MEE20003 FLUID MECHANICS 1 - LOSSES IN PIPES AND PIPE FITTINGS

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1 INTRODUCTION
Loss of head along a pipeline network is incurred in two primary ways. First there is friction along the
walls of long, straight sections of the pipe. Second there are losses that occur as the flow is forced
through pipe fittings, such as bends, joins, valves, filters, etc. In both cases, the losses occur due to
the fact that there are shear stresses in the flow - shear stresses are due to the resistance between
layers of fluid trying to “slide” over one another. This resistance is measured by the viscosity. The
work done by these shear stresses converts mechanical energy to heat, and it is therefore lost from
the mechanical system.
Often, pipe networks consist of many long straight sections, and a few pipe fittings. Therefore, the
losses in the straight sections of pipe are much greater than the losses in the fittings, and so the
losses in the straight section are referred to as the major losses. Conversely, the losses in the pipe
fittings are referred to as minor losses. Note, however, that networks can easily be designed where
the minor losses are, in fact, greater than the major losses, if lots of components are required.
This experiment is designed to investigate these minor losses throughout a series of different compo-
nents, and the major losses in a straight section of the pipe, by measuring the change in piezometric
pressure as the flow passes through a component.
2 BACKGROUND THEORY
In a steady flow of fluid through a network with no machinery (i.e, no pumps or turbines), the steady
state energy equation can be applied, which reads

p1 V2 p2 V2
+ z1 + 1 = + z2 + 2 + hL , (1)
ρg 2g ρg 2g

where pn is the pressure at point n, zn is the elevation of point n, Vn is the flow velocity at point n, and
hL is the head loss. Note that hL is the focus of this experiment.
The left-hand side of equation (1) represents all the energy inputs: Energy flowing in in terms of
pressure (“spring” potential), elevation (gravitational potential) and velocity (kinetic). The right-hand
side represents all the energy output: energy flowing out in terms of pressure (“spring” potential),
elevation (gravitational potential) and velocity (kinetic), plus energy flowing out due to conversion to
heat - this last term is the loss. Note that in the form shown in equation (1), all the terms have
dimensions of length - this length is the depth of a column of fluid which has the same potential
energy as the energy a given term represents.
It is informative to look at how the flow energy varies as the flow progresses down the network. Two
quantities can be defined. First is the total energy in the flow, referred to as the Energy Grade Line
(EGL). This is simply the sum of the pressure, elevation, and velocity terms. The second is the sum of
only the pressure and elevation terms, referred to as the Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL). We can define
 ∆H
∆h

(1)
(2)

Figure 1. The energy grade line EGL (- - -) and the hydraulic grade line (—) for the flow along a pipe and
through a typical fitting. The points (1) and (2) represent the locations of piezometers that may be used to
measure the loss across the fitting.

these as
p(s) V (s)2
EGL(s) = + z(s) + (2)
ρg 2g
p(s)
HGL(s) = + z(s), (3)
ρg

where s is the distance along the network. The difference between these two is the kinetic energy
head, i.e, the head (the height of a column of fluid with potential energy equal to the kinetic energy of
the fluid at this point) present in the fluid due to kinetic energy.
Plotting the EGL and the HGL shows how energy varies along the network. This is illustrated in
figure 1 for the flow along a pipe through a typical fitting (here illustrated as a contraction including a
sharp-edged throat, but this could be any fitting).
A number of features are apparent. First, in the long straight sections, the EGL and HGL have a
constant slope. This represents a loss of energy - the drop in both of these lines over a given distance
is given by hL in equation (1). Second, again in the long straight sections, the distance between the
EGL and HGL is constant, because the velocity is constant. Third, if the size of the pipe cross section
is changed (as occurs between the upstream and downstream sections in the figure) the distance
between the EGL and HGL changes, as the velocity changes. Remember the velocity is related to
the area through continuity, which for an incompressible steady flow states

V̇– = A1 V1 = A2 V2 . (4)

