c) triple-beam balance

d) digital balance
e) vernier calipers
f) micrometer

2. Use the following general error propagation equation to analyze the errors involved
in making calculations involving measurements with their own uncertainty.

Lab Skills: Using

σ =
∂Rulers,
f
σ + f
∂f Vernier
σ +
2
∂f
2
x σ
Calipers, and
2
2
y
2
2
z
∂x ∂y ∂z ∗
Micrometers
General Error Propagation Equation

THEORY

Refer to lab handout on Error Propagation.

1 Using the Metric Ruler
Using the Metric Ruler

Consider the following standard

Consider metric
the following ruler.
standard metric ruler.

The ruler is incremented in units

The ruler is incremented of centimeters
in units (cm).TheThe
of centimeters (cm). smallest
smallest scaleis division
scale division a tenth is a
of a centimeter
tenth of a centimeter or 1 mm. or 1 Therefore,
mm. Therefore,thetheuncertainty
uncertainty ∆x = smallest increment/2 = 1mm/2 =
0.5mm = 0.05cm. Note that a measurement made with this ruler must be stated to a tenth
∆x = (smallest increment) / 2 = 1mm/2 = 0.5mm = 0.05cm.
1
Note that a measurement made with this ruler must be stated to a tenth of a centimeter
since the uncertainty is stated to a tenth of a centimeter. In the example above, the length
of the object is clearly longer than 2.7 cm and less than 2.8 cm. It looks closer to 2.8 cm, so
the value would be stated as x = 2.77 cm ± 0.05 cm.
(You might think it looks more like x = 2.78 cm ± 0.05 cm, that would also be fine, it
is still inside the uncertainty range. Make the best estimate you can.)

2 Using the Vernier Calipers

The Vernier caliper is an instrument that allows you measure lengths much more accurately
than the metric ruler. The smallest increment in the vernier caliper you will be using is
(1/50) mm = 0.02 mm = 0.002 cm. Thus, the uncertainty is
∆x = 12 0.002 cm = 0.001 cm.

The vernier scale consists of a fixed metric scale and a sliding vernier scale. The fixed
scale is divided into centimeters and millimeters, while the vernier scale is divided so that 50
divisions on it cover the same interval as 49 divisions on the main scale (at least this is the
way the ones De Anza has are constructed). Thus, the length of each scale vernier division
∗
These notes are largely drawn from the first lab explanation of Prof Eduardo Luna.

1
 The Vernier caliper is an instrument that allows you measure lengths much more accurate
than the metric ruler. The smallest increment in the vernier caliper you will be using is
(1/50)mm = 0.02mm = 0.002cm. Thus, the uncertainty is ∆x = (1/2)0.002 cm = 0.001 cm.

1. THE VERNIER SCALE

Equipment List:
C 3 X 5 card
C one vernier caliper
C one ruler incremented in millimeters

What you will learn:

This lab teaches how a vernier scale works and how to use it.

