Wool Fat
 corn (Zea mays)
 Ovis aries
 Linoleic, Oleic
 0.25% H2O
 Germ Oil the residue upon expression
 absorbable ointment base
6. Cottonseed Oil – cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
3. Cod Liver Oil  Cod fish (Gaddus morrhuae)
 linoleic, oleic, malwanic acid
 Liquid fat
 winterchlling Stearins will be separated
 rich sources of oleovitamin A & D
 cottonseed – gossypol ( toxic, male sterily)
 antirachitic
 Test: Halphen Test / Bevan Test
 an animal fat, liquid at room temperature
7. Soybean Oil – Poly 4. Butterfat  Cow’s Milk (Bos Taurus)
 Soybean (Glycine soja)  Water-soluble B  growth promoting factor found in
 Nutrient Butterfat
 lecithin  correct derange lipid 5. Lard  Pig Fat (Sus scrofa)
& cholesterol metabolism 6. Suet  Beef tallow: (Bos Taurus)
 for emulsions  Mutton tallow: (Ovis aries)
 Stigmasterol = Phytosterol Fixed Oils & Fats  are esters of fatty acids & glycerols
precursor for steroid synthesis  *the difference in consistency is caused by the glyceryl
8. Almond Oil  Prunus amygdalus esters present
 contain oleic acid Properties:
-greasy to touch
9. Persic Oil  apricot: Prunus armeniaca, Prunus persica -leave a permanent oily stain upon the filter paper
 similar to almond oil -lighter than water
aka Apricot kernel Oil, Peach Kernel Oil -insoluble in water
10. Coconut Oil , Lauric Oil – Poly -soluble in organic solvents
-few of then such as Castor oil, soluble in alcohol
 Cocus nucifera -when heated strongly, decomposition occurs
 Lauric, Myristic acids accompanied by the production of acrid flammable
 MCT = Medium Chain Triglycerides vapors which is due to the formation not acrolein or
Saturated FA, 8-10 propenal
-undergo saponification
 Endosperm  part of coconut made into
D. Waxes  are esters resulting from condensation of high molecular
copra
weight, straight chain fatty acids & high molecular weight,
11. Palm Kernel Oil – Poly
primary, straight chain alcohols
 Elalis guaneensis
 lipid used to control the consistency of creams & ointments
 Lauric, Myristic acids
In plants: Epidermal walls of leaves & fruits
12. Safflower Oil – poly
(protect from entry & exit of water)
 Carthamus tinctorius
Ointments; cosmetics; cerates
 Linoleic Animal Wax:
13. Sunflower Oil  Poly 1. Spermacetti  head of spermwhale (Physeter macrocephalus)
Helianthus annuus  cetyl ester wax (synthetic spermacetti)
Linoleic, Oleic Acid  quality emollient & ingredient in cold creams
14. Linseed/ Flavseed Oil  Linum usitatissimum 2. Beeswax  from honeycomb of bees ( Apis mellifera)
 Linoleic acid  Forms: White – bleached
15. Ethiodized Oil Injection  iodine addition products of the ethyl ester Yellow – not bleached
of the fatty acids in poppy seed oil (Papaver myricyl palmitate
somniferum) Plant Wax:
 radiopaque diagnostic aid 1. Jojoba Oil  liquid wax from the seed of Simmondsia chinensis
16. Theobroma Oil – cacao seed (Theobroma cacao) Fam. Buxaceae
 “Food of the Gods”  eicosenyl & docosenyl esters
 Solid fixed oil 2. Carnauba Wax  leaves of Copernicia prunifera
 Oleopamitostearin  myricyl cerotate
 cacao butter as suppository base  candles, varnish, polish; substitute for beeswax
 Breakfast cacao or prepared cacao powdered E. Phospholipids
expressed marc. Lecithin  for emulsion
a vegetable oil, solid at room temperature Choline  basic nitrogenous compound present in Lecithin
17. Hydrogenated Vegetables Oils – refined; bleached; hydrogenated Cephalin  are associated w/ the presence of blood clotting
 decolorized vegetable oil
 stearic & palmitic
 Test: Serger’s Reaction
VI. VOLATILE OILS ▪ Enfleurage  fleu (flower) – w/ the use of cold fat
 aka: Essential Oils, Ethereal Oils, Olii Distillati,  is suitable in obtaining small amounts of volatile oils
Oleo Aetherea in some countries in plant parts such as a flower petals
 may act as insect repellant & insect attractant  was formerly used extensively in the production of
 also employed as Carminative perfumes & pomades
 soluble in organic solvent (most are soluble in alcohol) ▪ Ecuelle  is a general method for obtaining citrus oils by rolling
 odorous principles in various plants (secretory structures) the fruit over a trough lined by sharp projections,
▪ Rutaceae (citrus) shizogenous, lysogenous ducts which are long enough to puncture oil glands in the
▪ Pinaceae (pine)  shizogenous, lysogenous ducts epidermis
▪ Apiaceae/Umbelliferae  oil tubes or vittae ▪ Solvent Extraction  nonpolar solvent like benzene,
(dillweed) petroleum ether
▪ Piperaceae (pepper) modified parynchymal cells ▪ Enzymatic Hydrolysis
▪ Lamiceae/ Labiatae (mint) glandular trichomes Sinigrin Myrosin Allyl Isothiocyanate
 Chemical Constituents: (mustard volatile oil)
Terpenes  acetate – mevolnate pathway ▪ Clavenger Apparatus  used to distill Volatile oils that heavier
 building blocks: Isoprene Units (CN: Isopentanyl than water & lighter than water
pyrophosphate)
#C #Isoprene Units
Monoterpenes 10 2
Fixed oils Volatile oils
Sesqui  15 3
Composition Ester of FA + Terpenes,
Di 20 4
Glycerol aromatic compounds
Tri 30 6
(stereoptene + oleopten)
Tetra 40 8 Rancidity  
*Monoterpnenes  are found commonly in volatile Resinity  
oils (exposure to light
*Sesquterpenes  form the largest class of autooxidation resinification)
terpenoids Grease spots (+) ()
Aromatic compounds  Shikimate pathway Distilled  
Shikimic Acid  precursor of the Saponified  
aromatic ring in
microorganisms & Volatile oil Fixed Oil
higher plants Also called as an essential Also called as natural non-volatile oil.
 Components: oil.
▪Stereoptene  solid, oxidized hydrocarbons Volatile oil can evaporate Fixed oils do not evaporate at room
menthol, thymol, anethole, camphor when placed under room temperature
temperature
▪Oleoptene  liquid, hydrocarbons No permanent grease on Leaves Permanent grease on paper
 eucalyptol, eugenol, methyl salicylate paper
 High refractive index = able to bend light Upon exposure to light & Becomes rancid upon oxidation
 optically active able to rotate plane-polarized light air, oxidize & resinify
They can be extracted They require some specific techniques
 immiscible in water  soluble in water just enough to impart odor easily by the distillation for extraction.
to water (aromatic water) process
 General Uses of Volatile Oils: Spices & condiment There is no spot (no Some type of spot (permanent stain)
Flavorant & odorant permanent stain) left after left after evaporation
Carminative evaporation
They are unable to undergo Fixed oils can be easily saponified
 Methods of obtaining Volatile Oils: saponification w/ alkalies with alkalies
▪ Wet Distillation w/ water; can either use: Mixtures of cleoptenes & Esters of higher fatty acids & glycerin
-water –for dried samples stearoptenes are termed as are called as fixed oils.
-steam – for fresh samples volatile oils
-water & steam – for dried & fresh Posses high refractive index Posses low refractive index
These are optically active. These are optically inactive.
Ex: Water –turpentine
Their primary source is Their major source is seeds of the
Steam –peppermint & spearmint leaves,roots,in petals and plant.
Water & steam –cinnamon clove bark.
Water Distillation  employed to plant material that is
dried & not subject to injury by
boiling
Direct Steam Distillation  applicable to fresh plant drugs
Water & Steam Distillation  applied to either dried or
fresh substances that may
be injured by boiling
▪ Dry Distillation  w/out H2O
 Destructive Distillation
 empyreumatic oil
 families: Pinaceae, Cupressiaceae
 Resultant Mass: charcoal
▪ Expression  used in volatile oils, decompose upon distillation
 uses Eaiele a piquer
 a process employed in the extraction of volatile oils
from citrus fruits (Lemon oil, Orange oil)
Limonene  most widely distributed monocyclic Terpene.
 occurs in citrus, peppermint, caraway, cardamon,
coriander, & other oils.
Parthenolide  a sesquiterpene from feverfew that acts as a
serotonin antagonist.
Quinghaosu  a sesquiterpenoid lactone isolated from Artemissia
annua
 traditionally used as an Antimalarial
Paclitaxel  an antineoplastic from the bark of Taxus brevifolia,
classified as Diterpene.
 an antimitotic by binding to microtubules, promoting
their assembly from tubulin, & stabilizing them
against depolymeriziation during cell division
Neem Azadirachta indica
yield a triterpenoid w/ an antifeedant property
 used as Insecticide
Forskolin  a diterpene
 potent stimulator of adehylate cyclase & exerts its
effects as a hypotensive cardioactive, &
bronchospasmolytic effects
Valerian  source of Volatile oils, used as antianxiety & sleep aid.
Valeric Acid  from Valeria
 used as an Antianxiety
Citronellal  active constituent of the Volatile Oil of Tanglad which
is very Good source of Vitamin A
 A. Hydrocarbon E. Ketone Volatile Oils will form a tertiary alcohol upon reaction w/ Grignard’s
1. Turpentine Oil  Pinus palustris Reagent
  & -pinene 1. Camphor  Cinnamomum camphora
 Rectified TO = TO distilled w/ NaOH  is precipitated from its alcoholic solution by the addition of
 Terpin hydrate/ Terpinol = RTO + HNO3 water
 Internal Uses: Stimunlant, Expectorant  Forms: (+)levo = natural
Terpinol  Terpinhydrate () racemic = synthetic
 is formed by the reaction between nitric acid on  antipruritic, rubefacient, anti infective
rectified turpentine oil in the presence of 2. Spearmint Oil  Mentha spicata
alcohol  (+)-carvone
3. Caraway Oil  Carum carvi
B. Alcohol  oxidized to CO2 & water in the body  (+)-carvone
1. Peppermint  Sources: American – Mentha piperita 4. Buchu Oil  Barosma betulina
Japanese  Mentha arvensis  diosphenol
 Menthol: ()levo = natural  for menstrual problem
()racemic = synthetic 5. Wormwood / Absinthe Oil  Artemisia absinthum
solid or crystallized portion remaining after  (+)-thujone
refrigeration of the peppermint oil  counterirritant
 flavorant, carminative, counterirritant 6. Cedar leaf Oil  Thuja accidentalis
2. Coriander Oil  Coriandrum sativum  (+)-thujone, fenchone
 linalool  counterirritant
3. Cardamon Oil  Elletaria cardamom F. Phenolic Ester
 cineole 1. Nutmeg Oil  Myristica fragrans
4. Rose Oil/ Oil of Otto  Rosa gallica  myristicin, saffrole
geraniol, citronellol, nerol  hallucinogen; flvorant & condiment
5. Orange Flower Oil/ Neroli Oil  Citrus aurantium  has a gained reputation among prison inmates of being a
 linalool hallucinogenic drug
6. Juniper Oil  Juniperus communis  Toxicity: Tachycardia  HR
 borneol Xerostomia – dry mount
 Flavorant, diuretic Flushing
7. Pine Oil  Pinus palustris 2. Fennel Oil  Foeniculum vulgare
 -terpinol, pinene(hydrocarbon)  trans-anethole, Fenenone
 anti-eczema, disinfectant, deodorant  flavoring, condiment
 an ingredient of terpene hydrate elixir. 3. Anise Oil  Pimpinlla anisum
 aniseed
C. Phenol  trans-anethole, anisaldehyde
1. Thyme Oil  Thymus vulgaris  flavoring, condiment
 thymol 4. Chinese Star Anise  Illicium verum
 antiseptic  trans-anethole
2. Clove Oil  Eugenia caryophillus  flavoring, condiment
 Eugenol: dental analgesic – “toothache drops” 5. Japanese Star Anise  toxic principle: Hananomin
4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol
3. Myricia Oil / Baby oil  Pimenta racemosa G. Oxidative (Oxide)
 eugenol 1. Eucalyptus Oil  cajuput (Eucalyptus globules) –Fam: Myrtaceae
4. Creosote  Fagus grandiflorus  cineole ( Eucalyptol, cajuptol)
5. Juniper tar  Juniperus oxycedrus  Vick® (Menthol + Caphor + Eucalytus Oil)

D. Aldehyde
1. Cinnamon Oil  Ceylon: Cinnamon zeylanicum
Saigon: Cinnamon laureirii
Cassia: Cinnamon cassia  cassia oil
 Cinnamaldehyde
 flavorant, carminative, antiseptic
2. Lemon Peel Oil  Citrus limon
 citral limonene
 3:1 = geraniol; neral
most important contributor to lemon oil flavor
 Types: Terebintherate = terpenes = risk for resinification
Terpeneless = terpenes = risk fro resinification
 Higher quality
 ,ore expensive
3. Sweet Orange Oil  sweet aurantium, Citrus sinensis
 decanal, limonene
4. Citronella Oil  Cymbopogon citrates; C. nardus; C. winterianus
 citronella  insect repellant
5. Hamamelis Oil  Hamamelis Virginia
 2-hexanal/Acetaldehyde/ alpha-ionone/Beta-terpinol
 for hemorrhoidal preparations
H. Ester
1. Gaultheria Oil, Sweet –birch Oil
Gaultheria Oil Oil of Wintergreen
 Gaultheria procumbens
Sweet –birch Oil  Betula Oil
 Betula lentha
 Methyl salicylate – local irritant, antiseptic, antirheumatic
 aromatic compound found in Wintergreen
2. Lavender oil – lavender: Lavadula angustifolia
Lavadula vera
Lavadula officinale
– linalylacetate
3. Pine needle Oil – Pinus mugo
– bornyl acetate
4. Mustard oil – Brassica nigra
– sinigrin  allyl isothiocyanate
 a glycosidic volatile oil obtained by enzymatic
hydrolysis of the glycosides .

Plant Parts where Volatile Oils obtained:

Cinnamon Oil Dried Bark
Clove Oil Flower Buds
Mustard Seeds
Oregano  Leaf & Flowering Tops
Cardamon Oil  Fruit
 Heart wood (innermost part of wood of
Sandalwood
Sandal tree)
VII. RESIN & RESIN COMBINATION
 product of volatile oil oxidation
 crystalline or amorphous solids
 produced in Schizogenous Ducts / Schizolysigenous glands
 mixture of: Resin Acid – oxyacids
Resin Alcohols Resinols are complex alcohol by high
molecular weight that do
not give a tannin reaction
w/ ion salts
Resinotannols  give color w/ FeCl3
Esters = acid + alcohol
Resenes  hydrocarbons
 are complex neutral substances devoid of
characteristics chemical properties
 Pharmaceutic Resin:
obtained by
-Extracting w/ alcohol & precipitating w/ water
(Jalap, Podophyllum)
-Separated from oleoresin by distillation
(turpentine, capaiba)
-Collect the exudates natural product
(mastic)
A. Resin  brittle, amorphous solids that fuse readily upon heating
 leaves a vanish-like film upon evaporation
 exhibit the darkening of color upon stabding
 believed to be oxidation products of terpenes
 are complex mixtures of resin acids, resin alcohols,
resinotannols, esters& resenes
1. Rosin, Colophony  Pinus palustris
 sharp, shiny angular fragments
 transluscent, amber in color
 Abretic acid, sylvic acid, rescene
 stiffening agent for plasters, ointment
2. Podophyllum  American mandelate (Podophyllum pelatatum)
 aka May Apple / Mandrake
 antimitotic & caustic
 Podophyllin  caustic agent for warts
 Peltatin  purgative
3. Eriodyction  Yerba Santa (Eriodyction californium)
 stimulant expectorant,
flavorant  preparations containing quinine
(to disquise the bitterness of quinine)
4. Jalap  root of Exogonium purge
 cathartic, hydrogogue
 Jalapin, purganol = drastic purgative
5. Mastic  Pisracia lentiscus
 -resin-mastichis
 dental varnish to seal cavities
6. Kava-Kava  Piper methysticum
 Styryl pyrone: Kawain
 tranquilizer, skeletal muscle relaxant
 drug of abuse
7. Cannabis  Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa)
 Marijuana, Mary Jane, MJ, Hashish, Pot Weed, Weed,
Hash, Wacky backy
 THC = 9-tetrahydrocannabinol
 psychoactive euphoria
B. Oleoresin  volatile oils + resin
1. Capsicum or Cayenne Pepper
Sources:
African Chillies, siling labuyo (Capsicum frutescens)
Louisiana Long pepper, siling haba
( Capsicum anuum var. longum)
Tabacco pepper (Capsicum anuum var conoides)
 Capsaicin –counterirritant (causes irritation in Kidney)
 is a teratogenic poison
2. Ginger  Zingiber officinale
 Zingeberol, bisabolene
 stomach aches, sore throat
3. Turpentine, Gum thus  Pinus palustris
 counterirritant
4. Copaiba, Balsam of Copaiba  Copaifera sp.
 Not a true balsam
 capaivic acid
5. White Pine/ Weymouth pine  Pinus strobes
C. Oleogumresin = VO + gum + resin
1. Myrrh, Gum Myrrh  Commiphora molmol
 Somali (African)
 Yemen (Arabia)
 ingredient in Astring-o-sol®
 imbalming agent
2. Asafetida  Ferula foetida
 asaresinotannol, ferulic acid
D. Balsam = resin + Aromatic compounds (benzoic acid, cinnamic acid)
1. Storax  Liquidambar orientalis
 L. styraciflura (Levant’s storax)
 aka “Styrax”, “Loquid Storax”
Storesin: -crystllizable w/ K
-not crytallizable w/K
 Pharmaceutic aid in making compound Benzoin Ticture
2. Peruvian Balsam  Myroxylum pereirae
benzylcinnamate, peruresnotannol
 antiseptic, parasiticide
3. Tolu Balsam  Myrosylum balsamum
 toluresinetannol cinnamate
 flavorant, expectorant
 used a s pharmaceutic aid for compound benzoin
tincture
4. Benzoin  Sources: Sumatra – Styrax benzoin – Sumaresinotannol
Siam – Anthostyrax sp. – Siaresinotannol
 Antiseptic, stimulant expectorant
 primarily component of compound
 Benzoin Tincture:1. Benzoin
2. Storax
3. Tolu Balsam
4. Aloe
VIII. STEROIDS  compound that contain CPPP nucleus
Cyclopentoperhydrophenanthrene
 act within the cells as a secondary
messenger or intecellus hormones
 from the Mevalonic Acid Pathway
HMG-CoA HMG-CoA reductaseMevalonic Acid

farnesyl  geranyl
2 farnesyl  Squadine  lanosterol
Function of Steroids:
1. Molting of Insects (ex: Ecdysone)
2. Development of the reproductive system
(ex: Estradiol, Progesterone, testosterone)
3. Induction of sexual reproduction in fungi
(ex: Antheridiol)
Uses: Contraceptive
Cardiotonic
Anti-inflammatory
Steroidal Hormones  are bound to plasma protein (albumin)

