CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Technical Feasibility Study

The operation of a steam turbine is based upon the principle that the steam issuing from a small

opening attains a high velocity. This velocity attained during the expansion of the steam depends

on the initial and final heat content of the steam. The difference of the two-heat energy is

converted into kinetic energy. Steam turbine design is based on some characteristic features such

as inlet pressure and temperature, flow rate, outlet pressure etc. and turbine geometry,

dimensions and performance are defined with these characteristic features. Turbine loses and

irreversibilities are minimum and performance and power generation are maximum at design

conditions. However, a steam turbine does not always operate at design conditions because of

changing of power demand and turbine loses and this means that it always operates lower

efficiency. Estimating and defining of characteristics of steam turbines at off-design conditions

have been studied since 1900 and today the studies are going on more different variables and

modern tools. Bresolin et al. aimed to simulate the partial load characteristic with different

control system (sliding pressure, throttling valve and nozzle valve control systems) of a steam

turbine.

Steam cycles used in electrical power plants and in the production of shaft power in industry are

based on the familiar Rankine cycle, studied briefly in most courses in thermodynamics. The

power plant, under consideration, is operating on the principles of the Rankine cycle. The model

of the steam power plant showed in figure 1 is later prepared/modeled and simulated in Aspen

HYSYS®.
2.2 Basic Cycle Description

The contextual analysis is a nuclear energy station with a unit having the limit of 110MW yield.

It is petroleum gas terminated. Fig. 2.1 shows the interaction stream outline of a total set and the

warmth exchanger organizations. It has three arrangements of turbines which are the high

pressing factor turbine, Intermediate pressure turbine and low-Pressure Turbine. The turbines are

mounted on a solitary shaft and a generator is coupled straightforwardly with them. Single stage

warming is utilized between the high-pressure turbine and intermediate pressure turbine. The

steam exhaust from the low-pressure turbine is dense in the condenser utilizing cooling water

from the close by stream. The dense steam is siphoned from the hot well by the condensate

siphon to the low-pressure turbine warmer from which it is gone through steam snare for most

extreme energy move. This is additionally siphoned through the intermediate pressure turbine

radiators after which it is directed to the deaerator to eliminate the air and make up water is

likewise added here.

The feed water siphon is utilized to siphon the water through the excess two warmers (high

pressure and Intermediate pressure), to the economizer of the kettle. The water is warmed up

because of the warmth produced from the burning of the petroleum gas in the heater. The yield

from the economizer goes into the heater drum what separate the steam from the water. The

steam is gone through the steam radiator to frame superheated steam which is shipped off the

high pressing factor turbine where it gives shaft work that drives the turbine sharp edges.

Exhaust steam from high turbine returns into the reheater prior to being passed to the moderate

pressing factor turbine since its pressing factor would have dropped. The exhaust from the

moderate pressing factor turbine enters straightforwardly into the low constrain turbine to give

shaft work that drives the generator to produce the power. The exhaust steam from the low
Fig.2.1 The Power Plant Process flow Diagram
pressing factor turbine is dense in the condenser utilizing close by Lagoon water as the cooling

system.

2.2.1 Configuration

Large turbines used in fossil fuel plants normally have a high pressure (HP) cylinder, an

intermediate pressure (IP) cylinder and multiple low pressure (LP) cylinders. Turbines of

equivalent output in nuclear plants normally have a high pressure (HP) cylinder and multiple low

pressure (LP) cylinders due to the lower incoming steam conditions. The HP turbine in a nuclear

plant is in fact very similar in construction to the IP turbine in a fossil fuel plant.

Most turbine cylinders are double flow receiving steam in the centre of the cylinder and

discharging at the ends. This balances thrust and equalizes temperature gradients. At the lower

end of the size range the flow of steam passed by the turbine may not warrant double flows in the

HP and IP cylinders.

Single flow HP and IP cylinders may then be installed with their flows in opposite directions to

minimize the net thrust in the coupled turbine shaft. Intermediate sized turbines may employ a

combined high pressure and intermediate pressure (HP-IP) cylinder with fewer or smaller LP

cylinders.

This HP-IP cylinder would have the high pressure and intermediate pressure flows in opposite

directions creating a double flow arrangement. Small turbines for power generation may have

only a single flow HP turbine and one double flow LP turbine. The resultant thrust from the

single flow cylinder would be accommodated by a suitably sized thrust bearing.

The most prominent physical feature of a modern steam power plant is the boiler, or boiler.