I. Introduction: The vernier scale consists of a fixed metric scale and a sliding vernier scale. The fixed scale
is divided into centimeters and millimeters, while the vernier scale is divided so that 50
A vernier scale
divisions (Pierre
on itof
cover Vernier,
the same interval ca.
as 491600)
divisionscan bemain
on the used onThus,
scale. anythemeasuring
length device with a
is 49/50 the length a main scale division. Close the jaws completely and note that the
graduated of each
scale. Mostscaleoften
vernier division
athe
vernieris 49/50 the length
scale of a main
is found onscale division.
length Close the jaws
first line atcompletely
the far and
leftnote
onthat thevernier scale
first line at the far(called the
left on the ormeasuring
zeroscale
vernier indextheline)
(called
devices such as
“zero”coincides with the
vernier
zerocalipers or micrometers.
line onor the
“index”
mainline) scale. A vernier
coincidesCarefully
with lineinstrument
the zerocompare on the main
andscale.increases
see Carefully
that the
thecomparemeasuring
first precision
and see division
vernier is 0.02
beyond what that
it the first normally
would vernier divisionbeis with
0.02 mm an short of the firstmeasuring
ordinary main scale division,
scalethelike
seconda ruler or meter stick.
mm short of the first main scale division, the second vernier division is 0.04 mm away from
vernier division is 0.04 mm away from the second main scale division, and so on. If the
the secondjaws
main scale opened
are slightly division, andto so
it is easy on. fraction
tell what If theofjaws arescale
the main slightly
divisionopened
the vernierit is easy to tell
II. How indexof
what afraction
vernier has moved
system
the mainbyworks:
noting
scalewhich vernierthe
division division best coincides
vernier index haswith amoved
main scale
by noting which vernier
division.
division best coincides
A vernier scale slideswithacross
a maina scale
fixeddivision.
main scale. The vernier scale shown below in
A measurement
figure 1 is subdivided sois made
thatwithtena vernier
of itscaliper by closing
divisions the jaws on the object
correspond to be divisions on the main
to nine
measured and then reading the position where the zero line on the vernier falls on the main
scale. 1 main scale divisions
2.1When ten
More vernier
scale. details
The divisions
measurement about arehow
compressed
is incomplete untilaanVernierintofraction
additional the space
Scale ofscale
works
of a main ninedivision
is determined. This
we say the vernier-scale ratiois obtained
is 10:9. by noting
So which
the line on the vernier
divisions on thescale (0,2,4,6,8)
vernier scale are not of a
coincides
A vernier scale best with
slides a lineaonfixed
across the main scale.scale. The vernier scale shown below in figure 1 is
main
standard lengthso(i.e.,
subdivided thatinches
ten of or its centimeters),
divisions correspond but thetodivisions on theonmain
nine divisions scale scale.
the main are always
(10/9
As an example, let’s consider measuring the length of the aluminum block below.
some standard
is easier length
to see thanlike
49/50.)millimeters
When ten orvernier
decimal inches.are
divisions A compressed
vernier scale enables
into an of nine
the space
2
unambiguous
main scale interpolation
divisions we say between the smallestratio
the vernier-scale divisions
is 10:9.onSo thethe
main scale.
divisions on the vernier
scale are not of a standard length (i.e., inches or centimeters), but the divisions on the main
scale are always some standard length like millimeters or decimal inches. A vernier scale
enables an unambiguous interpolation between the smallest divisions on the main scale.

Figure 1: A 10/9 Vernier scale.

Figure 1: Ten vernier divisions in the space of nine
main scale divisions, a scale ratio of 10:9.
1
This section is drawn from the first lab explanation of Prof David Newton.

Since the vernier scale pictured above is2 constructed to have ten divisions in the space
of nine on the main scale, any single division on the vernier scale is 0.1 divisions less than a
division on the main scale. Naturally, this 0.1 difference can add up over many divisions. For
 example, after six divisions have been spanned by both scales, the difference in length
between the vernier and main scale would be 6 X 0.1 = 0.6 divisions.
Since the vernier scale pictured above is constructed to have ten divisions in the space
of
In nine on 2
figure thebelow,
main scale,
both any
the single
vernierdivision on thescale
and main vernier scale
start is 0.1 at
evenly divisions lessAfter
the left. than a
distancea of
division on the main scale. Naturally, this 0.1 difference can add up over many divisions.
six increments they differ in length by 0.6 increments as is indicated by the two
For example, after six divisions have been spanned by both scales, the difference in length
dotted lines.
between the vernier and main scale would be 6 × 0.1 = 0.6 divisions. In figure 2 below, both
the vernier and main scale start evenly at the left. After a distance of six increments they
differ in length by 0.6 increments as is indicated by the two dotted lines.

Figure 2: In the span of six divisions, the difference

between the vernier and main scale is 0.6 divisions.