A. Sterols: 1. Cholesterols  animal sterols

2. Phytosterol  (stigmasterol, sitosterol) –plants
is obtained from the lipid fraction of
glycine soja, that can be used as a
precursor of steroidal hormones
3. Ergosterol  fungi
 principal sterol that was first isolated from
calabar beans & also found in soybean oil

 Conversion of Cholesterol to Pregnenolone

 The initial & rate-limiting reaction in the synthesis of
steroid hormones is the
 Organs that synthesized Cholesterols:
-liver
-intestines
-adrenal cortex
-reproductive organs

B. Bile Acids  mechanism by which the body exercise steroids

1. Primary  directly from cholesterol in the liver
 cholic & chenodeoxycholic acid
2. Secondary  Bile acid – from the fermentation of primary bile acids
by intestinal bacteria
 deoxycholic acid

C. Cardiac Glycosides

D. Hormones: 1. Glucocorticoids: Carbohydrate metabolism

Anti-inflammation
Cortisol/Hydrocortisone
 principal glucocorticoid substance of the
adrenal cortex
2. Mineral Corticoids : Electrolyte & Water Balance
3. Sex Hormones: Estrogen, Progestin
Androgen. Testosterone
 Estrogen  produces by Ovarian Follicle
Conjugated Estrogen (Premarin®)
 are sulfate esters excreted by pregnant
Mares.
IX. ALKALOIDS
basic nitrogenous compounds found in plants
that are physiologically active
 are group of organic substances of biologic origin which have
different chemical structure but have a heterocyclic N in
common.
Nitrogen  element responsible for the basic
pharmacological properties of alkaloids
 combine directly w/ acids to form salts
 form highly insoluble precipitates w/ salts of heavy metals
 Chemical forms Water Nonpolar solvent
Free base  
Alkaloidal Salt   B. Tropane  esters of Tropic Acid & Tropane
 from Amino Acid – Ornithine
*free alkaloids  are sparingly soluble in
water 1. Belladona  Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna)
 Physical forms:  causes pupil dilation
▪ Solid-crystalline  amorphous  ()hyocyamic racemized  Atropine
▪ Liquid:  Coniine  Poison hemlock  discovered by R. Brandes
 Comium maculatum  Anticholinergic
 Socrates 2. Hyoscyamus  Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
 Nicotine  tobacco leaves (Nicotiana tabacum)  hyoscyamine, scopolamine
 derivative of Pyrrolidine  0.04% alkaloids
 Sparteine  Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) 3. Egyptian Hyoscyamus  E. henbane (Hyoscyamus muticus)
 Lupin (Lupinus mutabilis)  hyoscyamine, scopolamine
 used for cardiac arrhythmias  1.5% alkaloids
 also used as oxytocic 4. Stramonium  Dimsonweed/Jamestown weed
(D. stramonium)
Levodopa  Horse bean (Vicia Faba)
(Datura fastuosa) –chief source
 Extraction of Alkaloids: Process A Acid-treated
Scopolamine or hyoscine: Motion sickness
Process B Base-treated
Hyoscine N-butylbromide: Antispasmodic
Alkalodal Reagents:
 is burned & inhaled for the relief of asthma
1. Mayer’s Reagent  Potassium mercuric iodide, cream ppt.
5. Withania  Withania somnifera (commercial source of Atropine)
2. Nessler’s Reagent  Alkaline Potassium mercuric iodide, brown ppt.
6. Duboisia  Duboisia myoporiodes (commercial source of Atropine)
3. Wagner’s Reagent  I2/ KI, reddish brown ppt
7. Mandragora  Mandragora officinarum (Europe)
4. Bouchard Reagent  I2/ KI, most sensitive
 Mandragorin: Emetic
5. Dragendorf Reagent  Potassium Bismuth Iodide
8. Coca Sources: Huanuco-coca – Erythroxylon coca
6. Marme’s Reagent  Potassium Cadmium Iodide
Truxillo coca – Erythoroxylon truxillense
7. Valser’s Reagent  HgI2 , red ppt
 Cocaine (methylbenzoylecgonine/benzoylmethylecgonine)
8. Sonnencheim’s Reagent  Phosphomolybdic acid
-crack,coke
9. Scheiber’s Reagent  Phosphotungstic acid
-psychomotor stimulant, euphoria;
10. Gold Compunds
-local anesthetic
11. Tannic Acid
-mg in Brompton’s Cocktail – analgesic for cancer pain
12. Hager’s Reagent  Saturated picric acid
-Free Basing  inhalation of the vapors of alkaloidal cocaine
9. Talampunay  Datura metel L.
A. Pyridine-Piperidine – from Amino Acid –Ornithine
 Thorn Apple
1. Nicotiana  tobacco leaves (Nicotiana tabaccum)
 yield Scopolamine
 Nicotine: CNS stimulant
Smoking deterrent (Nicorette®)
C. Quinoline – from Amino Acid –Tryptophan
2. Areca  Betel Nut ( Areca catechu) – “nganga”
1. Cinchona  Sources: Red  Cinchona succirubra
 has been linked to high rates of oral & esophageal cancer
Yellow  Cinchona calisaya
 Stimulant masticatory,
 Studied by Pelletier & Caventous
chewed w/ lime & Piper Betle leaves
 Cinchonine & cinchonidine
 Arecoline: CNS stimulant, Antiheminthic
 parenteral alakaloids
 Cathechin: Tannin, Carcinogen Potetial
 Quinine: Antimalarial, Toxic water
 Tannin  is the carcinogenic constituent found in “nganga”
Thalleioquine reaction  used to identify quinine
3. Lobelia  Indian Tobacco Leaves (Lobelia inflate)
 Quinidine: Antimalarial; Antiarrhythmic
 Lobeline: CNS stimulant
 Toxicity: Cinchonism –temporary hearing loss
Smoking deterrent (Bantron®)
ringing in the ears (Tinnitus)
4. Ipil-ipil  yield an alkaloid of the pyridine-piperidine type.
 impaired sight
 Leucaena leucocephala
2. Cuprea  Cuprea Bark (Remijia purdieana)
 used for Ascariasis
 commercial source of quinidine

Mydriatic Effect  physiological property of alkaloids from family

Solanaceae (Ex: Atropine)
D. Isoquinoline  from Amino Acids Tyrosine
1. Ipecac  Sources: Brazilian  Cephaelis ipecachuanha
Panama  Cephaelis acuminate
 Emetine, Psychotrine, Cephaeline
Emetine  used as Amebicide
 Ipecac Syrup: Emetic (previously for poisoning cases)
2. hydrastis  Golden Seal ( Hydrastis canadensis)
 Hydrastine, Berberine (Yellow)
 Astringent
3. Sanguinaria  Blood root (Sanguinaria canadensis)
 Sanguinarine (Red)
E. Indole Alkaloids – from Amino Acid  L-Tryptophan
 stimulant, expectorant, emetic
1. Rauwolfia – snakeroot (Rauwolfia serpentina)
4. Tubocurare  South American Arrow poison
– Reserpine (Serpasil®): Hypotensive Agent
 Strychnus toxifera Adjunct in psychotherapy
 Strychnus castelanaei SE: Depression, Depletes Norepinephrine storage
 Chondrodendon tomentosum  Root is used as Antihypertensive
 Types: Calabar  gourd 2. Vinka alkaloids – chichira or Madagascar periwinkle
Tube  bamboo (Cataranthus roseus)
Pot  clay pot  Vinblastine, Vinleurosine, Aniosidine, vincristine
 Tubocurarine:  Antineoplastic, leukemia
-Skeletal muscle Relaxant MOA: Arrest cell division of Metaphase
-Anticonvulsant in Strychnine poisoning Vinblastine  exerts its antineoplastic action by interfering
-Standardized by the head drop test  rabbits with the polymerization of tubulin into
-SE: Anaphylactoid Reaction microtubules
Histamine Release 3. Nux vomica  Strychnus nux vomica
IgE Mediated  Strychnus ignatii –St.Ignatius’ bean
Mice  official test animal used to assay Curare Alkaloids  Strychnine: CNS stimulant; Vermin Killer
by the “head drop” cross-over method. *Strychnine Poisoning: Inhibits the Glycine
5. Opium Alkaloids  milky exudates of ripe puppy seeds of receptors in the Spinal Cord
Papaver somniferum *Manifestations: Opistothomos
 only legal source in India Sardonic Smile (lacking of
 termed “Stone of Immortality” by Paracelsus the jew)
 FeCl3 – red  meconic acid  Brucine: Alcohol denaturant
 Opiates: natural-occuring opioids 4. Physostigma  Calabar or Ordeal Bean
▪Morphine  analgesic (Physostigma venenosum)
▪Codeine  methylmorphine  Physostigmine (Eserine)
 antitussive -inhibitor of acetyl cholinesterase
 prepared from morphine by -acetylcholine
Methylation -for glaucoma miotic
▪Noscapine  Narcotine (increase outflow of aqueous humor)
 anarcotic (not narcotic) -DOC of Atropine Toxicity
 antitussive -Toxicity: Cholinergic Crisis (DUMBELSS)
▪Papaverine  smooth muscle relaxant -Antidote: Atropine
▪Thebaine 5. Ergot  Rye Ergot that grows on rye (Secale cereal)
 Opioids: compound that are on the Parasitic  grows on living  Claviceps purpurea
opioid receptor (, , ) Saphrotic  grows on dead  Claviceps paspanii
Synthetic Opioids:  Ergot alkaloid  decrease the blood flow into extremities
▪Apomorphine an emetic & used in the tx of gangrene (St. Anthony’s Fire)
Parkinson’s Disease  Ergonovine (Ergometrine)  Oxytoxic Agent;
▪Heroin = diamorphine  diacetylmorphine Assist in Labor
▪Hydromorphone  prepared by reducing  Ergotoxine (Hydergine®)  vasorelaxant;
morphine in HCl solution hypotensive agent
w/ hydrogen in the  Derivative: LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
presence of a catalyst  was discovered by A. Hoffman is
▪Hydrocodone considered as the most active & most
Preparation: specific hallucinogen
 Powdered opium  10-15% morphine  acid
 to make Dover’s powder  psychomimetic
 Paregoric  camphorated opium tincture  sympathetic stimulation
6. Yohimbe  Pausinystalia yohimbe

F. Imidazole  glyoxaline ring

 from Amino Acid Histidine
1. Pilocarpus (P. jaborandi)  pilocarpine
 Cholinergic agent
 open-angle glaucoma, miotic
 lactone of pilocarpic acid
G. Steroidal  have the CPP nucleus
1. Green hellebore  American Hellebore (Veratrum viride)
 Germidine, Germetrine
 Hypotensive, Insecticide
2. White Hellebore  European Hellebore (Veratrum album)
 protoveratine A & B
 hypotensive, insecticide
not used clinically
H. Alkaloidal Amine  do not have N in a heterocyclic ring
 derivatives of phenylethylamine
 derivatives of tryptophan
1. Ephedrine  Ma Huang (Ephedra sinica)
 Ephedrine: Sympathomimetic
Vasoconstrictor for hypertension
Cardiac stimulant
Bronchodilator
Topical Nasal Decongestant (OTC)
Mydriasis
2. Colchicum  Colchicum automnale
 Colchicine  treatment of Acute Gout
3. Khat  Abbysinian tea (Catha edulis)
 Cathinone  similar to amphetamine
4. Peyote  Mescal buttons (Lophophora williamsii)
 Mescaline (a psychomimetics; hallucinogenic)
 Mescarinic  hallucinogen
5. Psilocybe  Psilocybe Mexicana
 Psilocybin  hallucinogen; psychedelic
I. Purine Alkaloids  methylxanthines
 from different Amino Acids
(glycine, glutamine, aspartic acid)
 Do not precipitate w/ alkaloidal reagent
 inhibit PDE (Phosphodiesterase)
 cAMP (Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate)
1. Cola  Kola Nuts (Cola nitida)
 Caffeine, theobromine, Kolacatechin
 CNS stimulant
2. Coffee  Coffea Arabica, Coffea robusta, Coffea liberica
 Coffee Beans
-release caffeine from Cholinergic Acid
-Volatile Oil containing caffeol is released
aroma at coffee
 caffeine (1,3,7 – trimethylxanthine)
is used w/ Ergotamine Tartrate to treat migraine
headaches
DOC for obtaining a stimulating effect of the CNS
does not react w/ or precipitate w/ Alkaloidal
reagents
 decafenized: <0.08% caffeine
has higher price than ordinary coffee
 CNS Stimulation
 most potent effect of trimethyl substitutions in
position 1,3,7 of the xanthine molecule
MOA: Inhibition of Phosphodiesterase enzyme
3. Guarana  dried paste of the seeds of Paullinia cupana
 Caffeine, Catecholamines
 CNS stimulant, astringents
4. Matē  Paraguay Tea (Ilex paraguariensis)
 caffeine, Tannins
 CNS Stimulant, Astringent
5. Thea  Tea (Camelia sinensis)
 Forms: Black  Rapid heat
Green  mild heat
 Theophylline (1,3 –dimethylxanthine)
- bronchodiator in asthma & COPD
- diuretic
- astringent property due to tannin content
- smooth muscle relaxant
 Aminophylline = Theophilline + Diethylamine
6. Theobroma  cocoa seeds ( Theobroma cacao)
 Theobromine (3,7 –dimethylxanthine)
-CNS stimulant
-smooth muscle relaxant
-diuretic
Theobromine  is preferred over caffeine in the tx of
cardiac edema & angina pectoris
because it has little stimulant action
on the CNS.
The 10 Medicinal Plants in the Philippines endorsed by DOH:
1. Bawang (Allium sativum)
 Common name in English is "Garlic"
 Uses: Antibacterial,
Decrease Cholesterol,
Antihypertensive
 widely used to reduce cholesterol level in blood.
2. Akapulko (Cassia alata)
 "Ringworm Bush or Schrub" and "Acapulco"
 Uses: Antifungal;
Treat tinea infections, insect bites, ringworms,
eczema, scabies and itchiness.
3. Bayabas (Psidium guajava)
 "Guava"
 Uses: Mouthwash;
For Gingivitis;
For Cleansing of wounds
Antiseptic, Anti-inflammatory, Anti-spasmodic,
Antioxidant, Hepatoprotective, Anti-allergy,
Antimicrobial, Anti-plasmodial, Anti-cough,
Antidiabetic, & Antigenotoxic
4. Yerba Buena (Clinopodium douglasii)
 commonly known as Peppermint
 Uses: Analgesic to relieve body aches & pain due to
rheumatism and gout
Treat coughs, colds & insect bites
5. Ulasimang Bato | Pansit-Pansitan (Peperomia pellucida)
 Uses: Decrease Uric Acid
Arthritis and Gout.
6. Lagundi (Vitex negundo) -Ascof®
 known as "5-leaved chaste tree" in english
 Uses: Treat cough, asthma & fever
Relief for asthma & pharyngitis, rheumatism,
dyspepsia, boils, & diarrhea.
7. Ampalaya (Momordica charantia)
 "bitter melon " or "bitter gourd " in English.
 Uses: Treatment of diabetes (diabetes mellitus),
hemorrhoids, coughs, burns & scalds
 being studied for anti-cancer properties
8. Niyog-niyogan (Quisqualis indica L.)
 a vine known as "Chinese honey suckle"
 Uses: Antihelminthic (Eliminate intestinal parasites)
Ascaris
9. Tsaang Gubat (Ehretia microphylla Lam.)
 English :"Wild tea"
 Uses: Stomach ache
Antidiarrheal
Treat skin allergies including eczema,
scabies & itchiness wounds in child birth.
10. Sambong (Blumea balsamifera)
 English name: "Ngai camphor or Blumea camphor"
 Uses: Diuretic
Treat kidney stones, wounds & cuts, rheumatism,
anti-diarrhea, anti spasms, colds and
coughs 7 hypertension

