UNI

T-
I
1.
0Int
roduct
ion
2.
0Buil
dingMater
ial
s
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1.
0Int
roduct
iont
oCi
vi
lEngi
neer
ing

Civi
lengineeri
ngist heoldestbranchofengi neeri
ngwhi chisgrowingr i
ght
fr
om t hestoneageofci vil
i
zati
on.Amer i
cansocietyofcivilengineeri
ngdefinescivi
l
engineeri
ng as the professi
on in whicha knowledge oft he mathematicaland
physicalsci
encesgainedbyst udy,exper
ienceandpr acti
ceisappl i
edwithjudgment
todev el
opway stoutil
izeeconomicall
ythemat er
ialsandf orcesofthenatureforthe
progressi
vewellbeingofman.

1.
1Rol
esofCi
vi
lEngi
neer
ing

 Pl
annewt
ownshi
psandext
ensi
onofexi
sti
ngt
owns.
 Pr
ovi
ding shel
tert
o peopl
eint
hef
orm ofl
ow costhousest
o hi
ghr
ise
apartment s.
 Layingor dinaryv i
ll
ageroadstoexpresshighways.
 Const r
uct i
ngi rr
igati
ontanks,mult
ipurposedams&canal sforsupplyi
ngwat er
toagr i
culturalfi
elds.
 Supplyingsaf eandpot ablewaterforpubli
c&industr
ialuses.
 Protectingourenv i
ronmentbyadopt i
ngsewaget reatment& sol idwast e
disposal t
echni ques.
 Const r
uct i
nghy dro-el
ectri
c&thermal-powerpl
antsforgener ati
ngelectr
icit
y.
 Providi
ngot hermeansoft r
anspor
tati
onsuchasr ai
lway s,harbor&air
ports.
 Const r
uct i
ngbr idgesacrossstr
eams, ri
ver
sandalsoacr ossseas.
 Tunnelingacr ossmount ains&alsounderwat ertoconnectpl aceseasi l
y&
reducedi stance.

Management Techni ques:Ci vi

lengineers must manage men,mat er
ials and
equipmentsuf ficiently.Sincehugef undsar et o behandled incivi
lengi neeri
ng
proj
ects,aci vi
lengi neermustknow t hebasicsinfinanci
almanagementandl egal
obli
gations.Knowl edgeofmanagementt echni
quesi sanassett opracti
cingci vi
l
engineer.
Comput erApplicat i
ons:Si ncethemagnitudeofdesigningthestr
uctur
esandst ori
ng
i
nformat i
on isi ncr easing veryfastnowaday s civi
lengineers go f
orcomput er
appli
cationsinpl anninganddesi gni
ngofst r
uctur
es.Therei sgoodnumberofci vi
l
engineeringsoft
war ecommer ci
all
yavail
able.

1.
2Fi
eldsofCi
vi
lEngi
neer
ingandt
hei
rscope

Thedi f
fer
entfi
eldsofci
vi
lengi
neer
ingandt
hescopeofeachcanbebr
ief
ly
di
scussedasfol
lows.

1.
2.1Survey
ing:Itisascienceandartofdetermi ni
ngtherel
ati
vepositi
onofpoi nt
s
on the ear
th’s surf
ace bymeasuri
ng distances,dir
ecti
ons and vert
icalheight
s
di
rectl
yori ndi
rectly
.Surveyi
nghel
psinpr eparingmapsandpl ans,whichhelpin
pr
ojectimplement ati
on.(Set
ti
ngoutthealignmentf orar oadorr ai
l
wayt rackor

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canal
,deci
dingt helocati
onforadam orair
portorharbor
)Thecostoft heproj
ect
canalsobeestimatedbeforeimpl
ementi
ngtheproj
ect.Now-a-
day
s, usi
ngdat
af r
om
remotesensingsatell
it
esishelpi
ngtoprepar
emaps&pl ans&t huscutdownt he
costofsur
vey i
ng.
TypesOfSurveying
PLANESURVEYI
NGANDGEODETI
CSURVEYI
NG

Thesurveyi
nwhichtheshapeorcurv
atureofeart
hisnottakenint
oaccounti
s
cal
ledpl
anesurv
eying.Thesurv
eyinwhichtheshapeorcurvat
ureofear
thistaken
i
ntoaccounti
scall
edGeodeticsur
veyi
ng
SCOPEOFSUREYI
NG
 Topr
epar
ethepl
anormap

 Todet
ermi
net
hedi
mensi
onandcont
ourofanypar
toft
heear
th’
ssur
face

 Toest
abl
i
shboundar
iesofl
and

 Tomeasur
ethear
eaandv
olumeofl
and

 Tosel
ectsui
tabl
esi
tef
oranengi
neer
ingpr
oject

1.2.2.Geo-TechnicalEngi neeri
ng (Soi
lMechani cs):Any bui ldi
ng,bridge,dam,
retaini
ngwal letc.consistofcomponentslikefoundations.Foundationi
slaidfr
om a
certaindepthbel owt hegroundsur f
aceti
llhar
dl ayerisreached.Thesoilshouldbe
thoroughl ycheckedf oritssuitabi
l
ityf
orconstructionpur poses.Thestudydeali
ng
witht he proper t
ies &behaviorofsoilunderl oads & changes i n envir
onmental
condi t
ionsiscal l
edgeo- t
echnicalengi
neeri
ng.Theknowl edgeoft hegeologyofan
areai salsoverymuchnecessar y.

SCOPEOFGEOTECHNI
CALENGI
NEERI
NG
 Foundat
iondesi
gnandconst
ruct
ion

 Hi
ghwaypav
ementdesi
gn

 Desi
gnandconst
ruct
ionoft
unnel
sunder
groundst
ruct
ureanddr
ainages
st
ruct
ures

 Desi
gnofr
etai
ningst
ruct
ures

 Desi
gnofear
thendamsandembankment

1.
2.3.
Str
ucturalEngi neering:A bui
l
dingorabr i
dgeoradam consi st
sofv ari
ous
el
ementslike f oundations,columns,beams,slabs et
c.These components are
al
wayssubject edt of orces.I
tbecomesi mport
anttodetermi
net hemagnit
ude&
di
rect
ionthenat ureoft heforcesandactingallthetime.Dependi
ngupont he
mater
ial
sav ai
lableort hatcanbeusedforconstr
ucti
on,t
hecomponentsortheparts

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ofthebuil
dingshoul
dbesaf el
y&economical
l
ydesigned.
Ast r
uctur
edengineeri
sinvolv
edinsuchdesi
gni
ngact i
vi
ty.Theuseofcomput
ersi
n
designi
ngthemember s,i
sreduci
ngtheti
meandalsotomai ntai
naccur
acy
.

SCOPEOFSTRUCTURALENGI
NEERI
NG
 Responsibl
eforcreati
onofst
ruct
ural
syst
em i
naccor
dancewi
tht
heneedsof
thecl
ientandarchit
ect

 Pl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olet
obui
l
dindust
ri
alpr
oduct
ionandmanuf
act
uri
nguni
t

 Key
smai
nfort
otal
planni
nganddesi
gni
ngofnucl
earpowerpl
ant
s.

 Takether
esponsi
bil
i
tyaboutt
hesaf
etyandser
viceabi
l
ityoft
hest
ruct
uref
or
i
tsli
fet
ime

1.2.
4.Transport
ati
onEngi neer i
ng:Thetransportsy stem i
ncludesroadway s,rail
ways,
ai
r&wat erways.Her ether oleofcivi
lengineersi st oconstructfaci
li
ti
esr elat
edto
eachone.Somet imescr ucialsecti
onsofr ailway s& r oadsshoul dbei mpr oved.
Roadst oremotepl acesshoul dbedev el
oped.Por ts&har borsshouldbedesi gnedto
accommodat e,
allsizesofv ehicl
es.Foranairpor t
, t
herunway&ot herfacil
i
t i
essuch
astaxiways,ter
minal bui
ldings,contr
oltowerset c.shouldbepr operl
ydesigned.

SCOPEOFTRANSPORTATI
ONENGI
NEERI
NG
 Tr
aff
icmanagement

 Par
kingf
aci
l
iti
es

 Rapi
dtr
anspor
tat
ion

 Ur
bani
zat
ionandi
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion

 Acci
dentst
udyf
orsaf
eandcomf
ortt
ranspor
tsy
stem

1.2.
5.I
rri
gati
on&Wat erresourcesengi
neer i
ng( Hydr
auli
csEngi neering):I
rrigat
ioni s
theprocessofsuppl yi
ngwat erbyart
ifi
cialmeanst oagr i
cult
uralf iel
dsf orraising
crops.Sincerainfallinanar eaisinsuff
icientorunpredictablei nanar ea,wat er
fl
owinginar i
vercanbest or
edbyconstructingdamsanddi verti
ngt hewat erintot he
canals & conveyed tot he agri
cul
tur
alf i
elds.Apar tfr
om dams & canal s other
associat
edstructuresli
kecanalsregul
ator
s, aquaducts,weir
s,bar r
ageset c.areal so
necessary.Hydroel ectr
icpowergenerationf aci
l
iti
esareal soi ncl
udedundert his
aspect.

SCOPEOFWATERRESOURCEENGI
NEERI
NG
 Fl
oodmi
ti
gat
ion

 I
rr
igat
ion

 Hy
droel
ect
ri
cpower

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 Domest
icandi
ndust
ri
alwat
ersuppl
y

 Aquat
icani
mal
management

SCOPEOFI
RRI
GATI
ONENGI
NEERI
NG
 Di
ver
sionofst
oredwat
ert
ocanal
fordi
str
ibut
ion

 Li
ft
ingofwat
erbydi
ggi
ngwel
l
sandf
edt
osmal
lchannel
s

 Dev
elopmentofhy
droel
ect
ri
cpower

 I
ncr
easei
nfl
oodpr
oduct
ion

 Pr
otect
ionf
rom f
ami
ne

 Gr
oundwat
erst
oragei
mpr
ovement

1.2.
6.Wat erSupplyandSani t
aryEngi neer i
ng( Env i
ronment alEngineeri
ng):
Peopleinev eryv i
l
lage,town&ci tyneedpot ablewat er
.Thewat eravail
able( surface
water
&gr oundwat er)maynotbef itfordi rectconsumpt i
on.I nsuchcases,t hewat er
should be pur ifi
ed and t hen suppl i
ed t ot he publ ic.For wat er purification,
sedimentationtanks,fil
terbeds,et c.shouldbedesi gned.I fthet r
eatmentpl antsar e
forawayf rom thetownorci ty,suitablepipelinesf orconv ey i
ngwat er&di st
ribut i
ngi t
shouldalsobedesi gned.Inat ownorci ty,apar toft hewat ersuppliedretur nsas
sewage.Thi ssewageshoul dbesy stemat i
cal l
ycol l
ectedandt hendisposedi ntot he
naturalenv i
ronmentaf t
erpr oviding suitablet reatment .Thesol i
d wastet hati s
generatedi nat ownorl ocal
ityshoul dbesy stemat icall
ycol lectedanddi sposedof f
suit
ably.Bef oredisposal,segr egationofmat er i
alsshoul d bedoneso t hatany
mat eri
alcanber ecycled&wecanconser veournat uralresour ces.

