Definitions of Common Non-Textual Elements

Chart -- see "graph."

Diagram -- a drawing that illustrates or visually explains a thing or idea by outlining its
component parts and the relationships among them. Also a line drawing, made to
accompany and illustrate a geometrical theorem, mathematical demonstration, etc.

Drawing -- a graphic illustration of representing a person, place, or object or a technique

for outlining the geometry, layout, location, and design of a figure, plan, or sketch by
means of lines.

Figure -- a form bounded by three or more lines; one or more digits or numerical
symbols representing a number.

Flowchart -- a pictorial summary [graphical algorithm] of the decisions and flows

[movement of information] that make up a procedure or process from beginning to
end. Also called flow diagram, flow process chart, or network diagram.

Form -- a logically structured document with a fixed arrangement of captioned spaces

designed for entering, extracting, or communicating required or requested information.

Graph -- a two-dimensional drawing showing a relationship [usually between two set of

numbers] by means of a line, curve, a series of bars, or other symbols. Typically, an
independent variable is represented on the horizontal line (X-axis) and an dependent
variable on the vertical line (Y-axis). The perpendicular axis intersect at a point called
origin, and are calibrated in the units of the quantities represented. Though a graph
usually has four quadrants representing the positive and negative values of the
variables, usually only the north-east quadrant is shown when the negative values do not
exist or are of no interest. Often used interchangeably with the term “chart.”

Histogram -- step-column chart that displays a summary of the variations in (frequency

distribution of) quantities [called Classes] that fall within certain lower and upper limits
in a set of data. Classes are measured on the horizontal ('X') axis, and the number of
times they occur [or the percentages of their occurrences] are measured on the vertical
('Y') axis. To construct a histogram, rectangles or blocks are drawn on the x-axis
[without any spaces between them] whose areas are proportional to the classes they
represent. Histograms [and histographs] are used commonly where the subject item is
discrete (such as the number of students in a school) instead of being continuous [such
as the variations in their heights]. Also called frequency diagram, a histogram is usually
preferred over a histograph where the number of classes is less than eight.

Illustration -- a visual representation [e.g., picture or diagram] that is used to make a

subject in a paper more pleasing or easier to understand.

Map -- a visual representation of an area. It is considered to be a symbolic depiction

highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and
themes. Examples of types include climate, economic, resource, physical, political, road,
and topographic maps.

Pictograph -- visual presentation of data using icons, pictures, symbols, etc., in place of
or in addition to common graph elements [bars, lines, points]. Pictographs use relative
sizes or repetitions of the same icon, picture, or symbol to show comparison. Also called
a pictogram, pictorial chart, pictorial graph, or picture graph.

Symbol -- Mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing

an idea, object, or relationship.

Table -- an orderly arrangement of quantitative data in columns and rows. Also called a
“matrix.”

BusinessDictionary.com. Created by WebFinance, Inc.; “Graphics for Display.” In

Understanding Social Statistics. Jane Fielding and Nigel Gilbert, editors. Second
edition. (London: SAGE Publications, 2006), pp. 69-93.

Importance of Using Non-Textual Elements

There are a variety of reasons for including non-textual elements in your paper. Among
them are:

A picture is worth a thousand words. Embedding a chart, illustration, table, graph, map,
photograph, or other non-textual element into your research paper can bring added
clarity to a study because it provides a clean, concise way to report findings that would
otherwise take several long [and boring] paragraphs to describe.
Non-textual elements are useful tools for summarizing information, especially when you
have a great deal of data to present. Non-textual elements help the reader grasp a large
amount of data quickly and in an orderly fashion.
Non-textual elements help you highlight important pieces of information without
breaking up the narrative flow of your paper. Illustrations, photographs, maps, and the
like can be used as a quick reference to information that helps to highlight key issues
found in the text. For example, a street map showing the distribution of health care
facilities can be included in a larger study documenting the struggles of poor families to
find adequate health care.
Non-textual elements are visually engaging. Using a chart or photograph, for example,
can help enhance the overall presentation of your research and provide a way to
stimulate a reader's interest in the study.
Easily compare and contrast findings. Non-textual elements, such as a bar chart or table
of statistics, offer a quick way to compare values and track trends or create figures that
show side-by-side comparisons of information as an easy way to contrast the data.
Few, Stephen. Show Me the Numbers: Designing Tables and Graphs to Enlighten. 2nd
edition. Burlingame, CA: Analytics Press, 2012; Informative Presentation of Tables,
Graphs and Statistics. Statistical Services Centre, University of Reading, United
Kingdom, March 2000; Rodrigues, Velany et al. How to Use Figures and Tables
Effectively to Present Your Research Findings. Tutorials: Manuscript Preparation.
Editage insights. Cactus Communications, Inc.; “Graphics for Display.” In
Understanding Social Statistics. Jane Fielding and Nigel Gilbert, editors. Second
edition. (London: SAGE Publications, 2006), pp. 69-93.