New Name of Plant Families:

Palmae  Arecaceae
Graminae  Poeceae
Cruciferae  Brassicaceae
Leguminosae  Fabaceae
Guttiferae  Clusiaceae
Umbelliferae  Apiaceae
Labiatae  Lamiaceae
Compositae  Asteraceae
 Common Names Scientific Name
Achuete BIxa orellana
Anis Foeniculum vulgare
Apple Pyrus mallus
Atis Anona squamosa
Avocado Persea Americana
Balatong (soy) Glycine soja
Balanoy Ocimum basilicum
Balete Ficus benjamina Common Names Scientific Name
Balimbing Averrhia carambola Horsemint Oil Monarda Punctata
Benzoic Acid Sumatra Benzoin
Banana Musa sapientum
Basil Ocimum basilicum Abyssinian Tea Catha edulis
(induction of catecholamines)
Bitaog Calophyllum inophyllum
Catnip Hepeta Catania
Chico Achras zapota (sappota)
(deleted from compendium)
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum
German Chamomile Matricaria chamomilla
Dalandan Citrus sinensis
Lemon Balm Melissa officinalis
Dalanghita Citrus nobilis
Marshmallow Root Althea officinalis
Damong Maria Artemissia vulgaris (insect repellant)
Parsley Petroselinum sativum
Dita Alstonia scholaris
Duhat Syzygium cumini
Ikmo Piper betle
Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala
Gabi Colocasia esculenta
Gugo Entada phaseoloides
good hair conditioner
Guyabano Anona muricata
Kalachuchi Plumeria acuminate
Kalamansi Citrus microcarpa
Kamias Averrhoa balimbi
Kasuy (cashew) Anacardium occidentale
Kinchay Apium graveolens
Labanos (radish) Raphanus sativus
Lansones Aglaia domestica
Langka Artocarpus heterophyllus
Linga (sesame) Sesamum indicum
Lumbang Aleurites moluccana
Luya Zingiber officinale
Luya-Luyahan Curcuma zedoaria
Mais Zea mays
Makabuhay Tinospora crispa/ rumphii
Makahiya Mimosa pudica
Malunggay Moringa oleifera
Manga Mangifera indica
Mansanilya Chrysanthemum indicum
Moras Vetiveria zizanioides
Niyog COcos nucifera
Orange Citrus aurantium
Pakwan (watermelon) Citrulus vulgaris
Patatas Solanum tuberosum
Patola Luffa acutangula
Pinya Ananas comosus
Pumpkin Cucurbita pepo
Sampalok Tamarindus indica
Sibuyas Allium cepa
Siling labuyo Capsicum frutescens
Suerte (Dumbcane) Dieffenbachia picta
Suha (pomela) Citrus grandis
Talong (eggplant) Solanum melongena
Talumpunay Datura Metel
Tamarind (sampalok) Tamrindus indica
Tangan tangan Ricinus communis
Tanglad Cymbopogon citrates
Tea Camelia sinensis
Tubang bakod Jatropa curcas
Tubo Saccharum officinarum
Tugi Dioscorea esculenta
Biologics  include immunizing biologics that are derivatives of animals:
serums, antitoxins, globulins; or of microscopic plant
organisms; vaccines, toxins, toxoids, tuberculins. Bacterial Vaccine:
 classified into two: Antigens & Antibodies ~An oral vaccine for typhoid is available as an enteric-coated
Antibodies  is a material, which induces an immune capsule
response ~Meningococcal vaccines  are not efficacious in children under 2
Antigen  when introduced into the body causes the years old
formation of antibodies. ~Pertussis vaccine  is usually accompanied by a dose of
Are specific, that is, they react specifically with acetaminophen to reduce the risk of high fever
the antigen that stimulated their production & febrile convulsion
*Diagnostic Antigen  are employed to determine ~Cholera Vaccine
whether an individual has ~Plague Vaccine
developed hypersensitivity ~TB VAccine

VACCINES
a preparation containing weakened or dead microbes of the kind
that cause a disease, administered to stimulate the immune system
to produce antibodies against that disease
Clinical Designations of Skin Reactions
Types of Vaccines:
1. Attenuated whole-agent vaccines  use living, but attenuated Designation Symbol Characteristics
(weakened) microbes Negative   No reaction or no different from control
Examples: Mumps Doubtful   No applicable difference from control
Measles  (for children 15months or older) other than slight erythema
 is culture in either avian embryo One-plus   Erythema smaller than 20mm in
tissue or human diplod tissue diameter
Rubella Two-plus   Erythema larger than 20mm but no
Chickenpox wheal
Sabin polio Vaccine (TOPV, Trivalent oral polio  Definite wheal w/ surrounding
Three-plus 
vaccine) erythema
2. Inactivated whole-agent vaccines  use microbes that have been Four-plus   Wheal with definite pseudopods &
killed, Usually by formalin or
erythema
phenol
Examples: Rabies
Influenza
Salk polio vaccine
Pneumococcal pneumonia
Cholera
Pertussis
Typhoid
3. Toxoid  Inactivated toxins
are vaccines directed at the toxin produced by a pathogen
Examples: Tetanus
4. Subunit vaccine  consist of an antigenic fragment of microorganism
that best stimulate a immune response
Recombinant vaccines  a subunit vaccine that are made
or produced by
DNA techniques or
genetic engineering
technique
Acellular vaccines  consist of antigenic parts of cell
Example: Hep B
5. Conjugated vaccines  consist of the designed antigen & other
proteins
 deal w/ poor immune response of children to
vaccines.
6. Nucleic Acid vaccines  DNA vaccines
 newest & most promising vaccine
 made up of DNA, usually in the form of a
plasmid
Herb/ Healthy Foods  are products of natural origin which w/out
Chamomile  “Ginseng of Europe”
therapeutic effect used by the laity in the self-
Myristica Oil  a volatile oil, contain Benzaldehyde
treatment disease
Canola Oil  oil obtained from Rapeseed
Non-official Drugs  drugs that are no longer official in the current
Breakfast Cocoa  is the powdered marc after cocoa butter is
USP/NF
expressed.
Official Drugs  a drug substance that is found in the current USP/NF
Pyrethrins  are the insecticidal components of
Official Description  a descriptive material pertaining to any of the
drugs or preparation in the USP/NF Chrysanthemum cinerariaefollium (Asteraceae)
Hypericin  is the active antidepressant constituent of St. John’s Wort
Chemotherapy  the study & use of chemical agents which are more Worm Seed  Chemopodium ambrosioides
selectively toxic to the invading organism than to the  active substance: Ascaridol (kills Ascaris)
host Datura alba  for Asthma
Ilang-Ilang  contain Benzyl Alcohol
Papain  found in the unripe papaya tree
Plant Acids  contains 2 to 3 carboxyl groups  dried & purified latex of the fruit of Carica papaya
used as Meat tenderizer
Sulfated Oil/ Sulfonated Oil  obtained by reacting sulfuric acid w/ the
Ergotamine  alkaloid obtained from Ergot
oil, keeping the temperature down by
Glucosamine Sulfate  dietary supplement that relieves pain &
chilling.
stiffness on joint & limbs
Evening Primrose  for PMS
Plant Lectin (Toxoalbumins)  highly poisonous Ubiquinone  prevention of stroke
1. Ricin (from Castor Bean) Banana powdered leaves  for Diabetes
2. Robin (from Locust Bark) Meadow Saffron  Colchicum eutumnale
3. Abrin (toxic principle of Jequirity Seeds)  autum crosus
 was described as a treatment for rheumatism &
Factors contributing to the variability in the concentration of toxic swelling in Ebers Papyrus
components in plants may:
-plant part used Enduranz®  contains Tonkat Ali, Banaba, Malungay, Guto Kola
-age of plant
-climatic & soil differences
Candida utilis  Torula Yeast
Most common outcomes of the ingestion of a toxic plant: Saccharomyces cerevesiae  Brewer’s Yeast
-Nausea
-Vomiting Remains after the extraction process is completed:
-Diarrhea -Menstruum liquid
-Marc  solid (undissolve portion)
Weed associated w/ Polllinosis (hay fever)
- Amarathaceae
- Asteraceae
Soybean Meal  a flour sifted from decorticated, ground seed of
- Chenopodiaceae
Glycine soja deprived of fat
– used in the detection of BUN
Belong to Fam. Lamiacease:
- Spearmint
Photosynthesis  where the primary function of plants not present in
- Rosemary
animals but on animal & man depend greatly
- Peppermint
Pollination  transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma
- Thyme
Chlorophyll A  There is methyl substitution in one of the pyrrole rings
Picrotoxin  central depressant  no ready interconversion
Muscarine  most poisonous & non-edible mushroom contain  3:1 (ratio of chlorophyll A)
Linamarin & Manihotoxin  toxic cyanogens found in Cassava. Chlorophyll B  Occurs in Ferns, mosses & algae
Cassave (Manihot Esculenta)  There is an Aldehyde substitution in one of the pyrrole
Kamoteng Kahoy rings

Calcium Oxalate  end product of acid formation in the plant & occurs
as insoluble calcium salt or raphide
Plantid Pigment  commonly extracted by Acetone

Lignin  formed as a constituent of secondary cell walls & is found in

general in hard tissues such as those of wood & straw
generally in hard mature tissues such as those of wood &
straw
BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry  is the study of the composition of living matter & the 7. Mitochondria  powerhouse of the cell
changes which occur in it.  location of the ETC (Electron Transport Kreb’s Cycle)
 the science concerned with the chemical basis of life.  organ fro respiration, redox reaction, glycolysis, etc
 the science concerned with the chemical constituents of ATP synthesis occurs in the inner Mitochondria.
living cells & with the reactions & process they undergo 8. Chloroplast  chlorophyll;
 biomolecules/ micromolecules  performs photosynthesis in photoautotrophic eukaryotes
Biomolecules Building Blocks Major Function 9. Cetrosomes  helpers in cell division
Nucleic Acids Genetic material involved in formation of the mitotic spindle
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid template for protein
RNA Ribonucleic Acid synthesis Cytoplasm  found outside the nucleus
Proteins -amino acid Usually they are the  where you can find organelles (organ-like structure), cytosol,
molecules of the cell that & inclusions
carry out work (ex: ▪in prokaryotic cell: everything inside the plasma membrane
enzymes) ▪in eukaryotic cell: everything inside the plasma membrane, &
Carbohydrate Monosaccharide Short term of energy as external to the nucleus
s (glycogenstorage from Plasma Membrane  is the selectively permeable membrane enclosing
of glucose) the cytoplasm of a cell
Lipids Fatty Acids Numerous functions (ex: Cytosol  fluid/ liquid portion of sytoplasm
membrane components  where glycolysis & PPP found
of the long term storage Inclusion  include nutrients & cell products
of energy as fat) Cytoskeleton  microfilaments, intermediate filaments, & micortubules
that provide support & movement for
Biochemical System & Organelles of the Living Cells eukaryotic cytoplasm
Cells  basic unit of Life Cytoplasmic Streaming  the movement of cytoplasm in a
 is the structural & functional unit of biology. eukaryotic cellw
Cell Membrane  bilayers, composed mainly of proteins & lipids
for barrier & protection Plasmids  are small, extrachromosomal circular DNA molecules found in
Peripheral  Protein embedded outside cell membrane prokaryotes
receptors carry optional genes
Integral  Protein embedded within cell membrane are circular DNA molecules
 ion-channel  are found in many rypes of bacteria
Organelles  are structure with the specific shapes & specialized functions  replicate independently of the main chromosomes
& are characteristic of eukaryotic cells  *Each cell may contain several copies of plasmids
1. Nucleus  contains genetic material that manufacture nucleic acid Histones  are small basic proteins that participate in forming the
 control center of the cell -(genetic material found in nucleus) nucleosomal structure of the chromatin
 composed of three regions: Microsomes  where fatty elongation occurs
nucleolus (nucleoli)  where RNA & proteins synthesized/ Lysozyme  helps in the removal of danaged cell
site of ribosome assembly  contains a bactericidal agent such as lysozyme that kills
Nuclear membrane or envelope bacteria before it damages the cell
Chromatin (Chromosomes) Mitosis Meiosis
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)  manufacturer & shipper Cell Multiplication Cell Division
 major function: Glycosylation Cytoplasmic Division Both Cytoplasmic & nuclear
 a membranous network in eukaryotic Division of Nucleus into 2 nuclei division occur
cells connecting the plasma membrane Sex Cells/ organelles
w/ the nuclear membrane Somatic Cells Products: Haploid Daughter Cells
 is a system of fluid-filled cisterns Products: Diploid Daughter Cells  half of the total # of
 site of acylglycerol synthesis contain complete set of chromosome
Rough ER  w/ ribosomes on its surface chromosome
 for protein synthesis w/c mostly glycosylated Ex: Human : 46 chromosomes
Smooth ER  w/out ribosomes on its surface (23 pairs)
 for lipid synthesis -22 somatic chromosomes
3. Ribosomes  factory sites of Protein synthesis -1 sex chromosome
Prokayotes  70S (Sub-units: 50s & 30s) Female: XX
Eukaryotes  80S (Sub-units: 60s & 40s) Male: XY
4. Golgi Apparatus/ Bodies  storage site/ packaging counter of the cells
 attachment of CHON in CHON products Defficiency:
 storage of CHON  undergo modification glycosylation Aneuploidy –abnormalities in # of chromosomes
5. Lysosomes ”suicide sacs” (kill or destroy foreign organisms) Trisomy 21/ Down’s Syndrome/ Mongoloids 47 chromosomes
 containing digestive/ hydrolytic enzymes Excess: XXX  superfemale
 animal cells only  mentally retarded
Peroxisomes  H2O;  oxidizes amino acids, fatty acids & alcohols  short life span
 use molecular oxygen to detoxify harmful XXY  Klinefelter’s syndrome (male)
substances  biologically male but exert female –treats
Macrophages  eat foreign maté Ex: Gynecomastia –enlargement of the breast
6. Vacuoles  storage tank of the cell Hypogonadism small testicles
 an intracellular inclusion Short-life span
in eukaryotic  surrounded by a plasma membrane Mentally retarded
in prokaryotic  surrounded by proteinaceous membrane Gold Fish  90 chromosomes (45 pairs)
 II. CLASSES OF PROTEINS BASED ON THEIR COMPOSITIONS:
Proteins  polymers of amino acids –Peptide Bonds A. Simple Proteins  made of Amino acids only
 is a general term for naturally occuring proteins
 polymers that are responsible for the metabolic that yield only alpha amino acids, or their
capabilities & morphology of organisms derivatives on hydrolysis
 very interesting because of their diverse functions Examples:
 are precipitated by Alcohol a. Albumin Egg albumin,
Salts Serum Albumin (plasma)
Inorganic Salts b. Globulin Serum globulin,
Peptide Bonds  formed by dehydration other globulin from seeds
Thyroxine  is aproten biopolymer c. Prolamines Gliadin from Wheat,
 is chemically 3,5,3’5’ –tetraiodothyronine Zein from Corn
 is used as a precursor of Thyroid Hormone d. Glutein/ glutelin glutelin from Wheat
e. Scleroproteins/ Collagen, Elastin, Keratin
Albuminoids
f. Histones Histones & Hemoglobin
I. DYNAMIC FUNCTIONS: g. Protamines Salmin & Sturin in Fish Sperm
1. Storage & Transport Serum  separates from cells when blood is coagulated
Ex: Myoglobulin  carrier of oxygen  liquid protein of the clotted blood
Hemoglobulin  carrier of oxygen
Transferrin  transport from of Iron B. Conjugated Proteins  yield not only amino acids but also other
Ferritin  storage form of Fe organic or inorganic components.
2. Muscular Contraction : Actin & Myosin (their activity is Ca2+ -dep.)  are combined in nature w/ some nonprotein
3. Biological catalyst : Enzymes substances, & are classified according to the
4. Metabolic Control: Hormones nature of their prosthetic group or non-
5. Immune System protein portion
Ex: Immunoglobulin (MADGE) Prosthetic group  the non-amino acid portion of
6. Tissue Differantiation conjugated protein
Stem Cells  undifferentiated Cells Examples:
Beautification : no clinical bases a. Nucleoproteins Nucleic acids combined w/ basic proteins
such as histones & protamines
Upon hydrolysis,
it yield Nucleic Acid & Histone
Found in nucleus, microsomes, &
Mtochodrion
Found in Tobacco mosaic virus
b. Mucoproteins Contain large amount of carbohydrates
(more than 4% of hexosamine)
Found in the blood group substances,
gonadotropin & mucins
c. Glycoproteins Contain small amount of carbohydrates
(less than 4% of hexosamine)
Ex: Gamma-globulin in the blood plasma
d. Lipoproteins Conjugated w/ Lecithin, cholesterol &
other lipids
Found in brain, nerve tissues, & as
structural unit of all cells
Found in beta-lipoprotein of blood
e. Chromoproteins Colored protein
Ex: Hemoglobin &
Respiratory pigments
f. Metalloproteins Contain Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn. Cu, etc
Ex: Iron in Ferritin,
Zn in alcohol dehydrogenase
g. Phosphoproteins Contain phosphorus
Ex: Casein of Milk;
Ovovitellin in egg yolk