ScopeofEnvi
ronment al
Engineeri
ng
 Prot
ecti
onandconser vati
onofenv
ironment
 Goodwat ersuppl
y
 Wastewat ert
reatment
 Poll
uti
ontreatment
 Soli
dwast emanagement

1.2.
7.Building Materials & Construct
ion Technol ogy:Any engi neer i
ng st ructure
requir
esawi derangeofmat eri
alsknownasbui ldingmat eri
als.Thechoi ceoft he
mat er
ialsiswide&open.I tbecomesimpor tantforanyconst ructionengi neert obe
wellv ersed witht he pr oper
ti
es & applicati
ons oft he dif
ferentmat erials.Any
constructionproj
ecti nvolvesmanyact ivi
tiesand al so requir
ed manymat er
ials,
manpower ,machinery&money .Thediff
erentactiviti
esshouldbepl annedpr operly;
themanpower ,mat erials& machineryshoul d beopt i
mallyut i
li
zed,so t hatt he
constructioniscompl etedintimeandi naneconomi calmanner .Incaseofl arge

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const
ruct
ionproj
ect
smanagementtechni
quesofprepar
ingbarchar
ts&net
wor
k
di
agrams,hel
pincompl
eti
ngt
heproj
ectorder
lyi
nti
me.

Cl
asi
fi
cat
ionOfBui
l
dingMat
eri
als

Tr
adit
ionalmat
eri
als
St
ones,ti
mber,br
icks,
lime,cement,
tar,
bit
umen,
mor
tar,
fer
rousandnonf
err
ous
metal
s,cerami
cmat er
ials,
etc.

Al
ter
nat
iveBui
l
dingMat
eri
als

Mud–bl
ocks,
concr
ete-
blocks,
plast
ics,
glass,
alumi
num,
pai
nts,
flyash,
etc.

CompositeMat er
ial
s
RCC,fi
berreinf
orcementconcret
e, f
err
o-cement,
composi
tel
ami
nat
edoor
s,pl
ast
ic
l
aminates,asbestossheet
s,f
iberrei
nforcedgl
ass,et
c.

SmartMat
eri
alsOrI
ntel
li
gentMater
ial
s
Opt
icfi
ber
,pi
ezoel
ect
ricmater
ial
,el
ectr
o-st
ri
cti
veandmagnet
o-st
ri
cti
vemat
eri
als,
etc.

1.2.
8.TownPl
anningandAr chitectur
e.Wi t
hthegr owt
hofpopulat
ionandindust
ries
newt ownsar
ecomi ngupandexi sti
ngonesar egrowi
ng.Propert
ownplanni
ngist o
bemadebyciv i
lengi
neers.
Structuresshouldbeaestheti
cal
l
ygoodalso.Ar
chit
ecture
coversthi
sarea.Thisfiel
dofci vi
lengineer
inghasgrownupsomucht hatithas
becomeaseparatebranchofengi neeri
ng.

1.
3Bui
l
dingMat
eri
als

1.
3.1Bri
cks
Bri
ckist hemostcommonl yusedbuil
dingmat er
ial
s.Itislighteasi
lyavai
l
abl
e,
uni
form shapeandsi
ze,andrel
ati
vel
ycheaperexcepti
nhill
yareas.Bri
cksar
eeasi
l
y
mouldfrom pl
asti
ccl
ays,al
soknownasbrickcl
ayorbrickeart
h.

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Fi
g.1.
1Br
ick

Qual
i
tiesofgoodbr
icks

Thegoodbr i
ckswhi char et obeusedf ort heconst ructionofi mpor t
antstructures
shoul
dpossesst hef oll
owi ngqual i
ties
 Thebr i
cksshoul dbet ablemoul ded,wel l-burntyinki l
ns,copper-colored,free
from cr acksandwi thshar pandsquar eedges.Thecol orshouldbeuni f
orm
andbr ight.
 Thebr i
cksshoul dbeuni f
or mi nshapeandi tshoul dbeofst andardsize.For
India, abr i
ckofst andar dsize190mm x90mm x90mm i srecommendedby
theBI S.Wi t
hmor t
art hickness,t hesi zeofsuchabr ckbecomes200mm x
i
100mm x100mm andi ti
sknownast henomi nal sizeofthemodul arbrick.
 Thebr i
ckshoul dgi veacl earmet all
icr ingingsoundwhenst ruckwi t
heach
ot her .
 Thebr i
ckswhenbr okenorf racturedshoul dshowabr ighthomogeneousand
uni f
or m compactst r
uct uref reefrom v oids.
 Thebr i
ckshoul dnotabsor bwat ermor et han20% bywei ghtforfir
stcl ass
br i
cksand22%bywei ghtforsecondcl assbr i
cks,whensoakedi ncoldwat er
foraper i
odof24hour s.
 Thebr i
ckshoul dbesuf fi
cientlyhar d.Noi mpr essionshoul dbel eftonbr i
ck
sur face, wheni ti
sscr atchedwi thf i
ngernai l
.
 Thebr i
cksshoul dnotbr eaki ntopi eceswhendr oppedf l
atonhar dgr ound
from ahei ghtofaboutonemet er.
 Thebr i
ckshoul dhav elowt her mal conduct i
vit
y.Theyshoul dbesoundpr oof.
 Thebr i
cks,whensoakedi nwat erf or24hour sshoul dnotshow deposi t
sof
whi tesal tswhenal l
owedt odr yinshade.
 Nobr i
ckshoul dhav ethecr ushi ngst rengt hbel ow5. 50N/mm2.
Classi
ficationofBr icksBasedont heirQual it
y
Thebri
cksusedi nconst ruct i
onar ecl assi fi
edas:
 Firstcl assbricks:Thesebr icksar eofst andar dshapeandsi ze.Theyarebur nt
inki lns.Theyf ulfi
l
l alldesirabl eproper tiesofbr i
cks.

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 Secondcl assbr icks:Thesebricksaregroundmoul dedandbur ntinki

lns.The
edgesmaynotbeshar panduni f
orm.Thesur facemaybesomewhatr ough.
Suchbr icksar ecommonl yusedfortheconst r
ucti
onofwal lswhi charegoi ng
tobepl ast er
ed.
 Thirdclassbr icks:Thesebr i
cksaregr oundmoul dedandbur ntinclamps.
Theiredgesar esomewhatdi stort
ed.Theypr oducedullsoundwhenst ruck
together.Theyar eusedf ortemporaryandunimpor t
antstructures.
 Fourthcl assbr icks:Thesear etheov erburntbri
cks.Theyar edar kincolour.
The shape i si rregul
ar.They are used as aggr egates f orconcr etei n
foundations, f
loor sandr oads.

Engi
neer
ingappl
i
cat
ionofbr
icks

Br
icksareusedi nthef oll
owi ngci vi
lwor ks:
 Asst ructur
aluni t
,sincet hecl aybr i
cksorbur ntbr i
cksar estrong,har d,
durabl
eandr esisti
vet oabr asionandf i
re.
 Asaest heti
cuni t/surf acefinish:Brickscanbeusedi ndi ffer
entcolour,si
zes
andorientati
ont ogetdi fferentsurfacedesi gn.Asanaest het
icmaterialbri
ck
canbeusedi npav ement s,facingwor kandar chi
tecturalpurposes.
 Forli
ningofov ens, furnacesandchi mney sasitshowsgoodf ir
eresist
ance.
 Forprotecti
ngst eel columnsf rom fi
re.
 Asaggr egatesinpr ovidingwat erproofingtoR.C.C.roofs.
 Forpav er
sforf ootpathsandcy cletracks.
 Forli
ningsewerl i
nes.

Basedonqual
i
tyofbr
ick

 Fir
stcl
assandsecondcl
assbri
cksarewidel
yusedforall
sor
tsofsoundwor
k
especi
all
yofpermanentnatur
e.Thesest r
uct
uresincl
udebui
ldi
ngs,dams,
roads,
sewers,
bri
dgepi
ers,
tunnel
s,pi
tchi
ngworksetc.

 Useoff ir
stcl
assbr i
cksarespeci fi
edf orobtai
ningthearchitecturaleffects
onf acesofstr
uctur
eswher etheyar etobekeptexposedf orbeaut y.
 Mas onrywithsecondclassbricksi sgeneral
lyplast
eredtomaket hesmoot h
surfaceobtai
nedduet otheir
regularshapeandsi zeofbri
cks.Mor tarrequired
i
nbr ickmasonryusingsecondcl assbri
ckswi l
lal
sobemor e.
 Thirdclassandsun-dri
edbricksar eusedf orconstr
ucti
onwor koft empor ary
nature.Thesebri
cksarenotusedi ndampsi t
uati
onsoratpl acessubj ectedt o
heav yrai
ns.
 Forthclassbri
cksareusedasr oadmet alandasaggregatesint hef oundati
on
concr et
e.

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Adv
ant
agesofBr
icks

 Economi cal(
Rawmat er
iali
seasil
yavail
able)
 Hardanddur able
 Compr essiv
est r
engthisgoodenoughf orordi
naryconstr
ucti
on
 Diff
erentori
entati
onsandsi zesgi
vediff
erentsurfacet
extur
es
 Verylowmai ntenancecostisrequi
red
 Demol i
shingofbr i
ckstruct
uresisveryeasy,lesstimeconsumingandhence
economi c
 ReusableandRecy clabl
e
 Highlyfi
reresi
stant

Di
sadv
ant
agesofBr
icks

 Timeconsumi ngconstruct
ion
 Cannotbeusedi nhighseismiczones
 Sincebricksabsorbwat ereasi
ly,i
tcausesf
luor
escencewhennotexposedto
ai
r
 Verylesstensilestr
ength
 Roughsur facesofbricksmaycausemol dgrowthi
fnotproper
lycl
eaned.
 Cleaningbricksurf
acesi sahardjob.
 Coloroflowqual it
ybr i
ckchangeswhenexposedtosunforalongerperi
odof
ti
me

1.3.
2Stones
Stoneisa‘ nat
ural
lyavai
labl
ebui
ldi
ngmat eri
al’whi
chhasbeenusedf
rom t
he
earl
yageofci vi
li
zat
ion.Iti
savail
abl
ei nthef or
m ofrocks,whi
chi
scutto
requi
redsizeandshapeandusedasbuildi
ngblock.