There the combustion, in air, of a fossil fuel such as oil, natural gas, or coal produces hot
combustion gases that transfer heat to water passing through tubes in the boiler. The heat transfer

to the incoming water (feed water) first increases its temperature until it becomes a saturated

liquid, then evaporates it to form saturated vapor, and usually then further raises its temperature

to create superheated steam. Steam power plants operate on sophisticated variants of the Rankine

cycle. These are considered later. In a simple Rankine cycle, steam is used as the working fluid,

generated from saturated liquid water (feed-water). This saturated steam flows through the

turbine, where its internal energy is converted into mechanical work to run an electricity

generating system. All the energy from steam cannot be utilized for running the generating

system because of losses due to friction, viscosity, bend-on-blade etc. Most of the heat energy is

rejected in the steam condenser. The feed water brings the condensed water back to the boiler.

The condenser is a large shell-and-tube type heat exchanger. This is positioned next to the

turbine in order to receive a large flow rate of low-pressure steam. This steam in the condenser

goes under a phase change from vapor to liquid water. External cooling water is pumped through

thousands of tubes in the condenser to transport the heat of condensation of the steam away from

the plant. Upon leaving the condenser, the condensate is at a low temperature and pressure.

Removal of this condensate may be considered as maintaining the low pressure in the condenser

continuously. The phase change in turn depends on the transfer of heat to the external cooling

water. The rejection of heat to the surroundings by the cooling water is essential to maintain the

low pressure in the condenser. The simple Rankine cycle from which the cycles of large steam

power plants are derived. In addition, steam flows to a turbine, where part of its energy is

converted to mechanical energy that is transmitted by rotating shaft to drive an electrical

generator. The reduced-energy steam flowing out of the turbine condenses to liquid water in the

condenser. A feed water pump returns the condensed liquid (condensate) to the boiler. The heat
rejected from the steam entering the condenser is transferred to a separate cooling water loop that

in turn delivers the rejected energy to a neighboring lake or river or to the atmosphere.

As a result of the conversion of much of its thermal energy into mechanical energy, or work,

steam leaves the turbine at a pressure and temperature well below the turbine entrance (throttle)

values. At this point the steam could be released into the atmosphere. But since water resources

are seldom adequate to allow the luxury of onetime use, and because water purification of a

continuous supply of fresh feed water is costly, steam power plants normally utilize the same

pure water over and over again. We usually say that the working fluid (water) in the plant

operates in a cycle or undergoes of cyclic process. In order to return the steam to the high-

pressure of the boiler to continue the cycle, the low- pressure steam leaving the turbine at state 2

is first condensed to a liquid at state 3 and then pressurized in a pump to state 4. The high-

pressure liquid water is then ready for its next pass through the boiler to state 1 and around the

Rankine cycle again. The boiler and condenser both may be thought of as types of heat

exchangers, the former with hot combustion gases flowing on the outside of water filled tubes,

and the latter with external cooling water passing through tubes on which the low- pressure

turbine exhaust steam condenses. In a well-designed heat exchanger, both fluids pass through

with little pressure loss.

2.3 Thermoeconomic Analysis

Thermoeconomics is the branch of engineering that combines exergy analysis identifying the

location, the magnitude and the sources of thermodynamic inefficiencies in a thermal system and

economic principles which help to calculate all the costs associated with a power plant

investment or operation to provide the system designer or operator with information not

available through conventional energy analysis and economic evaluations but crucial to the

design and operation of a cost-effective system. The Thermodynamic evaluation of

Exergoeconomic is based on Second-Law Analysis which is a useful tool to calculate

irreversibilities. The values of the rates of exergy destruction (the ratio between the exergy

destruction rate of a given component and the exergy destruction rate within the system) and

exergetic efficiency (the ratio between the exergy product rate of a given component and the

exergy fuel rate within the system) provide sufficient thermodynamic measures of the system

inefficiencies.

Bejan et al., 1996, suggested several exergoeconomic parameters to analyze the

exergoeconomic performance and optimization of thermal system. The cost rate of exergy

destruction, relative cost difference and exergoeconomic factor play a central role in the

exergoeconomic analysis. The cost associated with the exergy destruction in a component or

process is a hidden cost, but a very important one, that can be revealed only by an

exergoeconomic analysis. George and Park discusses how to estimate the avoidable and

unavoidable exergy destruction and investment costs associated with compressors, turbines, heat

exchangers and combustion chambers. This general procedure, although based on many subjective

decisions, facilitates and improves applications of exergoeconomics.