 Methods for Determining the purity of Proteins:

SDS-PAGE  polyacrinylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) in the
presence of anionic detergent sodium doudecyl sulfate
(SDS)
Isoelectric Focusing (IEF)  is used in conjuction w/ SDS-PAGE for two-
dimensional electrophoresis
 Ubiquitination  a process by which defective proteins or proteins
destined for rapid turnover are marked for destruction
III. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS ACCORDING TO THEIR THREE-
DIMENSIONAL SHAPE OR GROSS STRUCTURE:
1. Globular Proteins  are soluble in aqueous system & diffuse readily.
a. Albumin  soluble in water & salt solution, has no distinctive
amino acids
b. Globulin  sparingly soluble in water, soluble in salt solution
c. Histones  basic proteins which are soluble in water & salt
solutions
 yield on hydrolysis large amounts of arginine or lysine
 can be extracted from certain glandular tissues such as
thymus & pancreas
d. Protamines  are strongly basic proteins of relatively low
molecylar weight.
 associated w/ nucleic acid & are obtained in large
quantity from ripe sperm cells of fish
 have high nitrogen content because of the presence
of large quantity of arginine but has no sulfur
Ex: Salmin from salmon sperm
Protamine Sulfate  purified mixture of simple protein
principles obtained from the sperm or testes of
suitable species of fish, usually those belonging to
the genera oncorhyncus suckley
e. Insulins  regulatory hormone for controlling metabolism
 promotes glucose transport into skeletal muscle
f. Ribonuclease  enzyme controlling RNA synthesis
g. Immunoglobulions  proteins involved in immune response
h. Hemoglobin  protein involved in Oxygen Transport
i. Prolamines  soluble in 70-80% ethanol, insoluble in water
2. Fibrous Proteins  are water-insoluble & physically tough
V. DERIVED PROTEINS
 serve as structural or protective elements in the organisms
a. Collagen  major protein of the connective tissues in vertebrates
 most abundant of all proteins in mammals,
30% or more of the total proteins
 the major constituent of skin, tendons, bones, blood
vessels, & connective tissues.
Tropocollagen  basic unit of collagen
 a triple helix of three polypeptide
chain
Microfibrillar Collagen  a fibrous water-insoluble
material prepared from
purified bonine corium
collegen
b. Elastins  are present in tendons, arteries & other elastic
tissues/ligaments
c. Keratins  contain large amount of sulfur as cysteine
 found in skin, wool, feathers, silk, fingernails
 major p
proteins kof skin & hair
human hair  14% cysteine
d. Myosin  found in muscle tissues
e. Fibrinogen  found in blood, necessary for blood clotting.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS ACCORDING
TO THEIR BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION:
1. Enzymes  most important class of proteins
 act as biological catalysts
are colloids, soluble in water & diluted alcohol
exhibit optimal activity at 35-40C
 are destroyed at temperature exceeding 65C
 retarded in the presence of heavy metals, formaldehyde,
& free iodine
2. Hormones  proteins that regulate body processes
3. Storage Protein  serve as nutrient stores
Ex: Ferritin, Ovalbumn (eggs)
4. Transport Proteins  have transport function
5. Structural Proteins  forms as organism structure
Ex: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen
6. Protective Proteins
Ex: Antibodies  combine with/ to foreign proteins w/c gain
access to the blood stream that help fight in infection
Fibrinogen & Thrombin  necessary in blood coagulation
7. Contractile Proteins  essential elements in contractile & motile
system
Ex: Actin & Myosin  serve as the major elements in the
contractile system in the muscle
8. Toxic Protein: Ex:
Snake venom  plays a defensive role for the plant & animals
Clostridium Bolinum responsible for some blood poisoning
 are obtained when proteins are altered by chemical or
physical methods
 are proteins that differ only slightly from source original
proteins, & are formed by means of the action of heat,
acids, alakali, water, enzymes, & mechanical shock
1. Primary Protein Derivatives  are proteins that have undergone
slight intramolecular rearrangement
through the hydrolytic action of
certain physical & chemical agents
a. Proteans  insoluble products resulting from the action for a
comparatively short time of water, dilute acid or
enzymes
Ex: Fibrin from Fibrinogen
Myosan from myosin
b. Metaproteins  or infraproteins
 are products of further action of acids & akalies
Ex: Acid & Alkali Albuminates
c. Coagulated Proteins  are insoluble products resulting from
either the action of heat or alcohol
Ex: Coagulated Albumin
Cooked Meat
2. Secondary Protein Derivatives: Proteoses>Peptones>Peptides
a. Proteoses  soluble in water
 will not be coagulated on heating
 can be precipitated by saturating their solutions w/
Ammonium sulfate
b. Peptones  soluble in water
 will not be coagulated on heating
 cannot be precipitated by saturating their solution
w/ ammonium sulfate
certain alkaloidal reagents like Phosphotungstic acid,
precipitate them
c. Peptides  are combination of two or more amino acids, the
carboxyl group of one amino acid being joined to the
amino group of another
VI. LEVELS OF PROTEIN ORGANIZATION
1. Primary Structure  specifies the sequence in which the various
amino acids are linked together.
most important of the four structural levels that
determines the overall shape, function &
properties of protein’s amino acid sequence
 stabilizes by Peptide Bonds
 refers to the order of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain/s & the location of the
disulfide bonds
 unaffected w/ denaturation
Sickle-cell anemia  is caused by a genetic defect in blood
hemoglobin(sticky) whereby Valine is
substituted for Glutamic Acid at only one
position in a chain of 146 amino acids.
2. Secondary Structure refers to how segments of the protein chain
are oriented into a regular pattern
 refers to the spatial arrangements of amino
acid residues close to one another in the
linear sequence of a polypeptide chain
 stabilized by H-bond
Hydrogen Bonding  occurs between
tyrosine residues &
carboxyl groups on
the side chain.
Kinds of Patterns:
a. -helix  encountered in proteins of the globular class
 stabilized by hydrogen bond
 composedof a single linear array of helically disposed
amino acids
Ex: Keratin  fibrous structural proteins found in wool, hair,
fingernails & feathers
b. -pleated sheet  composed of 2 or more different regions of
stretches of at least 5-10 amino acids.
 is pleated, due to positioning of the -
carbons of the peptide bond
Ex: Fibroin  fibrous protein found in silk
c. triple helix  less common kind of Pattern
Ex: Collagen
d. Random Coil
4. Quaternary Structure  in which the individual polypeptide chains fir
each other in the native conformation of an
oligomeric proteins
 2 or more subunits/ domains
 arrangement of polypeptide chains in
relation to one another in multi-chained
protein
 *The bonds linking the quaternary structure
are all noncovalent:
-Hydrogen Bonds
-Electrostatic/ Salt Bonds (ionic Bond)
occurs between basic &
acidic amino acids
-Hydrophobic Bonds
Ex: Collagen  has a complex quaternary structure formed
when many tropocollagen strands aggregate
together by overlapping lengthwise in quarter
stagger arrangement
Edman  the principal method for determining the primary structure of
polypeptides
Denaturation  destruction of 4, 3, 2 level of protein
organization w/ loss of functions
Hydrolysis  destruction of 1
Denaturant  1. High temperature
2. Extreme pH: ionic interaction
3. Organic Solvent: Alcohol
-mercapto ethanol
 Absorbable Surgical Suture
aka “Catgut Suture”
“Surgical Catgut”
“Sugical Gut”
 sterile strand prepared from collagen derived from
healthy mammals or from synthetics polymers
 Non-absorbable Surgical Suture  a strand material that is suitable
resistant to the action of living
mammalian tissues

3. Tertiary Structure  the way in which an entire protein molecule is

coiled or folded into its specific three-
dimensional shape Myoglobulin Hemoglobin
due to interaction of R-group  single polypeptide  2 subunits/ domains
 the overall arrangement & interrelationship of  -helix  70%  subunits: 2 polypeptides
various regions or domains, & individual amino  heme  porphyrin  subunits: 2 polypeptides
acid residues of a single polypeptide chain ring 4
 Examples: Fibrous & Globular Proteins Fe2+  02
nonpolar amino acids hydrophillic interactions Sickle cell anemia: Gene  Hemoglobin
polar amino acid  H-bonding 
acidic AA & basic  ionic interaction Point mutation
Cysteine (-SH)  disulfide bonds Glutamic Acid  one important
Ex: Myoglobulin  relative of hemoglobin; globular protein w/ component of normal
a single chain of 153 amino acid residues hemoglobin
found in the skeletal muscle of sea animals  negative (-)
Bonds Responsible for the Tertiary Structure: Abnormal Hemoglobin
a. Hydrophobic Interaction of non polar side chains the Glutamine
 caused by the mutual repulsion of solvent like becomes Valine
phenylalanine, alanine, & valine 
b. Dipole-dipole Interaction  between serine groups Hydrophobic interaction
c. Disulfide linkage  between two cysteine residues w/c forms 
the cysteine molecules hemoglobin becomes sticky
 responsible for curly hair Red Blood Cell in SCA:
Normal: Disc-shaped
Abnormal: Crescent-shaped
Hemoglobin-C disease: Glu  Lysine

Porphyrin  are involved in the building of Blood

VII. AMINO ACIDS:
Classification of Amino Acids:
1. Common/ Standard Amino Acid  one specific codon causing in DNA
genetic code.
Codon  sequence of three nucleotides specifying an AA.
Degeneracy of Genetic Codon: 6 codons = 1 amino acids
Redundancy/ Generacity  states that a given amino acid
can have more than one codon
that codes for it.
Ex: AUG = corresponds to Methionine standard amino acid.
2. Derived Amino Acid  (from the common)
Ex: Hydroxyproline  collagen (due to rigidity)
Hydoxylysine  found in Elastin system

AMINO ACIDS Methemoglobinemia  results from the oxidation of heme protein in

NAME ABBREVIATIONS ISOELECTRIC POINT hemoglobin resulting to increased oxygen
Amino Acids with Acidic Side Chains (Negatively Charged) affinity, & therefore failure to adequately deliver
Aspartic Acid Asp, D 3.0 oxygen to tissue.
Glutamic Acid Glu, E 3.2 Thalassemia  results from the oxidation of heme protein in hemoglobin
Amino Acids with Basic Side Chains (Positively Charged) resulting to increased oxygen affinity, & therefore failure
Lysine Lys, K 9.7 to adequately deliver oxygen to tissues.
Arginine Arg, R 10.8 Marasmus  aka Protein-Calorie Malnutrition
Histidine His, H 7.6  a state of extreme emaciation
Amino Acids with Polar but Uncharged, Non-Ionic Side Chains  result from chronic deficiency of Calories, which occur even
in the presence of adequate intake of protein
due to OH group (Hydroxyl group)
Kwashiorkor  caused by inadequate intake of protein in the presence of
Serine Ser, S 5.7
adequate in take calories
Threonine Thr, T 5.6
Glucosuria  may occur in other disease states.
Tyrosine Tyr, Y 5.7
Anoxic  inadequate oxygen tension in air (Baguio- high altitude)
due to Amide groups
Anemic  lack of oxygen carriers/ hemoglobin
Aspargine Asn, N 5.4
Stagnant  happens when blood circulation is retarded
Glutamine Gln, Q 5.7
Histotoxic  happens when there is cell defect, & interference of cell
due to SH or Thiol group
metabolism
Cysteine Cys, C 5.0
Atherosclerosis  is the deposition of lipid plaques on the lining of the
due to H group
arteries
Glysine Gly, G 6.0 Gaucher’s Disease  is the accumulation of Glucocerebrosides
Amino Acids with Nonpolar, Hydrophobic Side Chains Tay sach’s Disease  is the accumulation of Gangliosides
with Aliphatic R group
Alanine Ala, A 6.0
Leucine Leu, L 6.0
Isoleucine Ile, I 6.0
Valine Val, V 6.0
Proline Pro, P 6.3
with Aromatic Ring
Phenylalanine Phe, F 5.5
Tryptophan Trp, W 5.9
with Sulfur group
Methionine Met, M 5.7
 Amino Acids Requirements f Humans:
Amino Acids  are the monomeric units of proteins & enzymes Nutritionally Nutritionally
 transported first to the Liver as it enter the Essential Nonessential
circulation Arginine Alanine
General Formula: R  CH  COOH Histidine Aspargine
| Isoleucine Aspartate
NH2 Meucine Glutamate
Characteristics:  are formed from Amphibolic
Methionine Glutamine
1. Amphoteric  able to react chemically as either an acid or a base Intermediates
Phenylalanie Glycine
COOH  acidic Threonine Hydroxyproline
NH2  basic Tryptophan Proline
2. Chirality/ Optical Activity Valine Serine
Except: Glycine Cysteine
3. Zwitter ions/ Dipolar Ions Tyrosine  formed from nutrionally
Isoelectric species is the form of a molecule that has an equal Hydroxylysiine essential amino acids
number of positive & negative charges & thus is electrically neutral.
Isoelectric pH  also called as pI
Cysteine  formed from methionine, which is nutritionally essential
 is the pH midway between pKa values on either side
Cystine  is a dimer of cysteine
of the isoelectric species.
Tyrosine  formed when phenylalanine hydroxylase converts phenylalanie
 pH at which amino acids exist in its Zwitter ion
𝑝𝐾1+𝑝𝐾2  possess a phenolic hydroxyl group
 nonionizable R-group: 𝑝𝐼 =  serves as a precursor in the synthesis of Catecholamines
2
 acidic amino acid: 𝑝𝐼 =
𝑝𝐾1+𝑝𝐾2  is first hyroxylated into 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, which is the
2 rate limiting step of the pathway in the synthesis of Catecholamines
𝑝𝐾1+𝑝𝐾2
 basic amino acid: 𝑝𝐼 = Hydroxylysine  formed from lysine that is catalyzed by lysyl hydroxylase
2
Examples: Glutamate  formed from reductive amination of -ketoglutarate that is
▪for Alanine (that has only two dissociating groups, there is no catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase
ambiquity) Glutamine  formed by the amination of glutamate to glutamine that is
pK1 (R-COOH) = 2.35 catalyzed by glutamine synthesis
pK2 (R-NH3+) = 9.69 Alanine  formed by the transamination of oxaloacetate
𝑝𝐾1 + 𝑝𝐾2 2.35 + 9.69 Aspargine formed when aspartate is catalyzed by Asapargine synthetase
𝑝𝐼 = = = 6.02 Serine  formed by the oxidation of the -hydroxyl group of the glycolytic
2 2
▪for polyfuctional acids, pI is also the pH midway between the pKa intermediate 3-phosphoglycerate converts it to an oxoacids, whose
subsequent transamination & dephosphorylation leads to Serine
values on either side of the ionic species.
Tryptophan  synthesizes Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)as precursor
Aspartic Acid  is used in the synthesis of Niacin (Vitamin B3)
𝑝𝐾1 + 𝑝𝐾2 2.09 + 3.96
𝑝𝐼 = = = 3.02 Histidine  when carboxylated, yield Histamine
2 2 Glycine  formed when aminotransferases can catalyzethe synthesis of
▪for Lysne (basic Amino acids) glycine from glyoxylate & glutamate or alanine
pK1 = 2.2  important portion of hemoglobin
pK2 = 9.2  the only amino acid without an asymmetric carbon
pK3 = 10.8  simplest amino acid
𝑝𝐾1 + 𝑝𝐾2 2.2 + 9.2 Proline formed from glutamate by reversal of the reactions of proline
𝑝𝐼 = = = 5.7
2 2 catabolism
4. UV absorption  responsible for sirupting the -helix
Amino acids do not absrov visible light & thus are colorless, but  has an imino group
Tyrosine Hydroxyproline  formed from proline that is catalyzed by prolyl hydroxylase
Phenylalanine absorbs wavelength(250-290nm) Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine  are nutritionally amino acids,
Tryptophan ultraviolet light Tissue aminotransferases reversibly
Tryptophan  makes the major contribution to the ability of most interconvert all three amino acids, & their
corresponding -keto acids.
proteins to absorb light in the region of 280nm.
-keto acids  can replace their amino
Native Conformation  refers to normal folded protens
acids in the diet
Misfolding(protein)  cause Disease
Selenocysteine  is not normally considered an amino acid present I proteins,
but it occurs at the active sites of several enzymes.
Protein Misfolding Disease: Example of Enzymes:
1. Alzheimers Disease -theoredoxin reductase
Amyloid Precursor protein (APP) secretases  AB40 + AB42 -glutathione peroxidase
 misfolding -deiodinase (that converts thyroxine to triiodothyronine)
Aggregates/ fibrils
 Glutamate  neurotransmitter biosynthesis
L--amino
Brain Tyrosine  formation of thyroid hormones
2. BSE (Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy) acids
Ornithine
 mad cow disease (because first observe in cow) Citrulline participate in urea synthesis
 cause by abnormal prion (proteinaceous protein only) Arginosuccinate
 misfolding D-serine
D-amino Brain tissue
Fibrils infection brain (holes) D-aspartate
acids
Abnormal Prion heat & protease resistance onlty D-alanine Cell walls of gram-positive bacteria
 can misfold the normal prion D-glutamate
Credzfeldt-Jakob  spongiform in human but not the BSE
With exception of Glycine, all naturally occurring amino acids
Chaperons  protein help in the folding of other protein
are L--amino acids
1. Heat-shock proteins
2. Chaperonin
Transamination  conversion amino acids to keto acids.
Aminoacyl residues  Amino acids present in peptides;
 are named by replacing the –ate or –ine suffixes
of free amino acids with –yl
(eg. alanyl, aspartyl, tyrosyl)
-Peptides are the named as derivatives of the carboxyl terminal
amiacyl residue.
Example: Lys-Leu-Tyr-Gln (is called lysyl-leucyl-tyrosyl-glutamine)
The –ine ending on glutamine indicates that its -
carboxyl group is not involved in peptide bond
formation.