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Fi
g1.
2.St
ones

Proper t
iesofSt ones
Thef ollowi ngpr oper t
iesoft hest onesshoul dbel ookedintobef oresel ecti
ngt hem
forengi neer i
ngwor ks:
Structure:Thest ructureoft hest onemaybest rat
ifi
ed( layered)orunst r
at i
fied.
Structuredst ones shoul d be easi ly dressed and sui t
ablef orsuperst r
uct ur e.
Unst r
atified st ones ar e hard and di f
fi
cul tt o dr
ess.Theyar e pr ef
erred fort he
foundat ionwor ks.
Texture:Fi ne gr ained st ones wi th homogeneous di str
ibution look at tracti
ve and
hencet hey ar eusedf orcar vi
ng.Suchst onesar eusuallystronganddur able.
Density:Denserst onesar est ronger.Lightwei ghtstonesar eweak.Hencest ones
withspeci ficgr av itylesst han2. 4areconsi deredunsuitableforbui ldings.
Appear ance: A st onewi t
huni form andat t
ractivecolouri sdur able,ifgr ai
nsar e
compact .
Mar bleandgr ani t
egetv erygoodappear ance,whenpol i
shed.Hencet heyareused
forfacewor ksi nbui l
dings.
Strength: Strengt hi sani mpor tantpropertyt obel ookedi ntobef or eselectingst one
asbui ldingbl ock.I ndianst andar dcoder ecommendsami nimum cr ushingst rengt h
2
of3.5N/ mm f oranybui l
dingblock.Table1. 1showst hecrushi ngst rengthofv ar i
ous
stones.

Tabl
e1.
1:Cr
ushi
ngst
rengt
hofcommonbui
l
dingst
ones

NameofSt
one Cr
ushi
ngSt
rengt
hinN/
mm2

Tr
ap 300t
o350

Basal
t 153t
o189

Gr
ani
te 104t
o140

Sl
ate 70t
o210

Mar
ble 72

Sandst
one 65

Li
mest
one 55

Lat
eri
te 1.
8to3.
2

Hardness:I
tisan importantpr oper
tyto beconsi der
ed when st
onei sused f or
fl
ooringandpavement.Coeff
icientofhar
dnessistobef oundbyconduct ingteston
standardspeci
meninDor y’
stesti
ngmachine.Forroadworkscoeffi
cientofhardness
shouldbeatl east17.Forbui l
dingworksstoneswithcoeff
ici
entofhar dnessless

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than14shoul dnotbeused.
Per cent agewear :
Itismeasur edbyat tri
tiont est.Itisani mpor t
antpr oper tyt obe
consi der edinsel ect i
ngaggr egatef orr oadwor ksandr ail
waybal last.Agoodst one
shoul dnotshowwearofmor ethan2%.
Por osi t
yandAbsor ption: Allst oneshav epor esandhenceabsor bwat er.Ther eaction
ofwat erwi thmat er i
alofst onecausesdi sintegr ati
on.Absor ptiont esti sspeci f
iedas
percent ageofwat erabsor bedbyt hest onewheni ti simmer sedunderwat erf or24
hour s.Foragoodst onei tshoul dbeassmal l aspossi bleandi nnocasemor et han5.
Weat her i
ng: Rainandwi ndcausel ossofgoodappear anceofst ones.Hencest ones
withgoodweat herr esist anceshoul dbeusedf orfacewor ks.
Toughness:Ther esistancet oi mpacti scal l
edt oughness.I tisdet er minedbyi mpact
test.
Stoneswi tht oughnessi ndexmor et han19ar epreferredf orr oadwor ks.Toughness
i
ndex13t o19i sconsi der edasmedi um t oughandst oneswi tht oughnessi ndexl ess
than13ar epoorst ones.
Resi stancet oFi re: Sandst onesr esistfirebet ter.Argil
laceousmat er i
als,thoughpoor
i
nst rengt h, aregoodi nr esi stingf ir
e.
Easei nDr essi ng:Costofdr essi ngcont r
ibut est ocostofst onemasonr ytoagr eat
extent .
Dressi ngi seasyi nst oneswi t
hl esserst rengt h.Henceanengi neershoul dl ooki nto
suff i
cientst rengthr athert hanhi ghst rengthwhi l
esel ecti
ngst onesf orbui l
dingwor ks.
Seasoni ng:Thest onesobt ainedf rom quar rycont ainmoi stur ei nt hepor es.The
strengt hof thest onei mpr ov esift hismoi sturei sremov edbef or
eusi ngt hest one.
Thepr ocessofr emov i
ngmoi sturefrom por esi scalledseasoni ng.Thebestwayof
seasoni ngi st oal lowi tt ot heact i
onofnat uref or6t o12mont hs.Thi sisv er ymuch
requi redi nt hecaseofl ater it
est ones.

Requirement sofGoodBui l
dingStones
Thef oll
owi ngarether equi rementsofgoodbui l
dingst ones:
Str
engt h:Thest oneshoul dbeabl etoresisttheloadcomi ngoni t.Ordinari
ll
yt hi
sis
notofpr imaryconcer nsi nceal lstonesarehav i
nggoodst rength.Howev erincaseof
l
argest ructure,i
tmaybenecessar ytocheckt hestrength.
Durabili
ty:St onesselect edshoul dbecapabl eofr esi
st i
ngadv erseeffectsofnat ural
for
cesl ikewind, r
ainandheat .
Hardness:Thest oneusedi nfl
oorsandpav ement sshoul dbeabl etor esi
stabr asi
ve
for
cescausedbymov ementofmenandmat eri
alsovert hem.
Toughness:Bui l
dingst onesshoul dbet oughenought osustainstressesdev eloped
duetov i
brati
ons.Thev ibrat i
onsmaybeduet othemachi nerymount edov erthem or
due t ot he loads mov ing ov ert hem.The st one aggr egates used i nt he road
constructionsshoul dbet ough.
Specifi
cGr avit
y:Heav i
erv ari
etyofst onesshoul dbeusedf ortheconst ructionof
dams,
ret
ainingwal ls,docksandhar bours.Thespeci f
icgr avit
yofgoodbui l
dingst oneis
between2. 4and2. 8.

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Por osityandAbsor ption:Bui l

di ngst oneshoul dnotbepor ous.I fi tispor ousr ain
wat er
ent ersint ot hepourandr eact swi thst oneandcr umbl esi t.Inhi gheral t
it
udes,t he
freezingofwat eri npor est akespl aceandi tr esul t
sint ot hedi sint egrati
onoft he
stone.
Dr essing:Gi vingr equir edshapet ot hest onei scal leddr essing.Itshoul dbeeasyt o
dresssot hatt hecostofdr essi ngi sr educed.Howev erthecar eshoul dbet akenso
that ,t
hisi snotbeatt hecostoft her equi r
edst r
engt handt hedur ability.
Appear ance:I ncaseoft hest onest obeusedf orf acewor ks,wher eappear ancei sa
primar yr equi rement , i
tscol ourandabi li
tytor eceiv epolishi sani mpor tantfact or
Seasoni ng:Goodst onesshoul dbef reef rom t hequar r
ysap.Lat er i
test onesshoul d
notbeusedf or6t o12mont hsaf terquar r
ying.Theyar eal l
owedt ogetr i
dofquar r
y
sapbyt heact ionofnat ure.Thi spr ocessofr emov ingquar r
ysapi scal l
edseasoni ng.
Cost :Costi sani mpor tantconsi derat i
oni nsel ect i
ngabui ldingmat eri
al.Pr oximi t
y
oft hequar ryt obui ldingsi tebr ingsdownt hecostoft ranspor t
at i
onandhencet he
costofst onescomesdown.
Engi neer i
ngappl icationofSt ones
 St onesar eusedi nt hef ollowi ngci vi
lengi neer i
ngconst r
uctions:
 St onemasonr yi susedf ort heconst ructi
onoff oundat i
ons,wal ls,col umns
andar ches.
 St onesar eusedf orfloor ing.
 St onesl absar eusedasdamppr oofcour ses,lintelsandev enasr oofing
mat erials.
 St oneswi th good appear ancear eused f ort hef acewor ksofbui l
dings.
Pol ishedmar blesandgr ani tear ecommonl yusedf orfacewor ks.
 St onesar eusedf orpav ingofr oads,f oot pathsandopenspacesr oundt he
bui ldings.
 St onesar eal sousedi nt heconst r
uctionsofpi ersandabut ment sofbr idges,
damsandr etaini ngwal ls.
 Cr ushedst oneswi thgr av edar eusedt opr ov idebasecour sef orroads.When
mi xedwi tht art heyf ormf inishingcoat .
 Cr ushedst onesar eusedi nt hef oll
owingwor ksalso:
 Asabasi ci nertmat er i
al i
nconcr ete
 Formaki ngar tifi
ci al stonesandbui l
dingbl ocks
 Asr ailwaybal last .

1.
3.3Cement

Onemat eri
alwhichhascompletel
yrevoluti
oni
zedt
heconstr
ucti
onindustr
yis
cement.Itwasi n1824,amasonofEngl andbynameJosephAspi dindeveloped
cementbyburningathightemperat
ureami xtureofli
meandclayandthengri
nding
i
tint
ofinepowder.Thi
si sknownasOrdinaryPortl
andCement
.

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Cementisabi nder,asubstanceusedinconst
ructi
ont hatset
sandhar dens
andcanbindothermateri
alstoget
her.Themostimport
anttypesofcementar eused
asacomponenti ntheproducti
onofmor tari
nmasonry,andofconcrete,whichi
sa
combinat
ionofcementandanaggr egatetofor
m astr
ongbuildingmateri
al.

Fi
g1.
3CementPr
oduct
ionPi
eChar
t

Composi
ti
onofOr
dinar
yPor
tl
andCement

Tabl
e1.
2:Composi
ti
onofOr
dinar
yPor
tl
andCement

I
ngr
edi
ent Av
erage(
%)

Li
me 62

Si
l
ica 22

Al
umi
na 5

Cal
ci
umSul
phat
e 4

I
ronoxi
de 3

Magnesi
a 2

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Al
kal
i
es 1

Sul
phur 1

Gr
adesofCement

Cementisgradedaccor
dingt
oit
scompressi
vestr
engt
h.Cementmor
tarof1:
3pr
opor
tioni
smadeandt hencubesofsur
facearea50sqcm ismadeandt hen
t
est
edaft
er28days.

