Activity 1: To further enhance your understanding here are the videos for you to watch on

and reflect on the following guide questions.

Check this link:    https://youtu.be/-S_vQZDH9hY

Guide Questions:
1. What are the major elements in the endocrine system?

 The major elements that make up the endocrine system are the hypothalamus,
Pineal body, Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroids, Adrenals, pineal body, the ovaries,
and the testes.

2. Differentiate water soluble from lipid soluble hormones?

 Water-soluble hormones enter the target cell via the plasma membrane and bind to a
receptor protein, hormones that are amines and proteins that do not pass through the
cell membrane passively. Also on the other hand, bind to their respective receptors
expressed on the extracellular surface of the target cell membrane. Water-soluble
hormones bind to a receptor protein on the cell's plasma membrane.While the lipid-
soluble hormones bind to a receptor protein on the cell's plasma membrane.
Furthermore, lipid-soluble hormones diffuse through the plasma membrane and enter
the target cell, where they bind to a receptor protein.

3. Describe the hormones and the actions of the ten glands; pineal, anterior pituitary,
posterior pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, adrenal medulla, testes and ovaries.

 Pineal - The main function of the pineal gland is to receive information about the state
of the light-dark cycle from the environment and convey this information to produce
and secrete the hormone melatonin. Light cues from the eye signal the pineal gland to
produce melatonin or stop releasing melatonin.
 Anterior pituitary - Anterior pituitary hormones are responsible for maintaining
reproductive health [luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)],
regulating metabolic rate and promoting cognitive function in childhood [thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH)], responding to stress [adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH)], promoting linear growth in childhood [growth hormone (GH)], and stimulating
lactation (prolactin). Unlike the posterior pituitary which basically stores hormones
produced by the hypothalamus, the hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary via
secreting “releasing hormones," somatostatin and dopamine.
 Posterior pituitary - The posterior lobe produces two hormones, vasopressin and
oxytocin. These hormones are released when the hypothalamus sends messages to
the pituitary gland through nerve cells. Vasopressin is also known as antidiuretic
hormone (ADH). The primary function of the posterior pituitary is the transmission of
hormones originating from neurons located in hypothalamic brain regions such as the
 supraoptic nucleus (SON) and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) for secretion directly
into peripheral circulation.
 Thyroid - The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate the body's metabolic
rate controlling heart, muscle and digestive function, brain development and bone
maintenance. Its correct functioning depends on a good supply of iodine from the diet.
In addition, it releases triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones play
an important role in regulation of your weight, energy levels, internal temperature,
skin, hair, nail growth, and more.
 Parathyroid – it secretes parathyroid hormone or parathormone. Parathyroid
hormone is the most important regulator of blood calcium levels. The hormone is
secreted in response to low blood calcium levels, and its effect is to increase those
levels. Also, parathyroid hormone regulates calcium levels in the blood, largely by
increasing the levels when they are too low. It does this through its actions on the
kidneys, bones and intestine: Bones – parathyroid hormone stimulates the release of
calcium from large calcium stores in the bones into the bloodstream.
 Adrenal medulla - The adrenal medulla, the inner part of an adrenal gland, controls
hormones that initiate the flight or fight response. The main hormones secreted by the
adrenal medulla include epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline),
which have similar functions. Furthermore, the adrenal cortex produces hormones that
controls sex (androgens, estrogens), salt balance in the blood (aldosterone), and
sugar balance (cortisol). The adrenal medulla produces hormones involved in the
fight-or-flight response (catecholamines, or adrenaline type hormones such as
epinephrine and norepinephrine).
 Testes - The main hormone secreted by the testes is testosterone, an androgenic
hormone. Testosterone is secreted by cells that lie between the seminiferous tubules,
known as the Leydig cells. Structures within the testes are important for the
production and storage of sperm until they're mature enough for ejaculation. The
testes also produce a hormone called testosterone. This hormone is responsible for
sex drive, fertility, and the development of muscle and bone mass.
 Ovaries – Ovaries found in women produces and releases two groups of sex
hormones—progesterone and estrogen. There are actually three major estrogens,
known as estradiol, estrone, and estriol. These substances work together to promote
the healthy development of female sex characteristics during puberty and to ensure
fertility.

About Hormones

Hormones are secreted by the endocrine system's glands, and they are specific in the sense
that each hormone causes a response in a specific target organ or group of cells, rather than on
the body as a whole. Exocrine hormones are secreted into the bloodstream through a duct and
usually affect a distant organ or tissue. Endocrine hormones are secreted within the tissue
rather than through a duct and enter the bloodstream through capillaries.Hormones can be
grouped into three main types:

1. amines, these are simple molecules

 2. proteins and peptides which are made from chains of amino acids
3. steroids which are derived from cholesterol.