Types of Chromatography (prior to Protein Analysis)

Chemical Reactions of Amino Acids & Proteins
1. Column Chromatography  Employs as the stationay phase a
Ninhydrin Reaction  Oxidative deamination
acolum containing small spherical
 used yo detect amino acids in
beads of modified cellulose,
Chromatographic Analysis
acrylamide, or silica whose surface
specific for amino acid & free amino
typically has been coated w/ an
group
chemical functional groups.
yields Blue product w/ all amino acids
2. Partition Chromatography
yields Yellow w/ Proline (imino acid) &
3. Size Exclusion Chromatography  Gel filtration
Hydroxyproline
Biuret Test  general test for proteins, specifically on  Separates proteins based on their
peptide linkage stokes radius, the diameter of the
 protein will give blue-violet color by sphere
using copper sulfate & sodium  Employs porous beads.
hydroxide as reagents 4. Absorption Chromatography  The protein mixture is applied to a
Xanthoproteic Reaction  for tyrosine, tryptophan & column under conditions where
phenylalanine the protein of interest associates
 yields orange or red color with the stationary phase so
Millon-Nasse Reaction  for phenolic ring of tyrosine tightly that is partition coefficient
 gives positive result yielding is essentially unity.
pink / red / old rose color 5. Ion exchange Chromatography  The proteins interact w/ the
Reduced Sulfur Test  or Basic Lead test stationary phase by the charge-
 yield black precipitates w/ cysteine charge interactions
Hopkin’s cole or 6. Hydrophobic Interaction  Separates protein based on their
Glyoxylic Acid Reaction Chromatography tendency to associate w/ a
 for Tryptophan stationary phase matrix coated w/
Adamkiewics Reaction
Erlich’s Reaction hydrophobic groups.
Sakaguchi Reaction/Test for Arginine 7. Affinity Chromatography  Exploits high selectivity of most
Nitroprusside Test  for Cysteine & proteins that have free proteins for their ligands
Basic Lead Aceate Test sulfuhydryl groups 8. HPLC  High-pressure liquid
 yield red color w/ sodium nitroprusside chromatography
Follin’s Reaction  used for rapid quantitative estimation  Can resolve complex mixture of
of amino acids in blood lipids or peptides whose
 gives red color w/ sodium 1,2- properties differ only slightly
naphthoquinone-4-sulfunate
Pauly Diazo Test  for Histidine & Tyrosine
 gives red color w/ diazotized sulfonilic
acid in alkaline solution
ENZYME: Biological Catalyst
▪Ribozymes  RNA molecules (nucleic acid) that function as enzyme
▪Substrate  is a molecule upon in biological reaction by an enzyme
 is a molecule that enters to an enzymatic reaction
▪Cofactors no protein portion
 substances that most enzymes requires for their activities
Coenzyme/ Cosubstrate  are cofactors dissociate from the enzymes
Ex: Organic Compounds derived from vitamins:
NAD+/ NADH  (nicotinamide Adenine reduce
form dinucleotide) B3
FAD+/FADH2  Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
Pyridoxal –Pyridoxamine transferase
 common cofactor of transferase
 Vitamin B2  related to FMN & FAD coenzyme
 FMN & FAD  is responsible for the oxidative deamination
of amino acid.
 TFTA  Tetrahydrofolic Acid
 a coenzyme responsible for carrying 1-carbon
groups.
Prosthetic Group  Fe, Co. Mo. Mn, K, Mg, Se
 cofactors that remain tightly bound to the
enzyme
▪Apoenzyme  protein portion of an enzyme w/out a bound cofactor
▪Holoenzyme  apoenzyme + bound cofactor (coenzyme/ metal)
 active form of an enzyme
▪Zymogen  inactive form of an enzyme
the active site of the enzyme is masked by a small region o its
peptide chain.
Proteases  secreted as inactive Zymogen
Pepsinogen  inactivated to pepsin by gastric acid (HCl)
& by activated pepsin (autocatalysis)
Trypsinogen  in small intestines, precursor of trypsin
 is activated by entropeptidase, which is secreted by
the duodenal epithelial cells
-Trypsin can then activate the following:
Chymotrypsingen to chymotrypsin
Proelastase to elastase
Procarboxypeptidase to carboxypeptidase
Proaminopeptidase to aminopeptidase
Groups of Enzymes (Catalyzes the digestion of Proteins)
1. Endopeptidase4s  hydrolyze peptide bonds between specific amino
acids throughout the molecules.
2. Exopeptidases  catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, one at a
time, from free carboxyl terminal
3. Carboxypeptidase  secreted in the pancreatice juice, release amino
acids from the free carboxyl terminal
4. Aminopeptidases  secreted by the intestinal mucosal, release amino
acids from thee imino terminal
5. Dipeptidase  hydrolyze dipeptide in the bruh border of the intestinal
mucosal cells.
Dipeptides  are not substrates for exopeptidases
Classification of Enzymes (Chronological Order)
-based on the reaction that enzyme catalyzed
1. Oxidoreductases catalyze redox reaction
Subclass:
▪ Oxidases  oxidation of substrate
▪ Reductases  reduction of a substrate
 adds hydrogen atoms to a molecule
▪ Dehydrogenases  introduction of double bond (oxidation) by
formal removal of H2 from substrate
2. Transferases  catalyze the transport of 1 functional group from one
molecule to another
Subclass:
▪ Transaminases  transfer of an amino group to substrate
▪ Kinases  transfer of a phosphate group to substrate
3. Hydrolases  catalyze hydrolytic reaction or the breaking of bond
involving introduction of water
Subclass:
▪ Lipases  hydrolysis of ester groups in lipids
▪ Proteases  hydrolysis of amide group in proteins
▪ Nucleases  hydrolysis of phosphate groups in nucleic acids
Ex: Esterase
4. Lyases  catalyze non-hydrolytic cleavage
 removal of a functional group to form a double bond or
breaking of a double bond by an interaction of a functional
group
Subclass:
▪ Dehydrases  loss of water from substrate
▪ Decarboxylase  loss of carbon dioxide from substrate
5. Isomerase  catalyze intramolecular rearrangement of atoms
Subclass:
▪ Epimerase  isomerization of chiral center in substrate
Ex: Racemase & Mutase
6. Ligases  catalyze reactions that join 2 molecules forming a covalent
linkage using an energy released from hydrolyzing a
pyrophosphate bond
Subclass:
▪ Synthetases  forms new bond between two substrates
▪ Carboxylases  forms new bond between substrate & CO2
EC # (Enzyme commission)  refers to the classification of enzymes
Ex: DNA ligase = connecting the akazaki fragments
Proteases  important group of enzyme
 hydrolyzed proteins
HIV: gagPol protein HIV protease smaller peptides
 X 
capsid can be capsid
inhibited by
▪Saquinavir
▪Indinavir
Bromelin, Bromelain, or Bromelains  is a mixture of protein-digesting
enzymes & milk-clotting
enzymes from Ananas comosus
(Bromelicaceae), commonly
known as Pineapple
Sutilains  are substances containing proteolyics enzymes, which are
topically used as ointments for wounds debridement
 from Bacillus subtilis
Renin is a coagulating enzyme, which curdles the soluble casein in
milk present in the mucous membrane of the stomach in
mammals
Pepsin  is a proteolytic enzyme found in gastric juice
 converts proteins into proteoses & peptones
Trypsin  is formed by the action of enterokinase on trysinogen in the
small intestines
 converts proteoses & peptones into polypeptides & amino
acids
 is a proteolytic enzyme used for the debridement of
necrotic, & pyogenic surface lesions
enzyme that catalyze the hydrolysis of Proteins
Rennin  a proteinase which is found mostly in gastric juice of infants
Papain  found in the unripe papaya tree
 dried & purified latex of the fruit of Carica papaya
 used as an ingredient in cleansing solutions for contact
lenses
 also used as meat tenderizer
 relieve symptoms of episiotomy (vaginal incision)
 active proteolytic enzyme in gastric juice
Chromopapain  is injected in the nucleus pulposus to hydrolyze the
noncollagenous polypeptides or proteins, which
maintain the tertiary structure of chondro
mucuproten.
Hyaluronidase (for Injection)  prepared from mammalian testis
 used as a spreading & diffusing factor
Streptokinase  tx of pulmonary embolism, deep vein thrombosis,
arterial thrombisis, & embolism, arteriovenous
cannula occlusion, & coronary aretery thrombosis
Urokinase  is an enzyme isolated from human urine or from human
kidney cells by tissue culture technique
Invertase (Sucrase)  found in yeast & intestinal juices. Brings about
the hydrolysis of sucrose forming glucose &
fructose
Maltase  found In yeast & intestinal juices
 converts maltose to glucose unit
L-aspariginase  from strains of E.coil
 used to induce hematologic & clinical remissions w/
acute leukemia in children
 possess antitumors
Homogentisate Hydroxylase  is deficient in alkaptonuria
Alpha-Ketoacid Decarboxylase  is deficient in Mapple Syrup Urine
Syndrome, results the
accumulation of branched-chain
amino acids Leucine, Isoleucine,
& Valine
Phosphorylase  adds an inorganic phosphate to break a bond
Aldolase  cleaves a carbon to carbon bond to create an aldehyde
group
-amylase  cleaves amylase to maltose & maltotriose
Pancrelipase  more concentrated for of Pancreatin
 increased 12-fold lipase activity & 4-fold increase
amylase & Protease activity
 used for Steaborrhea because it acts as a digestive aid
by increasing the intestinal absorption of fat.
Peroxidase  an enzyme bring about the oxidation reactions that cause
the discoloration of bruised fruits
Asparaginase  obtained from E. coli
Protopectase  attacks protopectin yielding soluble pectin
Enzymes found in Pancreatic Juice:
-Trypsin (Chymotrypsin)
- Carboxypolypeptidase
Dehydrogenase  3Phosphoglyceraldehyde
to 1,3-Diphosphoglyceric acid
Alcohol Dehydrogenase  Acetaldehyde to Ethanol
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase  Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
Phosphohexose isomerase  Glucose-6-PO4 to Fructose-6-PO4
Pyruvic Acid Decarboxylase  Pyruvic Acid to Acetaldehyde
 Lipoic Acid  aids in he oxidation decarboxylation of
Pyruvic acid w/ Pyruvic acid
dehydrogenase
Phenylalanine Hydoxylase  Phenylalanine to Tyrosine
 its absence results to PKU,Phenylketunuria
(Phenylketone spills in urine)
Citrate Synthase  catalyzes the conversion of Acetyl-CoA &
Oxaloacetate to Citrate
Catalase  Hydrogen Peroxide to water
Uricase  Uric Acid to Allantoin
Human lack the enxyme Uricase.
Uric Acid is the end product of Purine Catabolism
Glucose-6-phosphatase  employed to bypass the hexokinase reaction
 its deficiency predisposes persons taking
some therapeutic agents (ex:
Aminoquinoline, Sulfonamides,
Propantheline) to hemolytic anemia
 is present only in the liver & kidney & not in
the muscle
Hexokinase  glucose to glucose-6-phosphate
 most important enzyme in controlling glycolysis
Fructose biphosphatase  used to bypass the PFK reaction
Pyruvate Carboxylase & PEP Carboxykinase  used to bypass the
pyruvate kinase reaction
of glycolysis
Pyruvate Kinase  is the key enzyme that likns lycolysis, TCA cycle,
amino acid metabolism, & fatty acid oxidation
PFK (Phosphofructokinase)  Fructose-6-PO4 to Fructose-1,6-bisPO4
 most important in controlling glycolysis
Xeroderma Pigmentosa  is a rare human disorder, which progress to
Photosensitivity, caused by inherited
excinuclease deficiency
Maple Syrup Disease  is the genetic condition characterized by
deficiency of the enzyme branched chain
alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase.
 Leucine,
 Isoleucine,
 Valine
Uncompetitive Inhibition  wherein the inhibitor binds to the
enzyme-substrate complex, thus it cannot
dissociate to form the product
Competitive Inhibitor of an enzyme – increases Km w/out affecting
Vmax
 Differences :
Nucleic Acid  polymers of nucleotides DNA RNA
 bind together with Phosphodiester Bond. N-Base
connects successive Purines A, G A,G
monomer units through a Pyrimidine T, C U,C
phosphate residue
Pairing of Bases AT (2 H-bond) AU (3 H-bond)
attached to hydroxyl on
GC (3 H-bond) GC (3 H-bond)
the 5’ carbon of one unit
with the 3’ hydroxyl of the Cellular Nucleus, Nucleus,
next. locomotion Mitochondria Cytoplasm
 responsible for genetic information Predominant (3D-structure) single-stranded molecule
Phosphate Group  responsible or the acidic Structure Double-Helix in most of its biological
character on nucleic acid Watson Crick Model roles and has a shorter
-James Watson chain of nucleotides
Carbon-2  responsible for the difference between -Francis Crick
the two nucleic acid. performed by Rosalin
Two main types:
Franklin
▪ DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries genetic information
Propagation: DNA is self-replicating. RNA is synthesized from
is known as Central information storage molecule
DNA when needed.
 embodies hereditary message of each organism
Types of RNA:
DNA molecules  always double helical/ stranded;
mRNA  random coil
two stands: always in opposite direction
tRNA  cruciform/ clover leaf
Chromosome  where DNA can be found (both animal & plants)
rRNA 16s RNA –(bacteria)  loop/ hair pin
Chromatin  substance that forms chromosomes and contains Complementarity:
 cruciform
DNA, RNA, and various proteins A-T; G-C
 random coil
Gene  section of DNA chain that codes for a single piece of A=T
information needed by the cell C=G
Complementary: *Adenine bins to Thymine
▪ RNA (ribonucleic acid)  responsible for protein synthesis A+G = T+C
*Cytosine binds to Guanine
 transmitters of the genetic information
stored in the DNA Cytosin≡Guanine  form a minor groove.
Nucleotides  building blocks (aka Nucleoside phosphate)
 composed of heterocyclic base, sugar, & phosphoric acid 3’  5’
 structural unit of nucleic acid; a component of RNA & DNA, 5’  3’
consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group.
Nucleosides  component of RNA & DNA consisting of a purine & Carbon 1’  important
pyrimidine base linked to a sugar , especially ribose or nitrogen
deoxyribose. they are attached because Carbon 3’  OH group
of base pairing Carbon 5’  Phosphate group
Purine  pyrimidine only
Selected synthetic Pyrimidine & Purine Analogues:
5-Iodo-2-deoxyuridine
5-Fluorouracil
6-Azauridine
8-Azaguanine
6-Mercaptopurine
6-Thioguanine
Alloburinol
low melting point = rich in A-T pairing
Ex: (ds)double stranded- DNA 30% G, %C,A,T?
30% C
Nitrogen bases/ Heterocyclic Bases: 20 % A
Purine Pyrimidine 20 % T
Adenine Cytosine
Guanine Uracil A-DNA, B-DNA  both right handed double helices
Thymine B-DNA  most common form of DNA
B-DNA  common(most abundant)
Nucleosides Nucleotides  hydrated form; right handed
Nitrogen Ribonucleosides Deoxyribonucleosides Deoxynucleotides  has 10 nucleotides per turn
base RNA DNA DNA A-DNA  dehydrated form; right handed
Uracil Uridine    has 11 nucleotides per turn
Thymine  Thymidine Thymidylate Z-DNA  rare, left-handed
Cytosine Cytidine Deoxycytidine Deoxycytidylate  has 12 nucleotides per turn
Adenine Adenosine Deoxyadenosine Deoyadenylate  most stable in vitro during methylation or negative supercoiling
Guanine Guanosine Deoxyguanosine Deoxyguanylate SS-DNA  single stranded DNA
 loop hairpin structure
Pyrimidine  is a 6-membered ring, w/ two nitrogen atoms.
intrastand pairing
Thymine  is present only in DNA
Palidromic sequence is a sequence made up of nucleic
Glycosidic Bond  bond between the 1’ carbon of the sugar & the base acids within double helix of DNA and/or RNA that is the
nitrogen same when read from 5’ to 3’ on one strand and 3’ to 5’
Some Nucleic Bases are capable of Tautomirization. on the other, complementary strand. It is also known as
-Tautomirization  refers to aldose-ketose interconversion a palindrome or an inverted-reverse sequence.
Alkylating Agents  alkylate Guanine
The Central Dogma of Genetic Mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA
Types of Mutation:
Frameshift mutation alteration of amino acids/base
Transcription/
Nonsence mutation  substitution of bases resulting in a
Gene expression Translation nonsense codon
DNA RNA Proteins  occurs when the codon containing the
change base may become a termination
Replication (reverse transcription, reverse transcriptase) codon
 Process of transferring information to DNA for conservation of Missence mutation  substitution of bases in an amino acid
substitution in a synthesized protein
inherited traits. Spontaneous  occur in the absence of any mutation-causing
process by which a “replica” or identical copy of DNA is made so agent
that information can be preserved and handed down too offspring Silent Mutation  result of a point mutation that occurs when
Semiconservative Replication  when the two starnds of the DNA UCA (coding for serine) is converted to UCU
double helix are separated, each strand can (also coding for serine
Point Mutation:
serve as a template for the replication of a
-Tranversional Mutation  DNA mutation occurs when a
new complementary strand. purine replaces pyrimidine, or vice
1.template: double stranded versa
2. monomer: dNTPs (dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP) -Transitional Mutation  purine replaces purine
activated form of monomers/ nucleotide -Insertion
-Deletion
3. helicases: unwind double stranded-DNA
Transcription (gene \expression)
is the synthesis of RNA from DNA
RNA copies information contained by the DNA by making
complementary strand to the latter
4. topoisomerases  relieve super coiling process by which the genetic messages contained in DNA are
E.col: DNA gyrase = floroquinolones “read”, or transcribed, & carried out of nucleus to parts of the cell
5. Single strand-binding Proteins called ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs
Protein  “ron out” SS-DNA
Reverse Transcription  DNA from RNA
 prevent intrastrand pairing
6. Primase  dnaG Gene  fragment of DNA
requied in the synthesis of the RNA primers Prokaryotes: 1 gene  may encode several protein
7. DNA polymerase  can’t initiate polymerization  polycistronic
 synthesis of DNA Eukaryotes: 1 gene  1 protein
 responsible for removing the RNA primer on *Eukaroyte-Methionine  is an accurate pairing of the
DNA organism & its start codon
I II III 1. Template = gene
only one  involve in fastest enzyme one strand as template
to remove DNA repair responsible for template strand
DNA the synthesis coding strand  complimentary of template strand
primers of Okazaki TEMPLATE
frament 5’ 3’ STRAND