Tabl
e1.
3:Gr
adesofCement

Cement Compr
essi
ve st
rengt
h
2
ty
pe (N/
mm )

Gr
ade33 33

Gr
ade43 43

Gr
ade53 53

Pr
oper
ti
esofCement

Phy
sical
Proper
ti
es:

 Fineness:Finercementpar t
iclesi mpartbetterqual
it
y.Itismeasur edinterms
ofper centageofwei ghtr etainedaf t
ersievingthecementt hr
ough90mi cron
si
ev eorbysur facear ea.Accor di
ngtoI Scodespeci fi
cationweightretained
ont hesiev eshouldnotbemor ethan10percent .I
ntermsofspeci f
icsurface
shoul dnotbel essthan2250cm2/ gm.
 Soundness: Oncet heconcr etehashar denedi ti
snecessar ytoensurethatno
volumet ri
cchangest akespl ace.Thecementi ssaidt o beunsound,i fi t
exhibitsv olumetri
ci nstabi
lit
yaf terhardening.Itisdet ermined bytheLe
Chat eli
ertest.
 Settingofcement :Whenwat erisaddedt ocementi tfor msat hickpast e.
Gradual l
yast i
mepasses,i tt r
ansformsi ntoanon- pl
ast i
cr i
gidmass.The
setti
ngt imei sinfl
uencedbyt heamountofwat eraddedt othecement ,the

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temper atureatwhi cht hecementpast eisall

owedt osetandt hehumi di
tyof
theat mospher e.Theset t
ingofcementi sidenti
fi
edint wost ages,initi
al
setti
ngandf inalset t
ing.Thesettingt i
mei sdeterminedint helaboratoryby
VicatNeedl eAppar at
usAsperBur eauofI ndianStandards( BI
S),forordi
nar y
cement, theiniti
alsetti
ngtimeshal lnotbelessthan30mi nutesandt hefinal
setti
ngt imeshoul dnotbemor et
han10hour s.
MechanicalProper t
ies:
 Compr essi v
est rength:Cementmor tarcubesofsize7.06cm ar emadeoutof
mor t
arof1:3composi ti
on( 1par
tofcementt o3par t
sofsand)andt estedin
aUni versalcompr essivetestingmachi ne.Normall
ythetestsar edoneaf t
er3,
7and28day s.

 Tensil
estrengt
h:Testpi
eces( br
iquett
es)aremadeoutofcementsand
mortar1:3andtest
edinastandar
dt ensi
let
esti
ngmachi
neaf
ter3,7and28
days.

Tabl
e1.
4:Tensi
l
est
rengt
hCement

Compr
essi
veandTensi
l
est
rengt
hasperBI
S

Per
iod St
rengt
h

notl
esst
han115kg/
sq
Compr
essi
ve
cm
Ordi
nary 3day
s
Port
land notl
esst
han 29 kg/
sq
Tensi
l
e
Cement cm

notl
esst
han175kg/
sq
Compr
essi
ve
cm
7day
s
notl
esst
han 35 kg/
sq
Tensi
l
e cm

Di
ff
erentTy
pesofCementandt
hei
rappl
i
cat
ions

Port
landCemant :Themostcommonusef orPortl
andcementi sint heproducti
onof
concrete.Concret eisacomposi temateri
alconsisti
ngofaggr egate(graveland
sand),cement ,
andwat er.Asaconstr
ucti
onmat eri
al,
concret
ecanbecasti nalmost
anyshapedesi red,andoncehar dened,canbecomeast ruct
ur al(l
oadbear i
ng)
el
ement .Concretecanbeusedi ntheconstr
ucti
onofst r
uctur
alelement sli
kepanel s,
beams, st reet furniture, or may make cast i
-n sit
u concr ete for bui l
ding
superstruct
ureslikeroadsanddams.Thesemaybesuppl i
edwithconcretemi xedon
si
te,ormaybepr ovidedwi t
h"ready-
mixed"concretemadeatper manentmi xing
si
tes.Por tl
and cementi salso used i
nmor tars(withsand and wat eronl y)for

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pl
aster
sandscreeds,andingrout
s( cement
/wat
ermi
xessqueezedi
ntogapst
o
consol
i
dat
efoundati
ons,r
oad-
beds,
etc.)
.

Whit
e Cement :The cementwhen made f ree fr
om col ouri
ng oxides ofiron,
maganeseandchlor
ium resul
tsi
ntowhi t
ecement .Inthemanuf actur
eofthi
scement ,
t
heoilf ueli
susedi nsteadofcoalforburni
ng.Whi t
ecementi susedf orthefl
oor
f
ini
shes,plast
eri
ng,ornamentalworkset c.I
nswi mmi ngpool
swhi tecementisused
t
oreplaceglazedti
l
es.Itisusedforfi
xingmar bl
esandgl azedtil
es.

Coloured Cement:The cement s ofdesi r

ed colours ar
e produced byi ntimatel
y
mix i
ngpigmentswit
hor di
narycement.Thechlorium oxi
degivesgr eencolour.Cobal
t
producebluecolour.
Ir
onoxidewi t
hdiffer
entproporti
onproducebr own,redory el
low
colour.Addi
ti
onofmanganesedi oxi
degivesbl
ackorbr owncol ouredcement .These
cement sareusedforgivi
ngfini
shingtouchest
of loor
s,wal
ls,
wi ndowsill
s,roofsetc.

QuickSetti
ngCement :Quicksett
ingcementisproducedbyreduci
ngt heper
centage
ofgypsum andaddingasmal lamountofalumini
umsulphateduri
ngthemanuf actur
e
ofcement .Finer
gri
ndingalsoaddst oqui
ckset t
ingproper
ty.Thiscementst art
s
sett
ing wit
hin 5 minutesafteraddingwat
erand becomeshar d masswi t
hin 30
minutes.Thi
scementi susedt ol
ayconcret
eunderstati
corsl
owlyrunningwater.

RapidHardeningCement :Thi
scementcanbepr oducedbyincr
easingl
imecontent
andburni
ngathi ghtemperat
urewhi l
emanuf acturi
ngcement .Gr
indi
ngtoveryf
ineis
alsonecessary.Thought
heini
tial
andf i
nalsetti
ngt i
meoft hi
scementisthesameas
thatofportl
andcement ,i
tgainsstrengt
hinear l
yday s.Thi
spropert
yhel
psinearli
er
removalofform worksandspeedi nconstr
uctionactivi
ty.

LowHeatCement :I
nmassconcr eteworksli
keconst
ructi
onofdams,heatpr
oduced
duetohydr
ati
onofcementwillnotgetdisper
sedeasi
ly.Thi
smaygiveri
setocracks.
Henceinsuchconstr
uct
ionsi
tisprefer
abletousel
owheatcement.

Pozzul
anaCement :Pozz ulanaisavolcanicpowerf oundi nIt
aly.Itcanbeprocessed
fr
omshalesandcer t
ainty pesofclayalso.Inthi
scementpozzul anamat eri
ali
s10t o
30percent .Itcanresi
stactionofsulphate.Itreleasesl essheatdur i
ngsetting.It
i
mpar t
shigherdegreeofwat ert
ight
ness.Itst
ensilestrengthishighbutcompr essiv
e
str
engthislow.Iti
susedf ormassconcr etewor ksli
kedam,t allstr
uct
uresetc.Iti
s
al
sousedinsewagel inewor ks.

Expandi
ngCement :Thiscementexpandsasi tsets.Thi
spr oper
tyisachi
evedby
addi
ngexpandi
ngmedi um l
ikesul
phoaluminat
eandast abi
li
zingagenttoordi
nar
y
cement.Thi
sisusedforf
il
li
ngthecr
acksinconcret
est r
uct
ures.

Hi
ghAluminaCement:I
tismanuf
acturedbycal
cini
ngamixtur
eofli
meandbauxi
te.
I
tismor
eresi
stantt
osulphat
eandacidatt
ack.I
tdevel
opsal
mostful
lst
rengt
hwi
thi
n

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24hour
sofaddi
ngwat
er.I
tisusedf
orunderwat
erwor
ks.

BlastFur naceCement :I nthemanufactureofpi gir

on,sl
agcomesoutasawast e
product.Bygr indi
ngclinkersofcementwi thabout60t o65percentofsl ag,thi
s
cementi spr oduced.Theproper
ti
esoft hi
scementar emor eorl
esssameasor dinar
y
cement ,buti tischeap,sinceituti
l
isewast epr
oduct.Thi
scementisdur abl
ebutit
gainsthest rengthsl
owl yandhenceneedsl ongerperi
odofcuri
ngConcr
ete.

Acid Resistant Cement :This cement is produced by addi

ng acidresi
stant
aggregatedsuchasquar tz,quart
zit
e,sodi
um sil
icat
eorsolubl
eglass.Thi
scement
has good r esi
stance to acti
on ofacidand water
.Itis commonlyused int he
constructi
onofchemi calfact
ori
es.

Sulphat eResistantCement :Bykeepi ngt heper centageoft ri

calci
um alumi nateC3A
belowf ivepercenti nor dinar ycementt hiscementi sproduced.I ti
susedi nt he
const ructi
onofst ructur
eswhi char elikelyt obedamagedbyal kali
necondi ti
ons.
Exampl esofsuchst r
ucturesar ecanals,culvert
set c.
1.3.4Pl ai
nConcr ete
Plai
n concr ete,commonl yknown asconcr ete,i
san i ntimate mi xt
ure of
bi
ndi ngmat eri
al,fineaggr egat e,coar seaggr egat eandwat er
.Thi scanbeeasi l
y
moul dt o desi
red shape and si ze beforei tl oses plasti
cit
yand har dens.Plain
concr eteisstrongi ncompr essionbutv eryweaki ntensi
on.Thet ensilepropertyis
i
nt r
oducedi nconcr etebyi nduct i
ngdi ff
erentmat eri
alsandt hisattempthasgi ven
ri
set oRCC, PSC, FRC,cellularconcr et
eandFer rocement .

Maj
ori
ngredi ent
sofconcr etear
e:
 Bindingmat eri
al (
li
kecement ,l
i
me,polymer
)
 Fineaggr egate(sand)
 Coar seaggregates( cr
ushedstone,
jell
y)
 Wat er.
 A smal lquanti
tyofadmi xtur
esli
keai rent
rai
ning agents,waterproof
ing
agent s,workabi
lit
yagentsetc.mayalsobeaddedtoimpar tspeci
alpr
opert
ies
tothepl ainconcretemixtur
e.

Fi
g1.
4.Pl
ainConcr
ete

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Dependi
ngupont heproporti
onofi
ngredi
ent,
str
engthofconcreteveari
es.Iti
s
possibl
et odet
erminetheproporti
onoftheingredi
entsforaparti
cularstrengthby
mixdesignpr ocedure.I
tisrepresent
edasx: y
:z(say1:1.
5:3)whichi
sther at
ioof
weightsofcementt osandt
ocoar seaggr
egate.