In practice, the left sides of the two scales are not matched up as above. Instead, the
Figure 2: In the span of six divisions, theofdifference between thethe vernier and main scale is
two left sides of each scale
0.6 divisions.
Figureare 2:offset
In theby an
span amount corresponding
six divisions,
between the vernier and main scale is 0.6 divisions.
to the length measured. In
difference

figure 3, the two scales are still off by 0.6 divisions as in figure 2 above, however in figure 3
the scales match up along the dotted vertical line on the right side instead of matching up on
When using the Vernier calipers for a measurement, the object in the jaws will cause an
Ininpractice,
left side asoffset figure 2.theIn
in the two left
scales sides
figure
on the3,ofwe
leftthe two
would
edge scales
of the say areIntwo
the
scales. not matched
figuredotted upscales
as above.
vertical
3, the two lines
are Instead,
stillon
off the the side
by left
twofigure
of the left0.6
sides
are of each
divisions as inscale
separated byare
figure 0.6 offset by an amount
divisions
2 above, however figurecorresponding
ofin length 3 in
thethe same
scales to
match the
sense length
thatthe
up along measured.
the two lines
dotted In in
figure
figure 3,vertical
2 are the two
linescales
separated on bythe are
right
0.6 still
sideoff by 0.6
instead
divisions. of divisions
Studymatching ason
up
and compare inleft
figure
side 2asabove,
figures however
in figure
2 and in figure
2.3Intofigure 3,
understand 3 how
we
the scales would say the two dotted vertical lines on the left side of the figure
match up along the dotted vertical line on the right side instead of matching up on are separated by
a vernier system
0.6 divisions of length in the same sense that the two lines in figure 2 are separated by 0.6
left side as in figure 2. In figure 3, we would say the two dotted vertical lines on the left side
works. divisions. Study and compare figures 2 and 3 to understand how a vernier system works.
of the figure are separated by 0.6 divisions of length in the same sense that the two lines in
figure 2 are separated by 0.6 divisions. Study and compare figures 2 and 3 to understand how
a vernier system
works.

Figure 3: The offset on the left is 0.6 divisions, so now the 6th line aligns exactly with the
main scale. Figure 3: A length at the left has a 0.6 division
difference also.

Figure 3: A length at the 3

left has a 0.6 division
difference also.
2.2 Making a measurement
A measurement is made with a vernier caliper by closing the jaws on the object to be
measured and then reading the position where the zero line on the vernier falls on the main
scale. The measurement is incomplete until an additional fraction of a main scale division is
determined. This is obtained by noting which line on the vernier scale (0,2,4,6,8) coincides
best with a line on the main scale. As an example, lets consider measuring the length of the
aluminum block below.

Note that the zero line on the vernier scale falls between the 4.4 cm and 4.5 cm mark on the
main scale. Thus, the first significant digits are 4.4 cm. The remaining two digits are
obtained
Note that the zerobyline
notingon which
theline on the vernier
vernier scale scale
falls(0,2,4,6,8)
betweencoincides
the 4.4 bestcmwithand
a line4.5
on cm mark on
the main scale. the Thus,
main scale.
theLooking closely at the picture
first significant digitsbelow
are indicates
4.4 cm. thatThe
the 46remaining
line lines up thetwo digits are
closest. Therefore, the reading is 4.446 cm. Or in standard form 4.446 cm ± 0.001 cm.
obtained by noting
Note that the which
zero line line
on theon thescale
vernier vernier scale the
falls between (0,2,4,6,8) coincides
4.4 cm and 4.5 cm mark on best
the with a line on
main scale.
the main scale. Thus, the
Looking first significant
closely at thedigits are 4.4below
picture cm. Theindicates
remaining two
thatdigits
theare4.6 line lines up the
obtained by noting which line on the vernier scale (0,2,4,6,8) coincides best with a line on
closest with a mark on the main scale. Therefore, the reading is 4.446
the main scale. Looking closely at the picture below indicates that the 46 line lines up the
cm. Or in standard
cm ±Therefore,
form 4.446closest. 0.001 cm. the reading is 4.446 cm. Or in standard form 4.446 cm ± 0.001 cm.