  
5’  3’ DNA A G T A C G A T A G
▪Polymerase activity strand T C A T G C T A T C CODING
3’ 5’

  
3’  5’ U C A U G C U A U C
STRAND
RNA
▪Exonuclease activity 5’
transcript 3’
(removal of
nucleotide from 3’
Antiparallel: “Each end of the DNA helix contains the 5’ end of
5’ direction)
one strand & the 3’ end of the other strand.”
▪Proof reading ability
2. RNA polymerase  does not require a primer

  
5’  3’
 can initiate polymerization
▪Exonuclease activity
 does not posses proof reading activity
(removal of RNA
Primer  a short piec of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA), base-
primers)
paired w/ a DNA template strand & provides a
free 3’-OH end from which DNA polymerase
8. DNA ligase  connect the okazaki fragments
can extend a DNA strand
Okazaki Fragments discontinous stretches in which the lagging
Rifampicin  binds to bacterial RNA polymerase
strand is initially synthesized during DNA
1. mRNA  act as template for translation (synthesis of protein)
replication
 carrier of codons
mutation (occurs in DNA mismatch) sequence of 3 nucleotides
specifying an amino acid
2. tRNA  adaptor molecule of amino acid
 carrier of carrier of anticodon
The Sequence of the Major Events in DNA Replication: sequence of 3-nucleotide
1. DNA double helix is opened by helicases complementary to a specific
2. Primase creates a temporay RNA primer for each DNA strand codon.
3. DNA polymerase at the replication fork synthesize DNA in 5’ to 3’ AUC =aniticodon of AUG, methionine
direction. There are two strands, the leading & lagging strands.
3. rRNA  together w/ other proteins make up the ribosomes
4. DNA polymerase removes RNA primer & fills the gaps between the
Okazaki fragments ribosomes – site of protein synthesis.
5. DNA ligase joins DNA fragments of the lagging strand, creating a 30s  5s rRNA + 16s rRNA +  20 other proteins
single DNA molecules 50s  25s rRNA + other proteins
Translation
 synthesis of proteins based on the codons specified by the mRNA
process by which the genetic messages are decoded & used to
build proteins
 process determining amino acid sequence; the process by which
information in messenger RNA directs the sequence of amino
acids assembled by a ribosomes during protein synthesis

Translation
mRNA Proteins

Three Main Steps in Protein Synthesis:

1. Initiation  Start Codon: AUG
▪Shine-Dalgarno Sequence  recognition site for 30s
sequence
2. Elongation  continuation of reading of codon by 3
3. Termination  Stop codon: UAG
UGA
UAA
Introns  refers to the noncoding regions that alternate w/
coding regions in the polypeptide sequence
Operon  refers to the set of prokaryotic structural genes, which
are transcribed as a unit, along w/ regulatory
elements controlling their expression.

Watson-Crick Model for DNA:

Codon a series of three nucleotides in mRNA that specifies the
insertion of an amino acids into a polypeptide
64 codons
61 sence codons code for amino acid
3 nonsence codone (stop codons) do not code for amino acid
Wobble  the ability of certain anticocon to pair w/ codons that
differ at the third base.
Wobble Hypothesis  Concept by which a tRNA can recognize more
than one codon for a specific amino acid by
allowing movement in the first base of the
anticodon
 DNA consists of a two-strand double helix
 Pairing is A-T & G-C
 Secondary Structure of Nucleic Acid is composed of a
double helix stranded stabilized by H-bond
 The chain are complementary & Antiparallel
Dactinomycin (Actinomycin-D)  intercalate w/ the minor
groove of the double helix
 inhibit the transcription
Benzopyrene  mutagenic substance, obtained from smoking
cigarettes.
 intercalate w/ DNA & causes Frameshift
mutation
Carbohydrates  hydrates of carbon
 energy-giving
 are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of
polyhydric alcohol
 defined as polyhydroxylated compounds w/
at least three carbon atoms that may or may  Epimers  differ only in configuration at one asymmetry carbon
not possess carbonyl group atom
Biulding blocks: Monosaccharides (connected by Gylycosidic-bond) ▪ D-glucose/ D-mannose Epimers at 2
▪ D-glucose/ D-galactose Epimers at 4
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES: ▪ D-glucose/ D-fructose aldoes-ketose pair
MONOSACCHARIDES  are those carbohydrates that cannot be  functional
hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates. Pyranose  cyclic form of glucose
 or simple sugar ; building blocks
Sugar  united only for monosaccharides
 1,4 glycosidic bond  favored point of hydrolysis of sugars to
monosaccharides
Classification of Important Simple Sugars: Hemiacetal formation  Cyclic Structure
Number General Names Specific Examples  can be presented
of Aldoses Ketoses Aldoses Ketoses Haworth Projection
Carbons (RCHO) (RCOR (RCHO) (RCOR (anomer)
3 Trioses Triulose Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone Mannose  forms an insoluble white Phenylhydrazone readily
4 Tetrose Tetrulose Erythrose Erythrulose
5 Pentose Pentulose Ribose Ribulose
6 Hexose Hexulose Glucose Fructose
 Anomer  differ only in configuration at Carbon #1
Open-chain = Fischer Projection Formula

-anomer -anomer
Alpha Anomer  most stable anomer of glucose

D-glucose D-mannose D-glactose D-fructose

D(-)glucose DISACCHARIDES  condensation products of two monosaccharide units
most  C12H22011
abundant in Examples:
nature Sucrose  glucose + fructose
D-glucose D-glucose O--D-Glucopyranosyl-(12)- -D-fructofuranoside
Haworth Projection Chair Projection Lactose  glucose + galactose
O--D-Galactopyranosyl-(14)- -D-Glucopyranose
Maltose  (2) glucose ( 14)
O--D-Glucopyranosyl-(14)- -D-Glucopyranose
Cellulose  (2) glucose ( 14)
Sucrose  only non-reducing sugar

Glucose  is the most important carbohydrate
 is the major metabolic fuel of mammals (except ruminant)
& a universal fuel of the fetus
 is stored in the liver as Glycogen
 present in Human Blood: 60 to 90 mg in 100 mL blood
OLIGOSACCHARIDES  condensation product of 2 -10 monosaccharides
Examples: Maltotriose 3 glucose units
Dextrin
Trisaccharide: Raffinose (Melizitose, Melitriose)
Gentianose
POLYSACCHARIDES 2. Structural Polysaccharide
 condensation product of more than ten monosaccharides a. Cellulose  is the chief constituent of the framework of plant
 may be linear or branched polymer  most abundant organic compound in the world
 sometimes classified as hexosan or pentosans, depending upon b. Pectin  has a structure that is known to be linear
the identity of the constituents monosaccharides polygalacturonic acid.
▪ Pentosans: Araban (gum Arabic)  extracted from plants exhibit remarkable jelly-
Xylan (coin cobs) forming capacity
▪ Hexosans: a. Glucans – starch, dextrin, cellulose  generally present in the cell wall
b. Fructan – inulin c. Alginic Acid  is also linear-like pectin & cellulose
c. Mannans
 found in brown algae & kelp (seaweed)
d. Galactans (guso)
 used as thickeners, emulsifiers, stabilizer, & as
1) Homopolysaccharides  only 1 type of monosaccharide
hydrophilic agent in medical & cosmetic ointment
▪Glucans (glucose) bases.
1. Cellulose  structural polysaccharides in plant; d. Carragheenan  found in red seaweeds
 -1,4 (linear)
 used in preparation of chocolate drinks to hold
 dietary fiber
cocoa particles
2. Starch  Storage of Polysaccharide In plants  used in the treatment of peptic ulcer when
components: degraded
Amylose Amylopectin e. Agar  occurs in red algae, Gelidium cartilagenium
-amylose -amylose  used in making make-ups
Linearity Linear Branched  contains two fractions:
- 1,4 (every 25-30 units)
 Agarose
- 1,4 & -1,6
 Agaropectin
3. Glycogen – storage polysaccharides in animals
f. Chitin  is the structural polysaccharide in the exoskeleton
(highly branched) more branched than starch
of crustaceans (an animal with hard shell, usually
 1-4;  1-6 (branches every 8-12 units)
living a water, e.g. crabs) & insects & also in
 stored in the liver & skeletal muscles
mushrooms & in slimming capsules
▪ Chitin
Chitin  structural polysaccharides in animals & fungi 3. Glycosaminoglycans (mucopolysaccharides)
 homopolyglycan of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) mixed polysaccharides
 repeating units of chitin  are complex carbohydrates characterized by their content of
found in exoskeleton amino acids & uronic acids,
2) Heteropolysaccharides more than one type of when attached to proteins, result is proteoglycan
polysaccharides Proteoglycan  provide the ground or packing substance of
Repeating units: Disaccharides connective tissue
Ex: Hyluronic Acid  from “hyalos” (means glass) a. Heparin  possesses anticoagulant properties
 vitreos humor  prevent the clotting of blood by inhibiting the
synovial fluids conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
Chondroition SO4  chondros (clotting factor)
Dermatan SO4  skin
b. Hyaluronic Acid  appears to serve as an integral part of the gel-
Keratan SO4  nails
like ground substances of the connective
Heparan SO4 anticoagulant
tissue, & other tissues, & a lubricant & shock
Agarose  seaweeds
absorber in joints.
Peptidoglycan  important component of cell wall of gram(+)  present in the synovial fluid of joints, in
bacteria vitreous humor (found in eyes) & in the
 is a cross-linked, multi-layered polysaccharide-
umbilical cord.
peptide complex used as the basis of Gram
c. Chondroitin Sulfate  principal mucopolysaccharides on the
staining
extracellular ground substance & also in cell
-N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
coats.
-N-acetylmuramic Acid (NAM)
 are major components of cartilage, bone,
Types of Polysaccharides based on their biological function:
cornea, & other tissue structure in the
1. Storage Polysaccharides
vertebrates
a. Starch  primary reserve carbohydrates in plants.
 most abundant dietary carbohydrate in cereals,
potatoes, legumes, & other vegetables
4. Glycoproteins (mucoproteins)  occurs in many different situations in
 composed of Amylose & Amylopectin
fluids & tissues, including the cell
b. Glycogen  is the storage polysaccharide in animal tisues membranes
 similar to amylpectin, but more highly branched than are proteins containing branched or
amylopectin unbranched oligosaccharide chains
c. Inulin  is a polysaccharide of fructose ( & hence a fructosan), a. Sialic Acid  are N- or O-acyl derivatives of neuramic acid
found in tubers, & roots of daqblias, artichokes, &  are both constituents of glycoproteins & gangliosides
dandelions Gangliosides  a lipid occurring in the brain, nerves, and red
 readily soluble in water blood cells
 used to determine the Glomerular Filtration Neurominic Acid  is a nine-carbon sugar derived from
d. Dextrans  storage polysaccharides found in yeast & bacteria monosamine (an epimer of glucosamine) &
 is strongly coiled & flexible macomolecules pyruvate
 used as plasma expander
Dextrin  are intermediates in the hydrolysis of
starch
Isomers  are compounds w/c have the same molecular formula, but
have different atomic arrangement

Types of Isomers:
1. Functional Isomers  differ in their physical properties
Ex:

Reactions of Carbohydrates:
1. Dehydration (action of Acid)
a. Molisch Test  aka “Alpha-Naphthol Reaction”
 general test for Carbohydrates
Dimethyl Ether Ethyl Alcohol  gives purple colored ring
2. Stereoismers  different arrangement of atoms or groups in three b. Bial’s Test  for pentoses
dimensions.  yields Green Color (sometime blue)
a. Geometrical or Cis-Trans Isomers  the trans isomers are more
c.Tollen’s Test  uses Ploroglucinol
stable than the cis isomers
 gives violet-red color
Ex:
d. Seliwanoff’s Test  aka “Resorcinol Test for Ketones”
 indicates the presence of ketones
 differentiating test for aldose & ketose sugars
 gives rose pink color/ cherry red color
e. Tauber’s Test  aka “Aminoguanidine Reaction”
Trans-Butynedionic Acid Cis-Butynedionic ACid  for ketoses, yeilds bright Reddish purple color
(Fumaric Acid)
b. Optical Isomer  also called as optical antipodes, or enantiomorphs, 2. Reaction w/ alcohols: Acetal or Glycoside Formation
or enantiomers. when an aldehyde reacts w/ 2 equivalents of alcohol,
▪ Dextrorotatry (+)a substance whose solution rotates the plane of the products is ACETAL.
polarized light to the right
▪ Levorotatry ()a substance whose solution rotates the plane of 3. Reactions w/ Oxidizing Agents: Reducing Sugars
polarized light to the left Reduction Tests:
Ex: a. Benedicts Reagent  Cu2+ & Sodium Citrate (color Blue)
 Traces sugar =geen
Moderate amount = yellow
and or yellow orange
Big amount of sugar = red orange or red
b. Barfoed’s Test  Copper Acetate, Acetic Acid
c. Anomers  difference resides in the steric arrangement about  used to distinguished monosaccharides from
carbon atom one, carbonyl carbon of the linear formula disaccharides
& the ketonic carbon ex: Galactose from Lactose
 these carbons are called “Anomeric Carbon Atom” Maltose from Fructose
d. Epimers  differ only in the configuration of a single asseemtric c. Mucic Acid Test  used to demonstrate either lactone or
carbon atom galactose or both
d. Fehling’s Test  Cuprous Oxide (-indicator)
 Confiramatory test for Glucose
 detect Aldehydes & Sugar
 gives a positive result brick red precipitate
 pH of the Solution  lies the difference between Benedict’s &
Barfoed’s Test reagent