Preparati
onofConcr et e
Thef oll
owingstepsar einvolvedi nt heconcr eting:
 Bat chi ng
 Mi xing
 Tr anspor tingandpl acingand
 Compact i
ng.
 Cur i
ng
Batching:Themeasur ementofmat eri
alsformaki ngconcreteisknownasbat ching.
The
fol
lowingtwomet hodsofbat chi
ngi spracticed:
 Vol umebat chi ng
 Wei ghtbat chi ng.
Mixing:Topr oduceuni for
m andgoodconcr et e,i
tisnecessarytomi xcement ,sand
and
coarseaggr egate,f i
rsti ndrycondi tionandt heni nwetconditi
onafteraddingwat er.
Transporti
ngandPl aci ngofConcr ete.Aft
ermi xi
ng,concret
eshouldbet r
anspor ted
tothef i
nalposition.I nsmal lwor ksi tistranspor tedinir
onpansf rom handt ohand
ofasetofwor ker s.Wheelbar row andhandcar t
salsomaybeempl oyed.Inlar ge
scaleconcretingchut esandbel tconv eyor
sor pipeswithpumpsar eemploy ed.

Compact ionofConcr ete:I

nt heprocessofplaci
ngconcrete,ai
risentrapped.The
entrappedairreducesthestrengthofconcr
eteupt o30%.Hencei tisnecessaryto
remov ethisentrappedair
.Thisisachi
evedbycompact i
ngtheconcret
eaf t
erplaci
ng
i
ti nit
sfinalpositi
on.Compactioncanbecarr
iedoutei
therbyhandorwiththehelpof
vibrat
ors.

CuringofConcr et
e:Curi
ngmaybedef inedasthepr ocessofmai ntainingsat i
sfact
ory
moistureandt emperaturecondi t
ionsforfr
eshlyplacedconcr etef orsomespeci fi
ed
ti
mef orpr operhardeni
ngofconcr ete.Curi
ngi ntheear ly
agesofconcr eteismor e
i
mpor tant.Curi
ngisdonef or28day s.Ifcuri
ngisnotdonepr operly,thest rengthof
concretereduces.Cracksdev elopdueshr i
nkage.Thedur abil
i
tyofconcr etestruct
ure
reduces.Thefoll
owingcuringmet hodsar eemployed:
 Sprayingofwat er
 Cov er
ingt hesurfacewithwetgunnybags, strawet c.
 Ponding
 Steam cur i
ng


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Pr
oper
ti
esofconcr
ete

Pr
oper
ti
esofgr
een/
freshconcr
ete

Wor kabi li
t y:Thi si sdef i
nedast heeasewi t hwhi chconcr etecanbecompact edf ull
y
withoutsegr egat i
ngandbl eedi ng.I tcanal sobedef inedast heamountofi nt ernal
wor kr equi redt of ullycompactt heconcr et et oopt imum densi ty.Thewor kabi l
it
y
dependsupont hequant ityofwat er,gr adi ng,shapeandt heper centageoft he
aggr egat espr esenti nt heconcr et e.
Segr egat ion:Separ ation ofcoar se par ti
cl es from t he gr een concr etei s cal led
segr egat ion.Thi smayhappenduet olackofsuf f
icientquant ityoff i
nerpar ticlesi n
concr eteorduet ot hrowi ngoft heconcr etef rom gr eaterhei ght satt het i
meof
placi ngt heconcr ete.Becauseoft hesegr egat ion,t hecohesi v enessoft heconcr ete
i
sl ostandhoneycombi ngr esul ts.Ul ti
mat elyi tresul tsint hel ossofst r
engt hof
har denedconcr et e.Henceut mostcar eistobet akent oav oidsegr egat i
on.
Bl eedi ng:Thi sr ef erst ot heappear anceoft hewat eral ongwi thcementpar t
icleson
thesur faceoft hef reshl yl aidconcr ete.Thi shappenswhent herei sexcessi ve
quant ityofwat eri nt hemi xorduet oexcessi vecompact ion.Bl eedi ngcausest he
format ionofpor esandr ender st heconcr eteweak.Bl eedi ngcanbeav oidedby
suit ablycont rollingt hequant ityofwat erint heconcr eteandbyusi ngf i
nergr adingof
aggr egat es.
Har shness:Har shnessi st her esi stanceof f
eredbyconcr etet oi tssur facef inish.
Har shnessi sduet opr esenceofl esserquant i
tyoff i
neaggr egat es,l essercement
mor tarandduet ouseofpoorgr adedaggr egat es.I tmayr esul tduet oinsuf ficient
quant ityofwat eral so.Wi thhar shconcr etei ti sdi ffi
cultt ogetasmoot hsur f ace
fi
ni shandconcr et ebecomespor ous.
Proper tiesofHar denedConcr ete
Strengt h:Thechar act erist i
cst rengt hofconcr etei sdef inedast hecompr essi ve
strengt hof150mm si zecubesaf ter28day sofcur ingbel owwhi chnotmor et han5
percentoft het estr esul tsar eexpect edt of ail
.Theuni tofst ressusedi sN/ mm2.I t
i
sr epr esent edasM20wher e, M st andsf ordesi gnmi xand20st andsf orst rengt hof
concr ete.
Dimensi onalChange:Concr et eshr inkswi thage.Thet otalshr inkagedependsupon
theconst ituent sofconcr ete,si zeoft hememberandt heenv ironment alcondi tions.
Tot al shr inkagei sappr oxi mat ely0. 0003ofor i
ginal dimensi on
Dur abi li
ty :Env ir
onment alf or cessuchasweat her i
ng,chemi calat tack,heat ,freezi ng
andt hawi ngt ryt odest royconcr et e.Theper iodofexi stenceofconcr et ewi thout
get tingadv ersel yaf fect edbyt hesef orcesi sknownasdur abilit
y .Gener all
ydense
andst rongconcr eteshav ebet terdur abili
ty .Thecubecr ushi ngst rengt hal onei snot
ar el i
abl egui det ot hedur abi lity.Concr eteshoul dhav eadequat ecementcont entand
shoul dhav el owwat ercementr at i
o.
Imper meabi lity:Thi si st her esist anceofconcr etet ot hef low ofwat ert hroughi ts
por es.
Excesswat erdur ingconcr et ingl eav esal argenumberofcont i
nuouspor esl eadi ng

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totheper meabil
it
y.Si
ncet heper
meabili
tyreducesthedurabil
i
tyofconcr ete,i
t
shouldbekeptv erylow byusi
nglow watercementrati
o,denseandwel lgraded
aggregat
es,goodcompact i
onandcont
inuouscuri
ngatlowtemperat
urecondi
tions

ApplicationofConcr ete
 Asbedconcr etebelowcol umnf ooti
ngs,wal lf
ootings,onwal latsupport
st o
beams
 Assi l
l concr ete
 Ov ert hepar apetwal l
sascopi ngconcrete
 Forf laggi ngt hear eaaroundbuildi
ngs
 Forpav ement s
 Formaki ngbui l
dingblocks.
Howev ermaj oruseofconcr et
ei sasa maj ori ngradi
entofr ei
nfor
ced and
prestressed concr ete.Manyst ruct
uralelement sl i
ke footi
ngs,col umns,beams,
chejjas,lint els,r oofsar emadewi t
hR. C.C.Cementconcr etei susedf ormaki ng
storagest ruct uresl i
kewat ertanks,bins,si
los,bunkersetc.Bridges,dams,retai
ning
wallsar eR. C. C.st r
uct uresinwhichconcr et
eisthemaj oringradient
.

1.3.5Rei nforcedcementconcr ete

Concr eteisgoodi nresi st
ingcompr essivest ressbuti ti sv eryweaki nr esisting
tensilest ress.Hencer einforcementi spr ov i
dedi nt heconcr etewher evert ensi le
stressi sexpect ed.Thebestr einforcementi sst eel,sincet het ensilest r
engt hofst eel
i
squi t
ehi ghandt hebondbet weenst eelandconcr etei sgood.Ast heel astic
modul usofst eel i
sashi ghasconcr et
e, thef orcedev elopedi nst eelishigh.Howev er
i
nt ensi l
ezone, haircracksi nconcr etear eunav oidable.Rei nforcementar eusual l
yi n
thef orm ofmi ldst eelorribbedst eelbar sofdi amet er6t o32mm di amet er.Acage
ofr einfor cement s,kepti naf or m wor kandt hengr eenconcr etei spour ed.Af t
ert he
concr etehar dens,t heform wor kisremov ed.Thecomposi temat er i
alofst eeland
concr ete, nowcal ledR. C.C.act sasst r
uct uralmemberandcanr esisttensi l
easwel l
ascompr essivest ressef f
icient l
y.
Proper tiesofconcr ete
 I tshoul d be capabl e ofr esisti
ng t ensi l
e,compr essi v
e,bendi ng orshear
st resses.
 I tshoul dnotshowexcessi vedef lecti
onst otheser viceabi l
it
yr equirement .
 Ther eshoul dbepr opercov ertor ei
nf orcementsot hatcor rosionofst eeli s
pr ev ented
 Thehai rcr acksdev elopedshoul dbewi thper mi ssiblelimi t
.
 R. C.Ci sagoodf i
rer esistant6.Itcanbemoul dedt odesi redshapeandsi ze.
 Dur abil
ityofR. C.C.i sv erygood.8.R. C. C.st r
uct urecanbedesi gnedt ot ake
anyl oad.

UsesofR.
C.C.
 R.
C.Cisusedasast
ruct
uralel
ement
,wher
everdi
rectt
ensi
onorbendi
ng

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tensioni sexpect ed.Thecommonst r

ucturalelement si nabui l
dingwher e
R.C.Ci susedar efoot i
ng,columns,beams,l int
els,chejjas,r
oofslabs,curv
ed
roofset c,andst ai
rs.
 R.C.C.i susedf ort heconst ructi
onofst oragest ructuresli
kewat ert
anks,
dams,bi ns,silosand bunker stheyar eused f ort heconstructi
onofbi g
structuresl i
kebr idges,r et
ainwal l
s,docksand har bors,and underwat er
structures
 R.C.C.isusedf orpr e-casti
ngr ai
lsleepers,el
ectivepol es
 R.C.Ci susef ortal
l buil
dingslikemul t
istori
edbuildings,chimneysandt owers
 R.C.Ci susedf orpav inghighway s,ci
tyroadsandai rport

2.
0Bui
l
dingComponent
s
The struct
ure ofthe bui
l
ding i
s di
vi
ded i
ntot
wo par
ts.The sub-
str
uct
ure and
thesuperst
ruct
ure.