Structure and Writing Style

Use non-textual elements, such as figures, tables, graphs, maps, photographs, etc., to
support your key findings. Readers should be able to discern the meaning of non-textual
elements on their own without having to refer to the text to understand the data being
presented. Reference to a non-textual element in the text of your paper should focus on
describing its significance in relation to the research problem or the topic being
discussed.

Non-textual elements must have neat, legible titles, be simple, and have detailed
captions that are written in complete sentences; they should fully explain the item
without forcing the reader to refer to the text. Conversely, the reader should not have to
refer back and forth from the text to the non-textual elements to understand the paper.

General rules about using non-textual elements in your research paper:

Each non-textual element must have a short, descriptive title, numbered consecutively
and complete with a heading [e.g., Table 1. National Sales Activity from 2009-2014].
Decide on a suitable font and caption format [e.g., bolded text] and use it consistently
throughout your paper.
Either place figures, tables, charts, etc. within the text of the result being described, or
refer to them in an appendix--do one or the other but never both.
You should explicitly reference the number of the figures, tables, graphs, etc. in the text
[i.e., "Table 6 shows..."]. Avoid expressions like, "in the chart on the following page" or
"in the table below."
If you choose to place non-textual elements within the paper, they should be positioned
as close as possible to where it is first mentioned in the text.
If you place non-textual elements in an appendix, make sure they are clearly
distinguished from any raw data.
Each non-textual element must be commented on and its relevance and significance
explained in relation to the research problem.
All non-textual elements should have a consistent look about them. This can be achieved
by the following do's and don'ts
do use a box or frame to surround the element.
do not use a different text font to that used in the body of the work [e.g., Ariel vs. New
Times Roman].
do use small caps when formatting headings.
do not use fancy or cursive fonts.
do change the page layout from portrait to landscape if this helps you display the non-
textual element more effectively; always place the "top" of the page along the left-hand
margin and maintain page numbering.
If the non-textual element within the text is not adapted from another source but totally
your own creation, take credit for your work and say so! Otherwise, you must cite where
you found the data. You must also cite the source even if you reorganize or rearrange the
data [e.g., "Chart 4 is adapted from..."].
You may refer to non-textual elements by using parentheses with or without the verb
“see” (i.e., "see Table 1"). However, it is important to be consistent with whichever
choice you make.
References to non-textual elements are generally put in parentheses, e.g. "(see Figure 1)"
or "(Chart 2)" because this information is generally supplementary to the results
themselves; most of the text should focus on highlighting key findings.

NOTE: Do not overuse non-textual elements! Include them sparingly and only in cases
where they are an effective means for enhancing and/or supplementing information
already described in your paper. Using too many non-textual elements disrupts the
narrative flow of your paper, making it more difficult for the reader to synthesize and
interpret your overall research. If you have to use a lot of non-textual elements, consider
organizing them in an appendix.

ANOTHER NOTE: Excel and other computer programs are capable of creating very
elaborate, colorful, and dramatic looking non-textual elements. However, be careful not
to let aesthetics and artistry overwhelm the message you are trying to convey to the
reader. Use these features only to help improve the reader's understanding of the
information being presented. For example, if a pie chart is being used to show the
distribution of responses to a survey, use distinctive colors to distinguish between each
part of the chart.