4. Reduction of Monosaccharides
5. Reaction w/ Phenyhydrazine
6. Fermentation  anaerobic process
 hydrolysis of carbohydrates into simple alcohols &
ketones by microorganisms
7. Ester formation
Lipids  permanent storage of energy
 are water-insoluble organic substances found in cells, which
are soluble in non polar solvents such as chloroform, ether,
methanol, hexane, & benzene
 heterogenous group of compounds
 composed of five element:
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus

CLASSIFICATIONS:
I. Storage/ Neutral Lipids 2. Unsaturated fatty acids
A.Triglycerides/ Triacylglycerols (TAGs) Monounsaturated/ Monoenoic Acid: (one double bond)
 ester of glycerol fatty acids ▪ Palmitoleic Acid (16:1 )  contains 16C w/ 1 double bond
9
 storage form of fatty acids in humans
(cis-9-hexadecanoic acid)
▪ Oleic Acid (18:1 )  at position between 9&10
9

(cis-9-octadecanoic acid)
▪ Elaidic Acid (18:1 )  (trans-9-octadecanoic Acid)
9

▪ Nervonic Acid (20:1 )  (cis-15-tetracosanoic Acid)

15

Polyunsaturated (Polyethanoid; Polyenoic Acid)

1. Saturated fatty acids  no double bonds  Dienoic Acids (2 double bonds)
▪ Linoleic Acid (18:2 )  (9,12-octadecanoic Acid)
9,12
# of Common Name Systematic Name Formula
C CnH2n+1COOH  Trienoic Acid (3 double bonds)
▪ Linolenic (18:3
9,12,15
1 Formic Acid Methanoic Acid HCOOH )  (9,12,15-ocatadecatrienoic Acid)
2 Acetic Acid Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH  Tetraenoic Acid (4 double bonds)
▪ Arachidonic Acid(20:4
3 Propionic Acid Propanoic Acid CH3CH2COOH 5,8,11,14
)
4 Butyric Acid Butanoic Acid CH3(CH2)2COOH (5,8,11,14-Eicosatetranoic Acid)
5 Valeric Acid Pentanoic Acid CH3(CH2)3COOH can be synthesized through the bne
6 Caproic Acid Hexanoic Acid CH3(CH2)4COOH
8 Caprylic Acid Octanoic Acid CH3(CH2)6COOH Palmitoleic, Oleic, Linolenic,Linoleic & Linolenic
10 Capric Acid Deccanoic Acid CH3(CH2)8COOH are the most abundant unsaturated fatty acids in animal
12 Lauric Acid Dodecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)10COOH lipids
14 Myristic Acid Tetradecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)12COOH Linoleic, Linolenic, Arachidonic
16 Palmitic Acid Hexadecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)14COOH  are the three essential fatty acids
18 Stearic Acid Octadecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)16COOH Omega  refers to VH3 Methyl group
20 Arachidic Acid Eicosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)18COOH Fatty Acids are aliphatic carboxylic acids
22 Behemic Acid Docosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)20COOH  occur mainly as esters in natural fats & oils but do
24 Lignoceric Tetracosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)22COOH not occur in the unsterified from as free fatty acids,
Acid a transport form found in the plasma.
 are usually straight-chain derivatives containing an
Palmitic Acid & Stearic Acid  most abundant in human & animals even number of carbon atoms.
Acetic Acid  considered as a universal precursor for fatty acids,  the chain may be saturated or unsaturated
lipids, & other organic plant products

B. Waxes  esters of Fatty acids w/ high molecular weight monohydric

alcohol
Ex: Beeswax
Carnauba wax
Lanolin
Spermacetti
II. Structural Lipid  major component of ell membrane
A. Phosphoglycerides  aka. Phospholipids
 esters of glycerol fatty acids, phosphate, polar
head group
 lipids containing , I addition to fatty acids & an
alcohol, phosphoric acid residue. They
frequently have nitrogen-containing bases &
other substituents.

Ex: Polar head group

phosphatidic acid  simplest phosphoglyceride
 parent compound of
a. Choline phospHatidyl choline (lecithin) all phophoglycerides
b. Ethanolamine phosphotidyl ethanoloamine (Cephalie)
– most abundant
c. Serine phosphatidyl serine
Inositol phosphatidyl inositol – secondary messenger
Glycerol phosphatidyl glycerol – cardiolipin
amino alcohol
backbone of
Sphingomyelin

from a-b – are all major component of Cell membrane

 bilayer
degradation of inositol
use in the synthesis of secondary phosphoglycerides

Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithins)
 phosphoacylglycerol containing choline
 are the most abundant phospholipids of the cell
membrane & represent a large proportion of the body’s
store of choline
 a substance also present in soybean that can be found
in number of proprietary products that are useful in
Phosphatidylethanolamine controlling derange lipid & cholesterol metabolism
Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin) Choline  is important in nervous transmission, as
(Cephalin)
acetylcholine, as a store of a labile methyl groups
Rosenheim’s Test  used to detect the
presence of Choline
 form White Crystalline ppt.
 Dipalmitoyl Lecithin  is a very effective surface active agent
& major constituents of the
“surfactant” preventing adherence,
due to surface tension, of the inner
Phophatidylinositol Phosphatidylglycerol surfaces of the lungs.
 its absence from the lungs of
premature infants cause
“Respiratory Distress Syndrome”
 Phosphatidylethanolamine (Cephalin)  Plasmalogen
 Phosphatidylserine (found in most tissue)
 differ from phosphatidylcholine nly in that
ethanolamine / serine, respectively replaces choline.
Phosphatidylserine
B. Sphingolipids  sphingosine, fatty acids, polar head group
amide bond
Ceramide  amide of sphingosine + fatty acids
 parent compound of Sphingolipids
+ phosphocholine/ phosphoethanolamine  sphingomyelins
+ monsaccharide (glucose/galactose)  cerebrosides

Neutral + disaccharides/ neutral oligosaccharide  globosides
+ charged oligosaccharide  ganglioside  ()
Because of N-acetylneuraminic Acid
(sialic Acid)
Sphingophospholipids – the alcohol is Sphingosine
Glyrophospholipids – the alcohol is Glycerol
Glycolipids (Glycosphingolipids) – lipid containing fatty acids,
sphingosine, & carbohydrates
are important in nerve tissues &
in the cell membrane
Cerebrosides  are lipids that contain carbohydrate
(galactose or glucose), one fatty acid &
sphingosine but no phosphoric acid or
glycerol
 are positive in Molisch & Lassaignes Tests
 found in high concentration in brain &
nerve cells
Galactosylceramide  is a major glycosphingolipids in brain
& other nervous tissues
Glucosylceramide  is the predominant simple
glycosphingolipid or extraneural
tissues
Gangliosides  are complex glycosphingolipids derived from
glucosylceramide that contain in addition
one or more molecules of a sialic acid.
 are compounds related to cerebrosides that
contain sphingosine, long-chain fatty acids,
hexoses (usually galactose or glucose), &
neuraminic acid.
Neurominic acid  is the principal sialic acid found in
human tissues.
Cytopilins  contain fatty acids, sphingosine, glucose &
galactose
Sphingosine  complex amino alcohol
 Sphingomyelins  are found in the nervous system
 yield fatty acids, phosphoric acid, holine, & a
complex amino alcohol(sphingosine)
Lysophospahtidylcholine  or Lysolecithin
 are intermediate in the metabolism
of phosphoglycerols
C. Sterols  precursor in the synthesis of sex hormones
 Stigmasterol, Sitosterol – plants
 Ergosterol – fungi
 Cholesterol – animals
 very important as structural component of all membrane
 for synthesis of sex hormones & bile acids
 for rigidity & fluidity of cell membrane structure
 Examples of Bile Acid derived form Cholesterol:
Liver: Cholic Acid, Chenodeoxycholic Acid
Intestine: Deoxycholic Acid, Lithocholic Acid
Bile Acid – produce in the liver but store at gallbladder.
III. Terpenoids
polymers of Isoprene Units
 fat soluble vitamin (ADEK)
Vitamin A  general antioxidant by singlet oxygen quencher
 maintains the integrity of epithelial membranes
 essential in the formation of rhodopsin & the normal
functioning of the retina
 was the first fat-soluble vitamin discovered
 Retinol  major natural form of Vitamin A
 Carotenoids  ,,-carotenes (pro vitamin A)  orange
 Zeaxanthine & Lutein  yellow
(these compound can be
converted to Vitamin A)
 Lycopene  red
Most effective singlet oxygen quenchers
 Carrots  good source of Vit A
Vitamin D  synthesized in the skin through the action of sunlight
 Calciferol
 Other Forms of Vitamin D:
1. Ergocalciferol (Vit D2)  plant steroid ergosterol
2. Colecalciferol (Vit D3)  animal species
3. Dihydrotachysterol  is a synthetic substance formed by
the reduction of tachysterol
 closely related to ergosterol
4. 7-Dehydrocholesterol  is converted to calciferol upon
exposure to ultraviolet light
 Cod Liver Oil  good source of Cod Liver Oil
Vitamin E  prevents lipid peroxidation
 truly antiaging vitamin
Vitamin K  important in blood coagulation
Lypolysis  is a triglyceride hydrolysis
 liberates free fatty acid from their main storage
depots in the triglycerides
 begins in the intestinal hydrolysis of dietary
triglycerides by pancreatic lipase
Nitrogen Balance  difference between intake & output of
nitrogenous compounds
- Intake = Output  Equilibrium Nitrogen Balance
- Intake < Output  Negative Nitrogen Balance
 occurs when dietary
intake is less than
excretion of
nitrogenous
compounds
occurs during
Starvation
- Intake > Output  Positive Nitrogen Balance
results when there is
too much protein
intake
IV. Eicosanoids  aka “Arachidonic Acid”
 compounds derived form eicosa-(20-carbon) polyenoic
fatty acids
Examples: (for fever, pain & inflammation)
Prostanoids  via the cyclooxygenase pathway
Prostaglandin  PG: PGE1, PGE2, PGF2 ;
derivatives of Prostanoic Acid
exist in virtually every mammalian tissue,
acting as local hormones.
a hormone-like substance that is Salkowski Test (Sulfuric Acid Test)
released by damaged cells, intensifies  test for Cholesterol
inflammation  Positive visible result: Play of colors from bluish-
lipid metabolite formed in the body from red to cherry-red & purple
essential unsaturated fatty acids from in the chloroform layer, &
the diet the acid layer assuming a
Linoleic Acid  most important dietary marked green fluorescence
precursor of Liebermann-Burchard Test (Acetic Acid-Sulfuric Acid Test)
prostaglandins  test for Cholesterol
Seminal Fluid  contains the highest  Positive visible result: The solution becomes red,
concentration & greatest then blue, & finally bluish
number of prostaglandins green in color
Main classes of PG: A, B, E, & F
Prostacyclin PGI2
Thromboxane TXA2
 for platelet aggregation,
inhibited by Aspirin.
Aspirin cannot dissolve clots but
it can prevent through
the action of TXA2
Leukotrienes LT: LTB, LTC, LTD ;
for inflammation & bronchoconstriction
is a product of arachidonic acid
metabolism via the lipooxigenase
pathway

Lipoproteins plasma Lipids

▪ Four Major Lipid Classed (present in Lipoproteins)
Triacylglycerols (16%)  is the predominant lipid in
chylomicrons & VLDL
Phospholipids (30%)
predominant lipids in LDL & HDL
Cholesterol (14%)
Cholesteryl ester (36%)
Free Fatty Acid (4%) smaller fraction of unsterified
long-chain fatty-acids
is metabolically most active of the
plasma lipids
▪ For Major Groups of Lipoproteins
Chylomicrons 98% lipids;  derived from intestinal
2% proteins absorption of triacylglycerol &
other lipids
 transport lipids resulting from
digestion & absorption
VLDL 80% lipids; pre- -lipoproteins
(Very Low- 20% proteins derived from the liver for the
density export of triacylglycerol
Lipoproteins)
LDL 75% lipids;  -lipoproteins
(Low-density 25% proteins  representing a final stage in the
Lipoproteins) catablosim of VLDL
deliver cholesterol to the
tissues
HDL 60% lipids; -lipoproteins
(High-density 40% proteins  involved in VLDL &
Lipoproteins) chylomicrons metabolism &
also in cholesterol transport
remove cholesterol from the
tissues in the process known as
“reverse cholesterol transport”
Metabolism the sum total of many organic reactions that go on
in cell
 sum of a series of chemical reactions usually
catalyzed by enzymes & physical processes
leading to the synthesis of macromolecules o its
breakdown to small precursor molecules
Catabolism pathway to break molecules apart
 involves the breakdown of micromolecules
 large molecules to smaller molecules
 energy production
Anabolism  pathway that put building blocks back together to assemble
larger molecules
 involves the synthesis of macromolecules
 small to larger molecules
 energy expenditure
▪ Coenzyme A  larger carrier molecule
 invole in oxidation of fatty acid
 Precursor: Pantothenate
▪ Acetyl Coenzyme A  is an intermediate in the break down of all main
classes of food molecules
 is the common product of all biopolymers after
digestion & absorption, then enter the Citric
Acid Cycle to be oxidized
 building blocks of Polyketides
 enters citic acid cycle & undergoes Oxidation
 combines w/ Oxaloacetate to form Citrate
 1 Acetyl CoA = 12 ATP

▪ ATP  Adenosine Triphosphate;

 Energy Carrier;
 end product of metabolism
 utilizable form of energy in the cells
 is not the energy but the energy is stored in ATP molecules
 energy is utilized if :
ATP + H2O  ADP + Pi energy
ADP + Pi  ATP + H2O (required energy)
 energy is utilized if ATP is hydrolyzed by ADP & inorganic PO4
because this hydrolysis is accompanied by high amount of Generation of
energy ATP from
Ways to produce/ synthesize ATP: Catabolism of
1. Substrate level Phosphorylation Macromolecules
coming from molecules w/ high group transfers potentials
Ex: PEP + H2O  pyruvate + Pi energy
ADP + Pi  ATP + H2O .
PEP + ADP  pyruvate + ATP
2. Oxidative Phosphorylation  Synthesis of ATP by Phosphorylation
Electron Tansport Chain
of ADP using the energy derived from
 is the final common pathway by which electrons derived from
the transport of e in the ETC.
the different fuels of the body flow to oxygen.
 process in which reelase of energy
 occur in Inner Mitochondrial membrane
from energy rich molecules such as
glucose & fatty acids occurs in
mitochondria
Four enzyme complexes of the Electron Transport Chain:
ADP + Pi  ATP + H2O (requires energy from ETC)
▪ Complex I: NADH- CoQ Oxireductases (NADH-Q reductase)
ETC (Electron-Transport Chain)  NADH-FADH2 transfer of e  Responsible for the transfer of electron of
to oxygen NADH  Q (accompanied by 4H+(protons) = 1 ATP)
 occurs in Inner Mitochodrial ▪ Complex II: Succinate-CoQ Oxidoreductases (Succinate Dehydrogenase)
matrix  point of entry of
 produces ATP & water FADH2  Q (no protons/ energy are generated)
 ETC participants: ▪ Complex III: CoQ-Cytochrome Oxidoreductases (Cytochrome reductase)
- e carrier; complimentary to Complex I & II
- reducing equivalents Q  Cytochrome-C (4H+(protons) = 1 ATP)
▪ Complex IV: Cytochrome Oxidase
 to pass the electron
Cytochrome-C  O2 (final e acceptor) –(2H+ = 1 ATP)

Complex V: ATP synthase

responsible for ATP phosphorylation;
requires Oxidative Phosphorylation.
ADP + Pi  ATP + H2O

I, III, IV 1 NADH  3 ATP/ 2.5 ATP

substrate of Kreb Cycle: acetyl group/ acetyl CoA
 2C -can be obtained III, IV 1 FADH2  2 ATP/ 1.5 ATP
 Krebs Cycle Tricarbolic Acid Cycle (TCA)
 Citric Acid Cycle
 is a sequence of eight-catalyzed steps that acts as the
body’s primary energy producers
 aerobic pathway
 central hub in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids &
amino acids
 acetyl groups are completely oxidized to CO2
 is an example of an amphibolic metabolism
acts as links between anabolic &
catabolic
 Function: To generate the reducing equivalence in the
from of ATP through electron transport
oxidative phosphorylation sequence.
Eryhtrocyte  incapable of TCA

Rotenone  blocks the transport from NADH to Q Acetyl CoA + OAA  Citrate
Antimycin-C  blocks the transport from Q to Cytochrome-C 2C
CN/ CO  blocks the transport from Cytochrome-C to O2 Acetyl CoA  2CO2 + 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 + GTP
2C
3 NADH x 3  9
Superoxide Anions  is the product of the complete reduction 1 FADH2 x 2  2
of oxygen 1 GTP x1 1
Hydrogen Peroxide & Hydroxyl Radicals  are the products of 1 Acetyl CoA  12 ATP
the partial
reductionof oxygen Overall reaction:
▪Acetyl CoA + 3 NAD+ + GDP + FAD+  3 NADH + GTP + FADH2 + 2CO2

Sources of Carbon Atoms which may be oxidized completely to CO2:

1. Carbohydrates (glucose)
2. Fatty Acid & Glycerols
3. Amino Acids

Krebs Cycle:
Steps:
1. Acetyl CoA adds to oxalacetic acid in aldol reaction & the bond to
coenzyme A is hydrolyzed to yield citric acid.
2. Citric Acid is isomerized by transfer of the OH group to yield isocitric
acid.
3. Isocitric Acid loses CO2 & is oxidized to yield -ketoglutaric acid.
4. -ketoglutaric acid reacts w/ coenzyme A & loses CO2 to yield
succinyl CoA.
5. Succinyl CoA is hydrolyzed to give succinic acid plus CoA. An ADP
molecule is also converted into ATP by an indirect series of steps.
6. Two Hydrogens are removed from succinic acid to yield fumaric
acid. The coenzyme FAD is needed in this reaction.
7. Addition of Water to the double bond of fumaric acid yields malic
acid.
8. The cycle of reaction is completed by oxidation of malic acid to
regenerate oxaloacetate acid.