Substruct
ureisdef i
nedast hestructur
alwor kbelow gr
oundlevelusedt osupport
thestruct
ureabov e.Foundati
ons,basement,subfl
ooraresomecomponent softhis
area.Superstruct
urei s an upward ext
ension ofan existi
ng str
ucture abov
ea
baseli
necalledGr oundLev elingeneralandi tusual
lyservesthepur poseoft he
struct
ure'
sintendeduse.Thev ar
iousmember sofsuper -
str
uctur
esuchascol umns

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andbeamsar
edesi
gnedt
opr ov
idest
rengt
hforcar
ryi
ngthedeadl
oadandli
vel oad
expect
edt
ocomeonthevar
iouspar
tsofthest
ruct
ureinasaf
eandwelldi
str
ibuted
manner

Tabl
e2.1:Bui
l
dingComponent
s
SuperStr
ucture Sub-
Str
uct
ure

Pl
i
nth Foundat
ion

Wal
landcol
umns Abut
ment

Beams Pi
er

Ar
ches

Roof
sandsl
abs

Li
ntel
andar
ches

Chaj
j
as

Par
apet

St
epsandst
air
s

2.1Foundation
Foundati
on i st he mosti mpor tantpar toft he bui l
ding.Bui l
ding act
ivi
ty
start
swithdiggi
ngt hegr oundf orfoundat ionandt henbui l
dingi t
.I tisthelowermost
partoft hebui l
ding.I ttr
ansferst hel oadoft hebui l
dingt ot hegr ound.Itsmain
functi
onsandr equi rement sare:
 Di st
ri
butethel oadf r
om t hestr
uct ur etosoilevenlyandsaf ely.
 Toanchort hebui ldi
ngt ot hegr oundsot hatunderl aterall oadsbuildi
ngwi l
l
notmov e.
 Itpreventst hebui ldi
ngf rom overtur ni
ngduet olateralforces.
 Itgiveslevel surfacefort heconst ructionofsuperst ructure.

Typesoff oundat i
on
Mainlyt
her earet wot y
pesoffoundati
on: t
heyareshall
owanddeepf oundati
on.
Shall
ow Foundat i
on:Ifthedepthoff oundationislessthanorequalt owi dt
hof
foundat
ion is cal l
ed shall
ow foundation.EX;Masonr yfoot
ing,Isol
ated f
ooting,
combinedf ooting,str
apandRCCf oot
inget c
DeepFoundat ion:Ifthedepthoffoundat i
onisgreat
erthanthewidthoffoundati
onis
call
edDeepf oundat i
on.EX.Fr i
cti
onpi les,Loadbearingpil
es( Endbeari
ngpi l
es),
compactionpiles, wellf
oundat
ion,cai
ssons.

Masonr
yFooti
ng:Masonryf
ooti
ngiscomesunderst
eppedf ooti
ngcategory
.Astep
f
ooti
ngistheonewhi chprovi
desaconti
nuouslongi
tudinalbear
ing.Thespread
f
ooti
ngforacont
inuouswal
liscal
l
edstr
ipf
ooti
ng.Whent hewallcarr
iesheavyl
oad

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orwhent heSBC ofsoi

lisnotv er
yhigh,t
henonecangof orst
eppedmasonr
y
foot
ing.Accor
dingt
oNat
ionalBui
l
dingCodeinBr
ickandst
onemasonr
yslopei
s0.
5
H:1V.

I
solated Foot
ingI
fseparat
ef oot
ingsar e pr
ov i
ded foreach col
umn,iti scall
ed
i
solated col
umn foot
ing.Thesizeoff ooti
ng isbased on thearear equi
red t
o
dist
ri
butetheloadofthecolumnssafelyoverthesoil.Thesefoot
ingsareprovi
ded
overa100t o150mm bedconcr ete.Requiredrei
nf or
cementsandthicknessof
footi
ngarefoundbythedesi
gnengineers.Thi
cknessmaybeuni for
m orvaryi
ng.

CombinedFooti
ng:Ifmorethanonecolumni splacedont hebott
om ofthefooti
ngis
cal
l
edcombi nedfooti
ng.Theshapeisgenerall
yrectangular
,tr
apezoi
dalinsecti
on.A
Combinedfooti
ngissopr opor
ti
onedthatthecent erofgravi
tyofthesupporti
ngare
i
sinli
newiththecenterofgrav
ityoft
hetwocol umnl oads.

Raf
tFoot
ing:Ar
aft/
mat
tisat
hickr
einf
orcedconcr
etesl
ab,whi
chsuppor
tsal
lthe

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l
oadsbear ingwal landcol umnsloadsofast r
uctureoral ar
geportionofst r
ucture.If
thesum oft hebasear easofthef ooti
ngsr equiredtosupportast r
uctur
eexceeds
abouthalfthet otalbuil
dingsareatheni ti
spr efer
abletocombi nethef oot
ingsintoa
singl
er aft
.Inr aftf oundati
onuni f
orm set tl
ementi sallowedupt o5cm,butt he
diff
erenti
alsettl
ementshoul dnotgr eaterthen2cm.Raf tisusedwhent heloadsar e
heavy and soi lisv ery weak orhi ghly compr essi
ble and to avoid dif
ferential
settl
ementi nerrati
csoi l
.Rafti
sv er
yusef ulinresi
stingl
argehydraulicupli
ft.

Pi
l
eFoundat
ion:I
fthedept
hoff
oundat
ioni
sgr
eat
er,
thant
hewi
dth/
diamet
eroft
he

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foundat i
on i s cal l
ed Deep f oundat i
on.Fol l
owi ng situati
ons Pilefoundat ion i
s
preferr
ed.
 Thel oadoft hesuperst r
uct ureisheav yandi tsdistri
buti
onisunev en.
 Thet opsoi lhaspoorbear ingcapaci ty.
 Thesubsoi lwat erlevelishi ghsot hatpumpi ngoutofwat erfr
om t heopen
trenchesf ortheshal l
owf oundationisdi f
ficultanduneconomi cal
.
 Thest ructureissituatedonseashor eorr iverbed.
 Thet opsubsoi l
isexpansi veinnat ur
e.
Fri
ctionPi les:Fricti
onpi l
esar eusedt otransferloadsbymeansofski nfricti
onalong
thesur facear eaoft hepi l
es.Forf ri
cti
onpi e,Df>Bwher
l eDf=Dept hoft hepileB=
Diamet eroft he pil
e.Such pi les areused i fhar d strata ar
e notav ailabl
et oa
consider abledept h.Thef ri
cti
ondev elopedi stobepr operl
yassessedbefor edecidi
ng
thelengt hoft hepile.Thesur faceofsuchpi l
esi smader ought oincr
easet heski
n
fri
cti
onsot hatrequiredlengthofpi l
eisr educed.

EndBeari
ngPi
les:
EndBear i
ngPil
esareusedtotransferl
oadthr
ought
hepilet
ipt
oa
suit
abl
ehardbear
ingst
ratum passi
ngsoftsoilortr
ansformi
ngloadt
hroughwater
.
Df>BwhereDf
=Depthofthepil
e,B=Diameterofthepile

2.
2Wal
l
s

Wal lsar ebui l

ttopar ti
ti
onl i
vingar eai nt
odi ff
erentparts.Theyi mpartpri
vacyand
protect i
onagai nsttemper at
ure, r
ainandt heft.Wall
smaybecl assif
iedas
 Loadbear i
ngwal l
s
 Par t
it
ionwal l
s.
LoadBear i
ngWal l
s:Ifbeamsandcol umnsar enotused,l oadfrom roofandf l
oors
aret ransferredtofoundat i
onbywal ls.Suchwal l
sarecal l
edloadbear i
ngwalls.They
aret obedesi gnedtot r
ansfert heloadsaf ely
.Thecr i
ti
calpor t
ionofthewallsisnear
theopeni ngsofdoor sandwi ndowsandt hepositi
onswher econcr etebeamsr est
.
Mi nimum wal lthi
ckness used i s 200 mm.I tis also recommended t hatt he
slender nessr ati
oofwal ldefi
nedasr ati
oofef fect
ivelengthoref fecti
veheightto
thicknessshoul dnotbemor ethan27.

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Parti
tionWall
s:Inf r
amedst ruct
urespar t
it
ionwal
lsar
ebui l
ttodivi
def l
oorareafor
di
fferentut
il
it
ies.Theyr estonfloors.Theydonotcarryloadsfrom fl
oorandroof.
They havet o carry only sel
f-
weight.Hence normall
y parti
ti
on walls ar
et hi
n.
Dependingupont her equi
rementt hesewal l
smaybebr ickpart
it
ion,clayblock
parti
ti
on,gl
asspartit
ion,woodpar t
it
ion,andalumi
num andglasspart
it
ion.

LoadBear
ingWal
l
s Par
ti
ti
onWal
l
s

Theycar
ryl
oadsf
rom r
oof
,fl
oor
,sel
f-
wei
ght
Theycar
rysel
f-
wei
ghtonl
y.
et
c.

Theyaret
hickandhenceoccupymor
efl
oor Thesewal
lsar
ethi
nandhenceoccupyl
ess
area. fl
oorar
ea.

As the mat eri

al r
equi
red i
s mor
e t
he As the mat eri
al requi
red i
s l
ess, t
he
const
ruct
ioncosti
smore const
ruct
ioncosti
sless.

Stonesarenotusedf
ort
heconst
ruct
ionof
St
onesorbr
icksar
eusedf
ort
heconst
ruct
ion.
parti
ti
onwal
ls.

2.3Roof
Roofi stheuppermostpor ti
onofthebui
l
dingwhi
chprot
ectsthebuil
dingfr
om rai
n,
windandsun. Variousty
pesofroof
susedmaybedivi
dedbroadl
yint
othr eet
ypes:
1.Flatroofs
2.Pitchedroofs
3.Shellsandfoldedplates

FlatRoofs
Theser oofsarenear l
yflat
.Howev ersl
ightslope(notmor ethan10° )i
sgi v
en
todr ai
noutt herainwat er.Allty
pesofupperst or
eyfloorscanser v
easf l
atroofs.
Manyt imestopoft heser oofsar et
reatedwithwat erproofi
ngmat eri
als-
li
kemi xi
ng
wat erproofi
ng chemi calsin concret
e,pr ov
iding coba concret
e.Wi th adventof
reli
ablewaterpr oofi
ngt echniquessuchr oofsar econstruct
edev eninar easwi th
heav yr
ainfal
l.