Fourth, the impact of the loss through the fitting is immediately apparent, as both the EGL and HGL
suddenly drop as the flow passes through the fitting. This represents the large, but localised, loss
of energy that occurs in most fittings, where shear stresses are large due to the torturous flow path
induced by the fitting. Fifth, it can be seen that the impact of the fitting is felt both upstream and
downstream of the fitting, as the EGL and HGL deviate slightly from the linear trend of the straight
pipe (the extension of the linear trend is shown in the figure as a dashed line).
2.1 Losses in fittings
In this subsection, the focus is on the sudden drop, or the loss associated with the flow through the
fitting. There are two important measures of the loss illustrated in figure 1: ∆h, which is the change
in the HGL across the fitting, and ∆H which is the change in the EGL. Equation (2) shows that these
two quantities are related - ∆h is the change in piezometric head, and ∆H is the change in total head,
such that
Vu2 Vd2
∆H = ∆h + − (5)
2g 2g
where Vu is the upstream velocity, and Vd is the downstream velocity. Equation (5) shows that if the
pipes are the same size, so that the velocity upstream and downstream is the same, then the change
in piezometric head and total head are the same.
So, if the flow rate and sizes of the pipes are known, then velocities can be calculated from equation
(4). The change in piezometric head can be measured using two piezometers, one either side of the
component (such as at points (1) and (2) as shown in figure 1). Therefore, by measuring flow rate and
piezometric head, the total loss across the fitting ∆h1 can be found. This can then be corrected by
removing the head loss that would have been present if the fully developed pipe flow continued all the
way to the location of the fitting, ∆hf , or

∆h = ∆h1 − ∆hf . (6)