2.3.1 Operating Parameters in Thermal Power Plant

The performance of a power plant can be expressed through some common performance factors

given below:

 Thermal Efficiency

 Capacity Factor

 Plant Load Factor

 Economic Efficiency

 Operational Efficiency

Ibrahim T.K. et al. Expressed as the thermal plant performance through the use of the following:

 Thermal Efficiency

It represents the amount of thermal energy entering the system, which turn to work, also known

as (Cycle Efficiency), It represents the ratio between net work outside of the turbine to the

thermal energy transmitted to the steam in the boiler. And can be expressed in the following

equation.
  Heat Rate

When conducting analyses of pregnancy variable is the expression of the thermal plant

performance using more useful to express the thermal efficiency of heat rate, and the rate of

heat is the ratio between the amount of thermal energy received by the steam in the boiler

and net filled the turbine, it is the inverse of the thermal efficiency, so it can represent the

following relationship.

HR = 3600/thermal efficiency

 Overall Efficiency

Expresses the overall efficiency of the overall plant efficiency, they are one of the important

parameters in the station, which it calculates all the losses in the thermal cycle, and is expressed

in the following equation

2.3.2 Effect of Temperature at Different Areas of Steam & Flue Gas Cycle

Generally, thermal power plant works on principle of the Rankine Cycle shown in Fig. 2.2

Rankine cycles describe the operation of steam heat engines commonly found in power

generation plants as schematically shown here in Fig. 2.2. In such power plants, power is

generated by alternately vaporizing and condensing a working fluid (in many cases water,

although refrigerants such as ammonia may also be used) Vandani, Bidi, and Ahmadi.103

Gonca investigated irreversible single reheat Rankine cycle and the double reheat Rankine cycle

and analyzed cycles based on thermal and exergy efficiencies, exergetic performance criterion,

net specific work and exergy destruction. There are four processes in the Rankine cycle, each

changing the state of the working fluid. These states are identified by number in Fig. 2.2.

The Rankine cycle consists of the following four processes:

 1-2: Isentropic compression in pump (compressors)

 2-3:  Constant pressure heat addition in boiler

 3-4: Isentropic expansion in turbine

 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

Process 1-2

Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to the

operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat during this
isentropic compression process due to slight decrease in the specific volume of the water. The

vertical distance between state 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity.

Process 2-3

Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as a superheated vapor at

state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from combustion

gases, is transferred to the water essentially at constant pressure. The boiler together with the

section where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is often called the steam generator.

Process 3-4

The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and produces

work by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The pressure and the temperature

of the steam drops during this process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the condenser

Process 4-1

At this state, the steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor mixture with ahigh quality. Steam is

condensed at constant pressure in the condenser which is basically a large heat exchanger, by

rejecting heat to a cooling medium from a lake, or a river. Steam leaves the condenser as

saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle.

Figure 2.2: Rankine Cycle
2.3.4 Plant Load Factor

Plant Load Factor (PLF) is the ratio between the actual energy generated by the plant to the

maximum possible energy that can be generated with the plant working at its rated power

and for a duration of an entire year. PLF determines the exact loadability of the thermal power

plant. Indirectly, it gives the performance of the power plant. If the PLF is 100%, it means plant

is running on full load as per installed capacity. As the PLF approaches 100%, the

performance of the thermal power plant also increases. Among various advantages of higher

PLF, one of the major one is reduction in the planned or forced outages, that finally

optimizes auxiliary power consumption. On higher load, all the respective auxiliaries also run on

full load, which results in utilization of various auxiliaries at higher efficiency.

Ultimately life of the auxiliary also increases. Hence PLF is found to be the key indicator for the

analysis of performance of any power plant.

PLF (%) = Total Generation / Installed quantity

2.4 Fuel and Combustion Analysis

The various types of fuels like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels are available for firing in

boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipment. The selection of right type of fuel depends
on various factors such as availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed cost of fuel.

The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the right purpose

and efficient use of the fuel. The properties of liquid fuels includes density, specific gravity,

viscosity, flash point, pour point, specific heat, calorific value, amount of Sulphur, ash content,

carbon residue and water content.

2.4.1 Gaseous Fuel

Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), Natural gas, producer gas,

blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc. The calorific value of gaseous fuel is expressed in

Kilocalories per normal cubic meter (kCal/Nm3 ) i.e. at normal temperature (20°C) and pressure

(760 mm Hg).