Theadvantagesoff l
atr oofsare:
 Ther oofcanbeusedasat er
racef orplayingandcelebrati
ngfunct
ions.
 Atanyl at
terstaget her oofcanbeconv er
tedasaf loorbyaddinganother
storey.
 Theycansui ttoanyshapeoft hebuilding.
 Ov er-
headwat ertanksandot herservicescanbel ocatedeasi
ly.
 Theycanbemadef ir
epr oofeasil
ycompar edtopitchedroof.
Thedi
sadv antagesofflatroofsar e:
 Theycannotcov erlargecolumnf reear eas.
 Leakagepr obl
em mayoccuratl atterdat ealsoduetodev el
opmentofcracks.
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Onceleakagepr oblem st ar
ts,itneedscost l
ytreatment s.
 Thedeadwei ghtoff l
atr oofsi smor e.
 Inpl
acesofsnowf allflatroofsar etobeav oidedt oreducesnowl oad.
 Theinit
ial costofconst ructi
oni smor e.
 Speedofconst r
uctionoff l
atroof sisless.
PitchedRoofs
Inthear easofheav yr ai
nf all
sandsnow f allslopingroofareused.The
slopeofroofshal lbemor et han10° .Theymayhav esl opesasmuchas45°t o60°
also.Theslopedr oof sareknownaspi tchedr oofs.Thesl opingroofsarepr ef
err
edin
l
ar gespannedst ructureslikewor kshops,f actorybui l
dingsandwar ehouses.I nall
theseroofscov eringsheet sl i
keA. C.sheet,G.I.sheets,til
es,slat
esetc.aresuppor t
ed
onsui t
ablestruct ures.Thepi tchedroof sarecl assifi
edi nt
o;Singleroofs,Doubleor
pur l
i
nroofsandTr ussedr oof s.
SingleRoof:Ifthespanofr oofi slesst han5m t hefollowingtypesofsi ngl
eroofs
areused.
 Leantor oof s
 Coupledr oofs
 Coupled-closer oof
 Coll
arbeam r oof

DoubleorPur l
i
nRoofs:Ifspanexceedst hecostofr after
sincr
easeandsingle
roof
becomesuneconomical.Forspansmor et han5 m doubl epurl
i
nr oof
sar e
pref
erred.Thei
nter
medi
atesuppor
tisgi v
ent or af
ter
sbypur l
i
nssupportedover
coll
arbeams.Fi
gure8.
14showsatypi
caldoubleorpurl
i
nr oof.

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Trussed Roof:Ifspan i smore,framewor ksofsl endermember sareused to

supportsl
opingroofs.Thesefr
amesar eknownast russes.Anumberoft r
ussesmay
bepl acedl
engthwiset ogetwallfreelongerhalls.Pur l
insareprovi
dedov ert
he
tr
usseswhi chintur
nsuppor tr
oofsheets.Forspansupt o9m woodent r
ussesmay
beusedbutf orlargerspanssteeltr
ussesar eamust .Dependi
ngupont hespan,
tr
ussesofdi f
fer
entshapesar eused.Endoft russesar esupport
edonwallsoron
column.

Shel
l
sandFol dedPlateRoofs
Shel
lroofmaybedef i
nedasacurv
edsurf
ace,t
hethi
cknessofwhichissmall
comparedtot heot herdimensi
ons.I
nt heser
oofslotofloadistransfer
redby
membranecompr essioninst
eadofbybendingasinthecaseofconventi
onalsl
ab
andbeam constr
ucti
ons.

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2.4Door s
Thef uncti
onofadoori stogiveaccesst obuildingandt odiffer
entpartsof
thebui l
dingandt odenyt heaccesswhenevernecessar y.Numberofdoor sshouldbe
mi ni
mum possi ble.Thesizeoft hedoorshoul
dbeofsuchdi mensionaswi l
lfaci
li
tate
the mov ementoft he l
argestobjectl i
kel
yt o use t he doors.
In case oft he
residentalbuil
dings, t
hesizeofthedoorshouldnotbel essthan0. 9m ×2. 0m. l
arger
door smaybepr ovidedatmai nentrancetot hebuildingtoenhancet heaesthet i
c
view.Mi nimumsi zeddoor sareusedf orbat
hr oomsandwat erclosets.Thesi ze
recommendedi s0. 75m ×1. 9m.Asat humbr uleheightofdoorshoul dbe1m mor e
thani t
swi dth.

Ty
pesofDoor
s

Batt
enedandLedgedDoor s:Bat tensare100mm t o150mm wi deand20mm t hi
ck
woodenboar ds.Theirl
engt histhatofdooropeni ng.Thebattensareconnectedby
hori
zontalplanks,knownasl edgesofsi ze100t o200mm wi deand30mm t hi
ck.
Usuall
yt hr
eel edgesareusedoneatt op,oneat bott
om andt hethirdoneatmi d-
hei
ght.Thisist hesi
mpl estform ofdoorandt hecheapestal
so.Batt ensar
esecur
ed
bytonguedandgr oovedj oint
.Ifdoor sar ewideapartf r
om usi ngbat t
ensand
l
edgesdiagonal members, knownasbr aces,arepr
ov i
dedtostr
engthent hedoor

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FramedandPanel l
edDoors:Thi
st ypeofdoorconsistsofv ert
icalmembers,call
ed
styl
esandhor i
zont
almemberscalledrai
l
s.Thestylesandr ail
sar esui
tabl
ygrooved
toreceiv
epanels.Thepanel
smaybeofwood,A. C.sheet,glassesetc.Thepanels
maybef latorofr
aisedt
ypetogetgoodappearance.Thesear ev er
ycommonl yused
doors.Theymaybeofsingl
eshutterorofdoubl
eshut t
er.

Fl
ushDoor s:Theshut tersofthesedoorsar
emadeofplywoodorblockboards.They
areofuniformt hickness.Theseshuttersar
eavai
l
ablewit
hdiff
erentatt
ract
ivevi
neer
fi
nishes.Thet i
meconsumedi nmakingsuchdoorsatsi
teisqui
teless.Thesedoors
aresuitableforinteri
orport
ionofabuildi
ng.

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Louver
edDoor s:Wheneverprivacyaswellasventi
l
ati
onisrequir
edsuchdoorscan
beused.Louver sar
ethegl ass,woodenorA. C.sheetst
ri
psf i
xedintheframeof
shut
tersuchthattheypreventv i
sionbutper
mitfr
eepassageofai r
.Thedoorsmay
befull
yorpartial
lyl
ouvered.Suchdoor sarecommonlyusedf orpubl
icbat
hrooms
andlat
ri
nes.

Rev ol
ving Door
s:Itconsi
stsofacent ral
l
ypl aced pi
vott
o whi
chf ourradi
ating
shut t
ersareatt
ached.Thecent
ralpiv
otissupportedonbal
lbear
ingatthebottom
andhasabushbear ingatthetop.Theshutt
ersmaybepar tl
yorful
l
ymadeupof
glass.

SwingDoors:Swi
ngdoorhasit
sshut
terat
tachedtothef
ramebymeansofdoubl
e
act
ionspri
ngs.Henceshutt
ercanmov ebothinwar
dandoutwar
d.Theymaybe

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si
ngl
eshut
ter
edordoubl
eshut
ter
ed.Suchdoor
sar
epr
efer
redi
nof
fi
cesandbanks.

Sli
dingDoor
s:I
nthi
st y
peofdoors,shut
tersl
i
desonthesi
des.Fort
hispurpose
runner
sandgui
der
ail
sarepr
ovi
ded.Sl
idi
ngshut
ter
smaybeone,t
wooreventhr
ee.

Collapsi
bleDoors:Steelchannel
s16t o20mm wideareusedasver
ti
cal
s.Theyare
placedwi t
h12to20mm gap.St eelfl
ats16mm to20mm wideand5mm t hi
ckare
hi
ngedt othem.Ther oll
ersareprovi
dedatthei
rtopaswellasatbott
om sothat
shuttercanbepulledorpushedsidewayswit
hsli
ghtf
orce.

Rol
l
ingShut
ter
s:Fi
gur
e8.
30show at
ypi
calr
oll
i
ngshut
terdoor
.Itconsi
stsofa

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fr
ame,adr um andashut termadeoft hi
nsteelpl
ates.Thewidthofthedoormay
varyfrom 2t o3m.Theshut termovesonsteelgui
despr ov
idedonsidesandcan
easil
yrollup.Thesetypesofdoorsar
ecommonl yusedasadditi
onaldoor
stoshops,
off
ices,banks,fact
ory
, bui
l
dingsfr
om thepoi
ntofsafety
.

2.5Wi ndows
Wi ndowsar epr ovi
dedt ogi vel ightandv enti
lati
on.Theyar elocat edata
heightof0. 75m to0.90m f r
om thef loorlev el.Inhotandhumi dregions,thewi ndow
areashoul dbe15t o20percentof thef l
oorar ea.Iti sprefer
abletohav eatl eastt wo
openingsi ntwodi f
ferentwall
s.Anot hert humbr ul
eusedt odet erminethesi zeoft he
window openi ngi sforev er
y30m3i nsi dev olumet hereshoul dbeat least1m2
windowopeni ng.
Variouswi ndowsusedmaybecl assi f
iedont hebasisofmat er
ialsused,t y pesof
shutters,ty
pesofopeningsofshut t
ersandt heposi tionofwi ndows.Ti mber ,
st eeland
al
umi nium arecommonl yusedt omakewi ndow f rames.Shut tersofwi ndowsmay
bepanel led,glazedorl ouvered.Wi ndow shut ter
smaybef i
xed,cent r
allypi voted,
sl
idingt y
peordoubl ehung

Dependingupont heposi ti
onofwi ndows, t
heymaybecl assi
fi
edas:
 Casementwi ndowsar ecommont ypeofwi ndows, providedi ntheouterwalls.
Theyar eprovidedov er50t o75mm si llconcreteatahei ghtof750t o900mm
from floorlevel.
 Baywi ndowsar eprov i
dedont heprojectedpor t
ionofwal ls.
 Cornerwi ndowsar eprovidedi nthecor nerofar oom.Theyneedheav ylint
els.
Cornerpostof wi ndowshoul dbest r
ongenought ot akel oadduet odeflecti
on
oflintelandi mpactl oadf rom theshutters.
 Clearst oreywi ndowsar epr ovi
dedwhent heheightoft her oom ismuchmor e
thanadj acentroom/ varandah.I tispr ovidedbet weent hegapofl ow height
room andt hetopofr oom wi thgreaterheight.
 Gabl ewi ndowsar eprov i
dedi nt hegabl eportionoft hebui l
ding.Theyar e
requiredi nthest ai
rcasesori nthehallswi thgablewal l
s.
 Skyl i
ghtwi ndowsar epr ovidedonasl opingroof .Itpr oject
sabov ethet op

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sl
opingsurf
ace.Thecommonr aftersar
et obetri
mmedsuitably.
 Dormerwindowsarev er
ti
cal windowsont heslopi
ngroof
.
 Venti
lat
orsareprov
idedcloset or oofl
evelorovert
hedoorframes.Theyhelp
i
npushingoutexhaustair.Theymaybepr ovidedwit
htwosplitandsepar
ated
gl
assesorwithhungshutters.