4
 complete revolution of the circular scale moves the thimble 0.5 mm along the linear scale so that t
distance between the jaws is also changed to 0.5 mm. Since the circular scale has 50 divisions, rotati
it through one circular-scale division, will cause the rod to move through a distance equal to 1/50 of 0
3 Using mm, The or 0.01 mm. Thus the numbers on the circular scale represent hundredths of a millimeter.
Micrometer Caliper
micrometer caliper can be used to measure lengths directly to 0.01 mm, and by estimating tenths o
circular scale division, it can be used to estimate lengths to 0.001 mm. Measurements made with
The micrometermicrometer
caliper hascaliper
a linear
canscale engraved
be estimated on its sleeveofand
to thousandths a circularThe
a millimeter. scale
totalengraved
micrometer caliper readi
is the sum
on what is properly of the
called thereadings
thimble.on The
the main andscale
linear circular scales. into divisions of 1 mm
is divided
and is 25 mm long. Half-millimeter marks are provided below the linear scale. The circular
scale has 50 divisions. One complete revolution of the circular scale moves the thimble 0.5
In the figure to the left, notice the main scal
mm along the linear scale so that the distance between the jaws iswhich also changed
is marked to with
0.5 mm.a 0 and a 5. Thes
Since the circular scale has 50 divisions, rotating it through one circular-scale indicate millimeters. Below
division, will the main scal
cause the rod to move through a distance equal to 1/50 of 0.5 mm, are or
marks
0.01 atmm.the Thus
half waythe points betwee
numbers on the circular scale represent hundredths of a millimeter.mm marks. These
A micrometer l/2 mm
caliper canmarks are presen
be used to measure lengths directly to 0.01 mm, and by estimatingbecause tenthsone
of arevolution of the thimble move
circular scale
the thimble only 1/2 mm down the barrel.
division, it can be used to estimate lengths to 0.001-0.002 mm. Measurements made with a
micrometer caliper can be estimated to thousandths of a millimeter. The total micrometer
caliper reading is the sum of the readings on the main and circular scales. In the figure to
Possible settings and readings of the micrometer caliper are shown here. In the first example, t
the left, notice the main scale which is marked with a 0 and a 5. These indicate millimeters.
sixth main scale mark is visible just to the left of the circular scale. This means we have a readi
Below the main scale are marks
somewhere betweenat the
6.0 half waymm.
and 6.5 points
Thebetween mm
line on the marks.
main scale These
points to l/2themm
barrel about halfw
marks are present between
because 19 and
one 20 divisions. of
revolution Therefore, the micrometer
the thimble moves thecalliper
thimblereading
onlyis1/2 6.0 mm + 0.19 mm + 0.0
down the barrel. mm = 6.195settings
Possible mm = 0.006195 meters. of the micrometer caliper are shown here.
and readings

In the second example, the half-millimeter mark to the right of the sixth main scale mark is visible. S
In the example, the half-millimeter
the reading mark 6.5
is somewhere between to the right
and 7.0 mm.of The
the line
sixthon main scale
the main mark
scale is to a point of th
points
visible. So thebarrel just is
reading slightly past thebetween
somewhere 41 mark.6.5
So and
we can
7.0estimate
mm. The the last
lineplace of the
on the reading
main scaleto be 0.002 mm
The of
points to a point reading is thenjust
the barrel 6.5slightly
mm + 0.41
pastmmthe+41
0.002 mm So
mark. = 6.912
we canmmestimate
= 0.0069the12 last
meters. This show
that we can estimate micrometer readings to one thousandth
place of the reading to be 0.002 mm. The reading is then 6.5 mm + 0.41 mm + 0.002 mm of a millimeter.
= 6.912 mm = 0.0069 12 meters. This shows that we can estimate micrometer readings to
one thousandth of a millimeter. The final value is (6.912 ± 0.005) × 10−3 m.