Control Points:
~ The Citrate Reaction, which is inhibited by ATP
~ Isocitrate-dehydrogenase Reaction, which is inhibited by ATP
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase  activated by ADP
~ -ketoglutarate dehydrogensa Reaction, which is inhibited by the
end products Succinyl CoA
& NADH

Succinyl CoA to Succinate  is the only reaction coupled w/ substrate

level phosphorylation in the TCA
Succinate to Fumarate  is the only reaction that involves FAD/FADH2
CARBOHYDRATES METABOLISM Aerobic Condition:
Digestion: Pyruvate  AcetylCoA + CO2 + NADH
1. Mouth: Salivary Amylase (CHON) (3C) (2C)
Starch will not directly produce glucose Glycolysis = 6/8 ATP
Product of Digestion: Oligosaccharide (Dextrin) 2Pyr-2AcetylCoA = 6 ATP
2. Stomach  acid hydrolysis only 2AcetylCoA x12 = 24 ATP
-No enzymatic digestion 36/38 ATP
3. Small Intestines: Pancreatic Amylase CO2  final product of oxidation (exhaled)
Sucrose sucrase glucose + fructose Anaerobic Condition:
Maltose maltase glucose + glucose ~Pyruvate  Lactate
lactic acidosis (muscle cramps)
Dextrin dextrinase glucose units
~ there is no NADH production
Lactose lactase glucose + galactose
 lactose  lactate + CH3 + H2 During Alcohol fermentation (anaerobic):
Pyruvate  Ethanol (occur in yeast only)
Osmotic effect (diarrhea) Abdominal distentia “kabag”
Fructose (skeletal muscle)  fructose-6-PO43-
Fructose  fructose-1-PO43-
Manifestations of Lactose Intolerance Glyceraldehydes
▪ no lactase DHA-PO43-
▪ defective lactase If not used up:
Pyruvate  AcetylCoA  Fatty Acid + Glycerol  TAGS
Carbohydrate Metabolism:


Glycolysis Glucose  Pyruvate ATP-consuming stages in Glycolyis:
Insulin:  glucose
Glycogenesis Glucose  Glycogen ~ Irreverdible Phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate
to fructose-1,6-biphosphate

Glycogenolysis Glycogen  Glucose
Gluconeogenesis Non carbohydrate Glucagon: ~ Phosphoenolpyruvate to Pyruvate
precursor glucose level

Glucose
activate Epinephrine
-Adrenaline rash causes diabetic coma
-very dangerous in diabetic people
Glucagon  homone that sometimes useful in the reversal of
cardiac effects of Beta-blocker overdose because of its
ability to increase cAMP production in the heart

Glycolysis (aka Embden-Meyerhof Pathway)

 the main pathway for the oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid
 main pathway for carbohydrate catabolism in all human tissues
 a series of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions that breakdown a
Galactosemia  due to Galactokinase Deficiency/
molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid & w/
Transferase Deficiency/
release of energy
Epimerase Deficiency
 carried out rapidly in the cytoplasm of muscle, fate, & liver cells
If Galactokinase is inhibited:
Stage 1: Investment Phase (1-5) Galactose  Galactitol (causes cataract)
-2 If Transferase if Inhibited:
1. Glucose glucose-6-PO4
Galactose  liver damage (Death)
hexokinase(skeletal muscle)/ glucokinase (brain)

ATP ADP  catalyzed phosphate to ATP Glucose  end product of Glycolysis of Glycogen
hexokinase –has higher affinity to glucose Glucose-6-phosphatase  employed to bypass the hexokinase reaction
single headed = irreversible reaction  its deficiency predisposes persons taking
some therapeutic agents (ex:
3. Fructose-6-PO4-3 PFK-1Fructose-1,6-biphosphate
Aminoquinoline, Sulfonamides,
Propantheline) to hemolytic anemia
Stage 2: Pay-off Phase
 is present only in the liver & kidney & not in
Glycerol Phosphate shuttle (x2)
the muscle
MalateAspartate shuttle (x3)
Hexokinase  glucose to glucose-6-phosphate
 most important enzyme in controlling glycolysis
NADH NADH
Fructose biphosphatase  used to bypass the PFK reaction
Cytosol GPS MAS
Pyruvate Carboxylase & PEP Carboxykinase  used to bypass the
Mtochodria
pyruvate kinase reaction
FADH2 NADH
of glycolysis
Pyruvate Kinase  is the key enzyme that likns lycolysis, TCA cycle,
amino acid metabolism, & fatty acid oxidation
PFK (Phosphofructokinase)  Fructose-6-PO4 to Fructose-1,6-bisPO4
 most important in controlling glycolysis
 responsible for rate limiting step in
Glycolysis
 Minor Pathways for Carbohydrates Metabolism:
Glycogenolysis Pentose Phosphate Pathway (aka Hexose Monophosphate Shunt)
(catabolism);  a metabolic pathway that can occur simultaneously with
conversion of glycolysis to produce pentose & NADH without ATP
glycogen to glucose production
 occur in Liver occur in the cytosol of liver, muscle & kidney
1. Production of NADH
2. Production of Ribulose-5-PO43-  ribose
3. Metabolism of Pentoses
 3glucose  3CO2 + 3 ribose (5-carbon atom)

Glutathione reductase (cofactor: NADPH)

GSH
(reduced)  GSSG
(oxidized)
Antioxidant No longer
Glycogenesis  (anabolism); formation of glycogen from glucose effective as
antioxidant

Depletion: If cofactor NADPH of Glutathione reductase is absent

then RBC (is prone to hemolysis)
RBC  cellular elements of the blood devoid of nucleus

Stage 1: Oxidative Stage

production of NADPH
glucose-6-PO43- G6PD phosphogluconolactone
-RBC (hemolysis)
G6PD deficiency  can be detected by Newborn Screening
Gluconeogenesis (Bypass Reaction) Stage 2: Non-oxidative Stage
the conversion of non carbohydrate precursors responsible for the production of ribulose-5-PO43-
(fats, glycerols, amino acids) into glucose.
Uronic Acid Pathway
Pyruvate  Glucose
End product: Glucuronic Acid (from Glucuronidation)
 requires the particicpation of Biotin
is confined almost entirely to the liver, kidneys, & intestinal
epithelim because the enzymes that rum this process,
gluconeogenesis
Lipid Metabolism Protein Metabolism
Fats hydrolyzed by lipase into glycerol & fatty acids. Digestion:
start in stomach; final digestion at small intestine
enzymes involved: Peptidases
Proteases
Proteolytic
End product: Amino acids
first step in AA catabolism: Deamination
-removal of the nitrogen
(amino group)

1. Stomach: Pepsinogen  pepsin

2. Small Intestines: Pancreatic Protease
Ex: Exopeptidases: Hydrolyze Noretermide Amino Acids
Endopetidases: peptide bonds w/ in the polypeptide
Fatty Acid Synthase: Ex: Trypsinogen enterokinase trypsin
only synthesize (Chemotrypsin)
1. Saturated Fatty acids
2. Even Chain
3. Up to Palmitic Acid

Ammonia (NH4) – toxic to the nervous system (death)

 converted to Urea
 water-soluble & readily excreted
 -oxidation (4 Main Steps): via kidney in urine
- dehydration Amino Acid Carbon Skeletons (C-skeletons)
- hydration remainder of Amino Acid
- oxidation
- thiolysis Amino Acids  may convert to glucose as precursor to gluconeogenesis
 -oxidation (occurs in mitochondria) called glucogenic Amino Acid
1 cycle  remove 2C Amino Acid
Fatty Acid as Acetyl CoA converted
 1 NADH Ketone Body (Ketogenic Amino Acid)
1 FADH2 can be a source of energy
Example: Ketone Body  Acetone acetoacetate
Hexanoic Acid (6C) Ketogenic Amino acid  Leucine
▪ Acetyl CoA Lysine
CCCCCC
3 Acetyl CoA x 12 = 36 Ketogenic  can’t be converted to glucose for energy
2 NaDH x3 = 6 Amino Acids (that are both Glucogenic & Ketogenic):
2 FADH x2 = 4 -Phe
= 46 ATP -Tyr
For Circulation = -2 -Trp
(like investment) = 44 ATP -Ile

Unsaturated
assume as saturated Bothe
Example: Ketogenic Glucogenic Ketogenic &
Oleic Acid (18:149) Glucogenic
9 Acetyl CoA x 12 = 108 Leucine Valine, etc Phenylalanine
8 NaDH x 3 = 24 Lysine Tyrosine
8 FADH x 2 = 16 Tryptophan
= 148 ATP Isoleucine
= -2
= 146 ATP
(For double bonds)= -2
= 144 ATP

Propionyl CoA  is a 3-carbon fatty acid derivative arises from the

catabolism of fatty acids containing odd-numbered
carbons
 Ketone Bodies:
- Acetone
- Acetoacetic Acid
- -hydrocy Butyric Acid
Ketonuria  presence of Ketonebodies in the urine
 usually indicates uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, but it
may also occur w/ starvation & zero or low
carbohydrate diets.
Ketosis  is the combination of Ketonuria & Ketonemia

Alkatonuria  Fruty Odor of Urine is indicative of acetone bodies,

– “Black Urine Disease” a diagnostic value in case of acidosis in Diabetes Mellitus.
 are deficient in  Normal Constituent of Urine: Creatinine
Homogentistic Urea
Acid Oxidase
ABO System  the crucial importance in Blood Transfusion
Phenotypic Products of Blood:
Blood Groups
Type A  has anti-B
Phenylketonuria (PKA) Type B  has anti-A Codominant
Type AB  universal recipient
Type O universal donor Recessive

OH ion  attribute the sweet taste of a compound

Na-K pump  affected by Digitalis Glycosides & Oabain

Iron  central ion found in heme
Magnesium  central atom in CHlorophyll
Sodium  is co-tranported w/ Glucose in the small intestine
 1 glucose : 1 Na
Maple Syrup urine Disease
Iodine  produces blue color w/ Starch & Dextrin
 “Branched Amino Audura”
differrentiating test between helical & linear polysaccharides
 Val, Leu, Ile   concentration of urine
 used as identification test to detect the presence of glycogen
*Blue – Unbranched Glycogen
*Red – Highly Branched Glycogen
Bicarbonate-carbon dioxide system  major buffer system of ECF
Strepchoine  produces a Blue-Violet color in the presence of sulfuric
acid & potassium dichromate
Sodium palmitate  a salt of palmitic acid which is a water soluble soap

Idioblasts  are cells containing a large amount of

Calcium Oxalate Crystals
Vascular Cylinder  is composed of tissues, namely:
- Phloem
- Xylem

Chronic Gonadotropin  is a gonad-stimulating polypeptide hormone

obtained from the urine of pregnant women
Urogonadotropin  is a purified preparation of gonadotropins obtained
from the urine of Postmenopausal women

Pancreatin Islet Cells & their Secretory Products:

Cell Type Secretary Products
A cells (alpha)  Glcagon, Proglucagon
B cells (Beta)  Insulin, C-Peptide, Proinsulin,
Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAAP)
D cells (Delta)  Somatostatin
F cells (PP cells)  Pancreatin Polypeptide (PP)

Allergens  antigenic substance capable of sensitizing the body in such

a way that unusual responses occur in hypersensitive
individuals
Vitamin  used as special dietary supplements Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)  Vitamin B + C
 serve as a precursor of coenzyme
Four General Categories in Which Vitamin Supplementation is indicated:  a cofactor for the metabolism of
- Inadequate dietary in take Carbohydrate, Lipid, & Protein
- Increased metabolic requirement  Deficiency:
- Impaired intestinal absorption *Most distinctive deficiency symptom:
- Iatrogenic situations -Paresthesia of the Extremities or
“Burning Foot Syndrome”
Vitamin A  maintains the integrity of epithelial membranes
 essential in the formation of rhodopsin & the normal Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)  required in the transfer of aminogroups &
functioning of the retina decarboxylase of amino acid
 was the first fat-soluble vitamin discovered  must be supplemented in poisonings caused by
Retinol  major natural form of Vitamin A Cycloserin & Isoniazid
Retinoic Acid  structurally related to Vitamin A enhance Leveodopa metabolism (periphery)
-carotene  a precursor of vitamin A which does not occur In plants,   levodopa Effect
but in its place are compound that are converted into  Deficiencies:
Vitamin A in the small animal body - Hypochromic microcystis anemia
- Resemble Niacin & Riboflavin abnormalities
Vitamin C  for formation of intercellular collagen - Neurologic Abnormalities
 healing of bone fractures - Tryptophan loading dose maybe used for its
 metabolism of tyrosine diagnosis
 antiscorbutic vitamin  was isolated in crystalline form by both
 may be administered w/ Ferrous Sulfate Xeresztesy & Stevens
to prevent/ minimize the oxidation of ferrous to ferric ions
Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)  decrease the risk of neutral tube deffects
Vitamin D  Calciferol Deficiency: Glossitis
 Indications: Hypoparathyroidism Megaloblastic Anemia
Nutritional Rickets
Renal Osteodystrophy Vitamin B12  is the best supplement recommended for strict vegetarian
Hypocalcemia
Other Forms of Vitamin D: Vitamin P (PERMEABLITY FACTOR)  refers to the mixture of
1. Ergocalciferol (Vit D2)  plant steroid derive from Ergosterol RUTIN and HESPERIDIN
2. Cholecalciferol (Vit D3)  animal species
 may be formed by irradiation of 7- Vitamin K1:
dehydrocholesterol & resembles Phytomenadione  synthetic form of Vitamin K1
ergocalciferol in appearance & physical Phylloquinone  natural form of Vitamin K1
properties.
3. Dihydrotachysterol  is a synthetic substance formed by the reduction
of tachysterol
 closely related to ergosterol Calcium  Avoid taking Wheat Bread while taking Calcium,
-fiber rich food can decrease absorption of calcium
4. 7-Dehydrocholesterol  is converted to calciferol upon exposure to
ultraviolet light

Oleovitamin A & D  found in liver oil or other vegetable oil. Chromium Def  Glucose Intolerance
Peripheral Neuropathy
Vitamin B Complex  used in the prevention of degenerative changes in the Metabolic Encephalopathy
central nervous system.
Zinc Def  Alopecia
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)  Appebon® Infertility
 occur in greatest proportion in dried yeast Poor wound healing
 can treat Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Poor growth
 most rapidly reduced vitamin Poor resistant to infection
 Defficiency: Pernicious Anemia
Copper Def  Depigmentation of Hair
Vitamin B3(Niacin)  can be used in the management of hyperlipidemia
 MOA: Inhibition of VLDL secretion Selenium Def  RBC Fragility
 naturally occurring pyridine derivative that prevents
Pellagra
manifestations of Pellagra:
- Dementia (CNS disorder)
- Diarrhea
- Dermatitis