2.4.2 Natural Gas

Methane is the principle constituent of Natural gas and representing about 95% of the complete

volume. Different parts are: Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and

hints of different gases. Tiny measures of sulfur compounds are likewise present. Since

methane is the biggest part of petroleum gas, by and large properties of methane are utilized

when contrasting the properties of gaseous petrol with different energizes.

Gaseous petrol is a high calorific worth fuel requiring no storage spaces. It blends in with air

promptly and doesn't create smoke or sediment. It has no sulfur content. It is lighter than air and

scatters into air effectively if there should arise an occurrence of hole.

2.5 Combustion

2.5.1 Principle of Combustion

Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat, or heat

and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate supply

of oxygen. Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9% of our

air. Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed

to a gas before they will burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. Fuel

gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present. Most of the 79% of air (that is not

oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature

reducing dilatants that must be present to obtain the oxygen required for combustion. Nitrogen

reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels and diluting the

flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat exchange surfaces. It also

increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then have to travel through the heat

exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel air mixture. This

nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame temperatures) to produce

oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic pollutants. Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel

combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide,

releasing 8084 kCals, 28922 kCals & 2224 kCals of heat respectively. Under certain conditions,

Carbon may also combine with Oxygen to form Carbon Monoxide, which results in the release

of a smaller quantity of heat (2430 kCals/kg of carbon) Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more

heat per pound of fuel than when CO or smoke are produced.

2.5.2 3 T’s of Combustion

The target of good burning is to deliver the entirety of the warmth in the fuel. This is cultivated

by controlling the "three T's" of burning which are:

(1) Temperature sufficiently high to light furthermore, keep up with start of the fuel

(2) Turbulence or private blending of the fuel and oxygen, and

(3) Time adequate for complete burning.

Usually utilized fills like gaseous petrol and propane by and large comprise of carbon and

hydrogen. Water fume is a side-effect of consuming hydrogen. This ransacks heat from the vent

gases, which would somehow or another be accessible for more warmth move.

Petroleum gas contains more hydrogen and less carbon per kg than fuel oils and thusly

delivers more water fume. Thusly, more warmth will be moved by exhaust while terminating

petroleum gas.

2.6 Energy Lost in the Plant

According to [ CITATION Ton20 \l 1033 ] Tongjun Zhang, In the activity of the nuclear energy

station, the fuel gets touched off in the kettle (steam), delivering fumes that extend in the turbine

and driving its activity; the turbine would then power the generator to create electricity. Changes

of energy in this interaction would prompt critical energy misfortune. Presently, sub-basic

nuclear energy stations can accomplish a proficiency of around 38%, contrasted and 41% by

supercritical nuclear energy stations, while super supercritical nuclear energy stations can reach

up to
around 44%. The principle parts that influence the effectiveness of nuclear energy stations

incorporate kettle, turbine, and generator.

The significant energy loss in a nuclear energy station incorporates evaporator heat loss, pipe

heat loss, cold source loss, mechanical loss, and generator loss, and so forth.

Boiler Heat Loss

Due to incomplete combustion and exhaust heat, the energy in the fuel cannot be completely transferred

to the steam, thus causing energy loss. Modern boilers can attain an efficiency of around 90%-94%.

Cold Source Loss

As a heat engine operating between high and low temperature, the thermal power plant is bound to

discharge a large amount of heat into the cold environment in order to fulfill its duty, resulting in huge

energy loss. Energy loss from a cold source (560⁰C/560⁰C) caused by efficiency threshold stands at

about 64%-67.57%. The actual thermal efficiency of a modern thermal power plant usually ranges

between 35% and 49%.

Generator Loss

Modern generators usually attain an efficiency of around 96%-99%. As shown above, in the

three main stages of thermal power generation, most of the energy loss comes from cold source

loss. Thus, the key to improving the total efficiency of a thermal power plant lies at the steam

cycle (where the cold source loss takes place).

2.7 Environmental Impact of Power Plant

Natural gas is the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel because it burns cleaner. In power

plants, natural gas emits 50 to 60 percent less carbon dioxide (CO2) than regular oil or coal-fired

power plants. It also emits greenhouse gases with a lower life cycle into the atmosphere.

However, combustion also releases methane and lowers air quality.

Key advantages:

 Cheap

 Has less carbon dioxide emissions than other fossil fuels

 Reliable

Disadvantages:

 Costly to store

 Dangerous: it could explode

 Has much more CO2 and methane emissions than solar or wind power

 Hydraulic fracturing can break natural habitats

Natural gas production does not solve the climate crisis, but it is the “lesser evil” option

compared to other fossil fuels.

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