This is the aim of this experiment. How to find ∆hf for the various components is explained in section
2.3 below.
Finally, the loss can be expressed using a minor loss coefficient, K, such that
2
Vchar
∆H = K (7)
2g
where Vchar is a characteristic velocity. Typically this is the velocity upstream of the component -
however, for pipe contractions, the velocity downstream is used. This says that the head loss ∆H
is some coefficient multiplied by the dynamic or kinetic head. Components that cause large shear
stresses due to significant changes in the flow direction therefore have large loss coefficients. Note it
is possible to have an overall loss δH, but a gain in the piezometric pressure giving a negative δh, if
the downstream velocity is lower - this occurs in a sudden pipe enlargement. This point is shown in
figure 2, as well as the typical recirculation zones that are generated in fittings that lead to large shear
stresses and losses - minimizing these recirculation zones minimizes losses in the network.
The shear stresses, and therefore the loss coefficients, depend on viscosity, and the presence of
turbulence. The influence of both of these can be assessed via the Reynolds number
Vchar D
Re = , (8)
ν
where Vchar is a characteristic velocity, D is the pipe diameter, and ν is the kinematic viscosity. For
water, this is approximately ν = 1.0 × 10−6 . For air, this is approximately ν = 1.5 × 10−5 . Often the K
value is a function of Re, until some critical value of Re is reached. For Re beyond this value, K is
essentially constant.
Figure 2. Illustrations of typical flows in some components, showing that regions where recirculations occur
leading to losses, as well as the fact that there can be a gain in piezometric head but a reduction in overall head
in an expansion.
For some components, it is possible to at least estimate the value of K by building an analytic model
based on the conservation of energy and conservation of momentum. For instance, for the flow
through a sudden enlargement, K can be estimated as
 2  2
Vd Au
K = 1− = 1− , (9)
Vu Ad
where the d and u subscripts refer to downstream and upstream, respectively.
2.2 Losses in pipes
In pipes, energy loss occurs through the same mechanism - shear stresses that convert mechanical
energy to heat. However, here the shear stresses are not cause by recirculation, but by the fluid
“sticking” at the walls (due to the no-slip boundary condition), and moving faster down the middle.
This causes a velocity gradient in the boundary layer near the walls, and therefore shear stresses.
So, the losses in a straight pipe are a function of two variables: the Reynolds number Re, accounting
for the size of the pipe and the speed of the flow; and the relative roughness of the wall.
The roughness of the wall is quantified by the equivalent sand roughness, ks . The quantity ks is
basically the average height of any tiny bumps in the finish of the interior surface of the pipe. If the
material and the finish of the material is known, ks can be obtained from a handbook or textbook. For
plastic and glass pipes, ks can be taken to be ks = 0.0015mm.
The relative roughness is found by dividing the equivalent sand roughness by the diameter of the
pipe,
ks
= . (10)
D
Similar to components, the total head loss in a pipe can be expressed as the product of a coefficient
and the dynamic head. However, this can be further decomposed to express the loss in any length of
pipe by including the relative length in the coefficient such that
L V2
∆H = f (11)
D 2g
where f is the friction factor in the pipe. As explained above, the losses, and therefore the friction
factor f , are a function of Re and .
If the flow is laminar, which occurs for flows where Re < 2000, then f can be found theoretically, as
64
f= . (12)
Re
However, for turbulent flows (which is the typical case) there is no such theory, and f needs to be
measured experimentally. This has been done for many values of Re and , and the results are
collated in the Moody chart. This chart is shown in figure 3.
To use the chart, one follows the curve for a given roughness, and then finds the value of f for a given
value of Re on this curve.
Expressing loss this way means that, if there no changes in pipe size (and therefore no changes in
velocity along the network), the total loss can be expressed as
!
V2 L X
∆Htotal = f + Ki (13)
2g D i
Figure 3. The Moody chart, plotting the friction factor f as a function of Reynolds number Re and the relative
roughness .
2.3 Correcting measured losses by calculating ∆hf .
As described above in section 2.1, the loss measured directly between two piezometers should be
corrected by removing the loss that would be present if those two piezometers were connected by sec-
tions of straight pipe, rather than the fitting. Remember, this correction is expressed by the equation
(6).
The basic idea is
• Work out the length of the fictitious pipe (the distance from the pizeometer to the centre of
the fitting) on the upstream side. In this experimental rig, all of the piezometers are 4 pipe
diameters from the centre of the fitting.
• Get the friction factor f for the fictitious pipe from Moody chart, using the Reynolds number Re
and the roughness.
• Calculate the change in head ∆hf 1 using the friction factor f from the Darcy-Weisbach equation
(11).
• Repeat this process on the downstream side to get ∆hf 2 .
• Sum these losses to get the total correction ∆hf = ∆hf 1 + ∆hf 2 .
Note that if the pipe diameter is the same size on each side of the fitting, the process above reduces
to using the length of fictitious pipe between the two piezometers to calculate ∆hf directly.
3 DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL TASK
This experiment consists of measuring the piezometric pressure at a series of points in a pipe network,
and using the changes in piezometric pressure across a component or along a pipe to calculate the
head loss, and therefore the loss coefficient K or the friction factor f .
A schematic of the test rig is provided in figure 4.
The rig consists of a length of plastic pipe of diameter 22.5mm with a number of fittings. These
fittings are:
• A 90◦ mitre bend
• A 90◦ elbow bend
• A 90◦ large radius bend
• A sudden enlargement to a pipe of diameter 29.6mm
• A sudden contraction
Water is pumped through the pipe network supplied from the hydraulic bench on which the pipe
network sits, and is discharged into the measuring tank at the bottom of the bench.
Piezometer tappings are provided in the pipe walls, 4 pipe diameters before and after each compo-
nent. The tappings are connected to a glass multitube manometer. The difference in piezometric
head at each tapping can be read directly off the manometer.
NOTE TO DEMONSTRATORS: Ensure that the manometers all read at a level somewhere near the
middle of their range before beginning the experiment. The level can be adjusted by pressurising the
air in the manometer with the bicycle pump using the valve on the front of the board supporting the
pipe network, near the top right corner.
Once the demonstrator has started the rig for you, complete the following:
Figure 4. A schematic of the test rig.
 1. set the flow rate by turning the red tap on the right side of the hydraulic bench.
2. record the flow rate by timing with the provided stopwatch how long it takes to fill a set volume
in the measuring tank - there is a measurement gauge on the left hand side of the bench.
3. Record this flow rate, and record the piezometric heads at each of the 10 tappings shown on
the manometer in table 1.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for 5 more flow rates.