Glands hormones are released directly into the bloodstream They have built-in feedback
mechanisms that keep hormones in balance and prevent excessive hormone secretion. Low
levels of a hormone will frequently cause the gland to secrete. When the hormone
concentrations in the blood rise, the gland may stop secreting until the hormone concentrations
fall again. This feedback mechanism (found in most glands) results in a cycle of hormone
secretions.

Activity 2: Levels of most hormones decrease with aging, but some hormones remain at
levels typical of those in younger adults, and some even increase. Even when hormone
levels do not decline, endocrine function generally declines with age because hormone
receptors become less sensitive.

Make a timeline of the function of the gonads (male and female) starting from the early age –
puberty – middle age – older age.

FIGURE 56.1 Tanner stages of pubic hair development in girls

FIGURE 56.2 Tanner stages of breast development in girls

FIGURE 56.3 Tanner stages of pubertal development in boys

The experience of puberty is to have a changing body that feels out of control. Feelings of
helplessness or persecution are common and may not abate until about 12 months after the
growth spurt has ended. The typical irritability, moodiness and occasional aggressiveness,
sexual arousal and unpredictable behaviour of the early adolescent are largely due to hormonal
changes. Puberty tends to be conceptualised as a biological event, with emotional and
psychological ‘side effects’. However, puberty may also be regarded as a cultural phenomenon,
with each young person’s experience being influenced by the cultural milieu in which it occurs.
In many cultures, for example, an event such as menarche remains somewhat taboo, while
changing body shape for girls and boys may bring high levels of anxiety in our image-driven
society.
The psychosocial impact of the timing of puberty affects girls and boys differently.
For those who mature earlier than average:
• boys seem to benefit—more relaxed, independent, self-confident and physically attractive

• girls seem to be disadvantaged—seen as less popular, appear withdrawn, less positive body
image, lack confidence

• both are more likely to engage in more adult behaviours, although they tend to be physically
rather than cognitively ready, associating with older peers.

For those who mature later than average:

• boys seem to be disadvantaged—less well liked and viewed as anxious, overly talkative and
attention seeking

• girls seem to benefit—regarded by peers and adults as physically attractive, lively, sociable
and leaders at school.

STAGES OF ADOLESCENCE
Psychosocial development can also be highly variable in progression from one stage to the next
(Table 56.1). Key features are as follows:
• Early—coming to terms with the physical changes of puberty

• Middle—establishing oneself among one’s peers as a worthwhile individual

• Late—defining functional roles in terms of work, lifestyle and relationships.

TABLE 56.1 Adolescent development stages6

Early (10–14 years) Middle (15–17 years) Late (> 17 years)

CENTRAL QUESTION

MAJOR DEVELOPMENT SERIES

• Coming to terms with • New intellectual powers • Independence from parents

puberty
• New sexual drives • Realistic body image
• Struggle for autonomy
commences • Experimentation and risk- • Acceptance of sexual
taking identity
• Same-sex peer
relationships all-important • Relationships have self- • Clear educational and
centred quality vocational goals, own value
• Mood swings • Need for peer group system
acceptance
• Developing mutually caring
• Emergence of sexual identity and responsible
relationships

MAIN CONCERNS

• Anxiety about body • Influence of peers • Self-responsibility

shape and changes
• Tensions between family and • Achieving economic
• Comparison with peers individual independence

• Over-assertion of autonomy • Developing intimate

relationships
• Balancing demands of family
and peers

• Prone to fad behaviour and

risk-taking

• Strong need for privacy

• Maintaining ethnic identity

while striving to fit in with
dominant culture

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Still fairly concrete • Able to think more rationally
thinking
• Concerned about individual
Less able to understand freedom and rights
subtlety
• Able to accept more
responsibility for
• Longer attention span
• Able to think more
abstractly
• Better able to synthesise
information and apply it to
 Daydreaming common consequences of one’s own oneself
behaviour
Difficulty identifying how • Able to think about the
one’s immediate • Begins to take on greater future and anticipate
behaviour affects the responsibility within family as consequences of their
future part of cultural identity actions

Physical, cognitive and psychological changes may be ‘out of sync’. For example, an early-
developing, mature-looking girl may be psychologically immature and vulnerable.
Source;

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/156451#female-puberty

https://basicmedicalkey.com/adolescent-health-and-development/