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2.6Floor
ing
Purposeoff l
oori
ngist
ogetagoodhar d,l
evelandbeaut
if
ulsurf
aceforl
iv
ing.The
fl
oorsdirect
lyr
esti
ngonthegroundareknownasgroundf l
oor
swhilethefl
oorsof
eachstoreyareknownasupperf
loor
s.

Ty
pesoff
loor
ings
Gr
oundFl
oor

1.Mud and Moor um Fl oor i

ng:These f loori
ngs ar e used i nlow costhousi ng,
speci al
lyinvi
ll
ages.Ov ert hehar dlayerofear t
hf i
ll
ing mud ormoor um l ayeri s
prov i
ded.Thef loorneedsat hi
nwashofcowdungatl eastonceaweak.
2.Br ickFl ooring:Thi si sal soacheapf loorconst ruct i
on.I tiscommonl yusedi n
godownsandf actori
es.Br icksar elaidflatoronedges.Br icksofgoodqual ityshoul d
beusedf ortheconst ruction.Br icklayeri spr ov
idedonsandbedoronl eanconcr et e
(1:8:16)bed.I nbot hcasesj oi
ntsar er enderedf l
ushandf ini
shedwi t
hcement
mor tar.
3.FlagSt oneFl ooring:Lami natedsandst onesorsl atesof20mm t o40mm t hicki n
thef orm
ofsl absof300mm ×300mm or450mm ×450mm ori nt heform ofr ectanglesof
size
450mm ×600mm ar eusedasf l
oorf i
nishes.Thest onesl absar elaidon20t o25
mm t hickmor tarspr eadov erconcr et
ebed.Thej ointsar et obef i
nishedwi thr ich
mor tar.
4.CementConcr et eFl oor s:I ti smodest l
ycheap and dur ablef l
oorand hence
commonl yusedi nresident ial,commer cialandi ndust r
ialbui l
dings.Itconsi stsoft wo
cour ses-basecour seandwear ingcoat .Basecour seisl ai
dov erwellcompact edsoi l
.
It
st hicknessi susual l
y75mm t o100mm.I tconsi stsofl eancementconcr etemi x
(1:4:8).Af t
erbasecoar sei shar denedwear i
ngcoatof40mm i slaid.Itconsi st sof
panel sof1m ×1m,2m ×2m or1m×2m.Al ternatepanel sarel aidwi t h1: 2:4
concr eteusi ngwooden,gl assorasbest osst ripsepar atorsof1. 5mm t o2. 0mm
thickness.
5.Ter r
azoFl oor i
ng:Ter razof inishi
ngcoati sappliedov erconcr etef l
oor ingt oget

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pleasingappear ance.Ter razof i

nishconsi stsof75t o80% ofsur facemar blechi ps
embeddedi ncement mor tar.
Mar blechi psar emi xedi ncementi nt hepr opor t
ion
1:1.25t o1: 2andabout6mm t errazzot oppingislaid.Thet opi stampedandr oll
ed.
Addi t
ionalmar blechi psar espr ead dur ingtamping t o getpr operdi st
ri
but i
on of
mar blechi psont hesur face.Afterdr yingi tfor12t o20hour s,itiscuredf or2–3
days.Then gr inding i s made. Af t
er each gr inding cement gr out of cr eam-
l
ikeconsi stencyi sappliedandcur edf or6–7day s.Af terfi
nalgrindingandcur ingt he
fl
oori swashedwi thplent yofwat erandt henwi thdiluteoxalicaci dsoluti
on.Then
fl
oori sf i
nishedwi t
hpol ishingusingmachi nesandwaxpol ish.
6.Mosai cFl oori
ng:Itconsi stsofaf i
nishingcoatofsmal lpi
ecesofbr okent i
lesof
Chinagl azedorofmar blear rangedi ndifferentpatternsseti nlime-surkhiorcement
mor tar.Thebasecoar sei sconcr etef l
oor i
ngandoni t30t o40mm mor tarlay eris
prov i
ded.Ont hismortarl ayerbrokenpi ecesofChi nagl azedormar blearesett oget
diff
erentat t
ractivepatt erns.Aft
er20t o24hour sofdr yi
ngt het opi srubbedwi th
carbor undum st onetogetsmoot handpol i
shedsur face.

7.Mar ble/Gr ani teFl ooring:Mar ble/Gr anitesl absar ecutt ogetmar bleti
lesof20t o
25mm t hickness.They ar el
aidonf l
oor ssi milart oot hert il
es.Wi thpowerdr i
ven
machi nesur facei spol ishedt oget evenandshi ningsur face.Thi stypeoff loor i
ngis
wi delyusedi nhospi talsandt empl es.
8.Ti ledFl oor ing:Thi si sanal t
ernat i
vet ot err
azof looring,usedcommonl yusedi n
resident ial,officeandcommer cialbui ldings.Ont heconcr etebase,25mm t o30mm
thick mor tari sl aid and t hese t il
es ar e pl aced and pr essed wi t
ht rowelor
woodenmal l
et .Nextdayj ointsar ecl eanedofl oosemor t
arandr akedupt o5mm
dept h.Thent hati sf i
ll
edwi t
hcol our edcementsl urr
yt ogetuni form colouront hetop
sur f
ace.Af t
ercur ingf or7day sgr i
ndi ngandpol ishingi smadeasi nt hecase
ofterrazof loor ing.
9.Ti mberFl oor ing:Ti mberf l
ooringar eusedi ndanci nghal lsandi naudi tori
ums.
Timber plat esmaybedi rect l
yplacedonconcr etebedormaybepr ovi
dedov ert i
mber
framewor k.Inl attercasei tisnecessar yt opr ovidepr operv enti
lati
onbelowt hef l
oor.
Thi sfloor ingi scost l
y .
10.RubberFl oor ing:Ti lesorsheet sofr ubberwi thf il
lerssuchascot tonf i
bres,
asbest osf ibreorgr anulat edcor kar emanuf actur edinv arietyofpat t
ernsandcol ours.
Thesesheet sort ilesmaybef ixedt oconcr eteort imberf loors.Thesef loor sare
attractiveandnoi sepr oof .Howev ertheyar ecost l
y .
11.P. V.C.Fl oor ing:Pol y-Vinyl
-Chl oride ( PVC)i s a pl astic which is availablein
differentcol our and shade.Nowaday st il
es oft hi s mat eri
alar e used wi dely.
Adhesi vesar eappl iedonconcr etebaseaswel lasonbot tom ofPVCt il
es.Thent he
ti
lei spr essedgent lywi th5kgwoodenr oll
ert il
lt heoozi ngofadhesi veisseen.The
oozedoutadhesi v ei swi pedandt hef loori swashedwi thwar m soapwat er.The
fl
oorf i
nishi ssmoot h,at tractiv
eandcanbeeasi lycleaned.
Howev eriti ssl ipper yandcost ly.

2.
7St
air
s

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Stai
rsgi v
eaccessfrom fl
oortofl
oor
.Thespace/r
oom housi
ngstai
rsiscal
led
stai
rcase.St
air
sconsist
sofanumberofst
epsarr
angedi
nasi ngl
efli
ghtormore
numberoff l
i
ghts.

Requi
rement sofgoodst airs
 Wi dth: 0.9m i nresident i
al buildingsand1. 5m t o2.5m inpubl i
cbuildi
ngs.
 NumberofSt epsi naFl ight :Maxi mum numberofst epsinaf l
i
ghtshouldbe
li
mi tedt o12t o14, whilemi nimum i s3.
 Rise:Ri sepr ovidedshoul dbeuni form.Itisnor mall
y150mm t o175mm i n
resident ialbuildingswhi lei tiskeptbet ween120mm t o150mm i npubl i
c
buildings.Howev erincommer cialbuildi
ngsmor eri
sei spr ovidedfrom the
consi der ationofeconomi cf l
oorar ea.
 Tread:Hor izont alprojectionofast epinast ai
rcasei scall
edt read.I
tisalso
knownasgoi ng.Inr esident i
albui l
dingstreadpr ovi
dedi s250mm whi lein
publ i
cbui l
di ngsi tis270mm t o300mm.
 HeadRoom:Headr oom av ail
ablei nthestaircaseshoul dnotbel essthan2.1
m.
 HandRai ls:Handr ail
sshoul dbepr ovi
dedataconv enientheightofanor mal
per sonwhi chi sf r
om 850mm t o900mm.

Sal
ientpointstobeconsi deredinl
ocatingstair
s
Thefollowingpointsshouldbeconsideredinlocatingstai
rsi
nabuildi
ng:
 Theyshoul dbel ocatednearthemai nentrancetothebui
l
ding.
 Ther eshoul d beeasyaccessf r
om al lther oomswithoutdist
urbi
ng t
he
pri
vacyoft herooms.
 Ther eshoul dbespaciousapproach.
 Goodl i
ghtandv enti
lati
onshouldbeav ai
lable.

Ty
pesofst
air
case

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St
rai
ghtSt ai
rs:I
ft hespaceav ail
ablef orstai
rcaseisnarrowandlong,
strai
ghtst
air
s
maybepr ovi
ded.Suchst air
sar ecommonl yusedt ogiveaccesstopor choras
emer
gencyexi tstocinemahal ls.I
nt histypeallstepsareinonedir
ect
ion.Theymay
bepr
ovidedinsi nglefl
ight
orint woflightswithlandingbet
weenthetwofli
ghts

DogLeggedSt air
s:Itconsist
softwost rai
ghtfli
ghtswith180°turnbetweenthetwo.
Theyareverycommonl yusedt ogi
v eaccessfrom fl
oortofl
oor.
WellorOpen- newelSt ai
rs:Itdif
fersfrom dogl eggedstairssuchthatinthi
scase
ther
eis0.15m t o1.0m gapbet weent hetwoadjacentfli
ghts.
Geomet r
icalStair:Thistypeofst airi
ssi mi
lartot heopennewelst ai
rexceptthat
well
formedbet weent hetwoadj acentf l
i
ghtsiscur ved.Thehandr ailpr
ovidedis
conti
nuous.

Spir
alStair
s:Thesestair
sar ecommonl yusedasemer gencyexi
ts.I
tconsistsofa
centr
alpostsupport
ingaser i
esofstepsarrangedi
ntheform ofaspir
al.Attheend
ofstepscont i
nuoushandr ai
lisprovided.Suchstai
rsar eprov
idedwher espace
avai
lableforstair
si sv er
ymuchl i
mi t
ed.Casti r
on,steelorR.C.C.is used f
or
buil
dingt
hesestair
s.

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Turni ngSt
air
s:Apartf
rom dogleggedandopenneweltypeturns,st
airsmayturnin
variousfor
ms.Theydependupont heavai
lablespacef
orstai
rs.Quartert
urned,hal
f
turnedwi t
hf ewst
epsinbet weenandbifurcat
edstai
rsaresomeofsucht urned
stairs.

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