Also record the diameter of the pipes in each section, and the distance between the points 3 and 2
for later calculations.
4 DESCRIPTION OF FURTHER CALCULATIONS TO PERFORM
Once you have recorded the piezometric pressures for a series of flow rates, your measurement tasks
are complete. From here, you can use your measured data to calulate loss coefficients and friction
factors, and answer some questions about the performance of the pipe network. Note that you are
free to record your data on the lab handout, and then transfer it to a spreadsheet for the calculation of
the various quantities in the later tables - just ensure how you have calculated the quantities is clear
in your submission (for instance, by providing an example calculation for one point).
4.1 Loss across fittings and straight section of pipe
Record the change in piezometric across across each component as a function of flow rate in table 2.
4.2 Velocities at all points in the network
Calculate the values of velocity from the values of flow rate at each tapping and record them in table
3. Pay close attention to units, and express the velocities in m/s. NOTE: there are 1000L in 1 cubic
metre.
4.3 Reynolds numbers at all points in the network
Using the calculated values of velocity, the pipe diameter and viscosity, calculate the Reynolds number
Re at each tapping and record it in table 4.
4.4 Friction factors at all points in the network
Using the Reynolds number and the roughness for plastic pipe, find the friction factor at each tapping
using the Moody diagram and record it in table 5.
4.5 Head loss correction ∆hf for all components
Using the friction factor, the length of fictitious p i pe c a lculated f r om t h e fi tt ing di me nsions, an d the
Darcy-Weisbach equation (11), calculate the head loss correction for each component and record it
in table 6 (note there is no correction required for the straight pipe , also length of the straight pipe is 54
cm).
4.6 Total head loss across all components
Calculate the total head loss using equations (5) and (6) across all of the components using the
values of the characteristic velocity for that component, which are tabulated in table 3 and record
them in table 7.
4.7 Loss coefficients and friction factors
Calculate the loss coefficients using equation (7) from the total head loss in table 7 and the kinetic
head using the characteristic velocity from table 3, and record them in table 8. For the straight pipe,
calculate the friction factor using equation (11). (NOTE you will need the distance between points 3
and 2 for this).
4.8 Reynolds numbers at all points in the network
Calculate the Reynolds number for each component from equation (8) using the values of the char-
acteristic velocity for that component, which are tabulated in table 3 and the pipe diameter and record
them in table 9.
5 DISCUSSION AND COMMENTS
• Three of the components (Mitre, Elbow, and large elbow) force the flow to make a 90◦ turn.
Which did you expect to generate the largest loss? How does this compare to the measurements
you made in tables 7 and 8?

• Is the loss coefficient for any of the components a function of Re? Which ones? Do any com-
ponents show a critical Re above which the loss coefficient is independent of Re? What is this
critical value?

• What recommendations, in terms of a design change, would you make to minimize losses in the
enlargement and contraction?

• For the sudden enlargement, compare the loss coefficients you obtained with the theoretical
values from equation (9). How do they compare? What factors do you think contributed to any
discrepancy? How could you change the experimental method to mitigate these discrepancies?

• For the pipe, compare the friction factors you obtained with those from the Moody chart for the
values of Re you tested. How well do your values compare? What factors do you think contribute
to any discrepancy? What change to the exerimental method or apparatus would you suggest
to improve the match between the experiment and the Moody chart?

6 SUBMISSION
Submit a document showing:

1. Your measured data - a completed table 1

2. Your calculated quantities - completed tables 2 to 9. Make sure for calculated quantities that the
calculation process is clear to a reader

3. Your responses to the Discussion and Comments outlined in section 5.

The final format is up to you, but transferring your data to a spreadsheet program, and then including
the completed tables in a typed document will make calculations less tedious.
V– (L) Time (s) V̇– (L/s) h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 h9 h10

Table 1. Piezometer readings for various flow rates

V̇– (L/s) Mitre (h1 − Straight Elbow (h3 − Sudden en- Sudden Large
h2 ) pipe h4 ) largement contraction elbow
(h2 − h3 ) (h5 − h6 ) (h7 − h8 ) (h9 − h10 )

Table 2. Piezometric loss ∆h1 for various flow rates for each component

V̇– (L/s) V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10

Table 3. Velocity values for various flow rates

V̇– (L/s) Re1 Re2 Re3 Re4 Re5 Re6 Re7 Re8 Re9 Re10

Table 4. Reynolds number values (Re = V D/ν) for various flow rates.

V̇– (L/s) f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10

Table 5. Friction factor f values for various flow rates to calculate loss correction.

V̇– (L/s) Mitre Straight Elbow Sudden en- Sudden Large

pipe largement contraction elbow
0
0
0
0
0
0
Table 6. Head loss correction ∆hf for various flow rates for each component.

V̇– (L/s) Mitre Straight Elbow Sudden en- Sudden Large

pipe largement contraction elbow

Table 7. Total head loss ∆H for various flow rates for each component.