PHILOSOPHY AND FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

Introduction:

The study of unit operations such as distillation is predicted on the idea that similarities in
equipment and fundamentals exist regardless of the process. In other words, the principal of the
distillation apply equally to the separation of liquid oxygen from liquid nitrogen as well as to the
thousands of other distillations routinely carried out in process industries around the world.

The study of transport phenomena is the basis for most of the unit operations. It
comprises three topics: heat transfer, mass transfer and momentum transfer (fluid flow). In many
of the unit operations (such as distillation), all three transport phenomena occur simultaneously.

The concepts presented in transport phenomena underline the empirical procedures that
are used in the design of unit operations. Empiricism is required because the exact equations
cannot be solved.

Importance:

The goal of engineering stated to be a design function but can be more universally
extended to include analysis functions as well. Chemical Engineering is more uniquely focused
on process engineering. Because of incredible increase in the complexity of modern chemical
engineering, it is more important than ever to grasp the fundamentals that govern the kinds of
things that engineers do on a routine basis.

With respect to the design function, we wish to understand and quantify the rates at
which the matter and energy are moved from place-place. It is here where transport phenomena
has its place since it deals with phenomena associated with energy transport (to predict heat
exchange performance), mass transport (to describe separation processes), and momentum
transport (to yield predictions of pressure losses in process piping systems).

At the current state of development transport phenomena is certainly able to qualitatively

explain all of the macroscopic phenomena associated with the transport of energy, mass and
momentum in complex mixing processes(such as in turbulent flow) but still unable to produce
quantitative predictions in these systems.

The knowledge of transport phenomena will be of great value to the practicing chemical
engineer. Even if this does not come to pass very rapidly, understanding of its principles will
make for a better engineer; one who can understand the tools at hand is able to apply them to
new situations.

Analogous Nature of Transfer Process:

It is common to formulate a general rate equation as:

[ RATE ] =[ DRIVINGFORCE ] / [ RESISTANCE ]

In this equation, as the driving force increases, the rate increases. Also larger the resistance, the
smaller is the rate. Common sense verifies this equation, and it is useful to begin discussion of
the transport analogy with a simple example from our experience of heat transfer in the world
around us.

Three analogous equations (often called constitutive relations) have been introduced: Fourier’s
law of heat conduction, Fick’s law of diffusion for mass transfer and Newton’s law of viscosity
for momentum transfer. These three empirical laws are established by observation many years
ago are useful only when point properties are involved.

Thus when the properties cannot be regarded as continuous, these equations do not apply. Simply
stated the Fourier’s law of heat conduction, Fick’s law of diffusion for mass transfer and
Newton’s law of viscosity apply only to a continuum. The analogy is of much more origin. The
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three empirical relations are quite similar. Each involves a flux term, proportionality constant
and a gradient of some measurable parameter.

It is emphasized that a mathematical analogy is applied to the three transport phenomena. The
equations are same from the mathematical standpoint. With a given set of boundary conditions, a
solution for one is solution for all; the only difference is in the symbols representing the various
terms.

This mathematical analogy in no way means that the physical mechanisms occurring in the three
cases are in any way the same. The physical mechanisms are totally different. Hence it is
emphasized again that this analogy is only mathematical in nature, but not physically.`

Basic concepts in Transport Processes:

It can be referred that there are two types of transport processes. They are the convective
transport and the molecular transport. The former is the transport due to bulk fluid motion while
the later is the transport between aggregate groups of molecules and is independent of bulk fluid
motion.

The link between molecular and convective transport lies in the empirical observations of
Fourier’s Fick and Newton, who observed the inherent rates of the transport of energy, mass and
momentum respectively and then formulated simple mathematical expressions to describe their
observations.

Many transport problems can conveniently be divided into two classifications: equilibrium and
non-equilibrium. Under conditions of non-equilibrium, one or more variables change with time.
The rates of these changes are of much more interest, naturally. It is the rate at which transport
takes place, which determines the size of equipment or the production capacity for given sized
equipment.

The science of thermodynamics deals mainly with systems in equilibrium. But when non-
equilibrium processes are considered, the system under conditions progresses in a manner such
as to approach equilibrium. All such rate processes are characterized by a driving force. The rate
of transport is proportional to the driving force.

The basic laws of transport processes describe that the molecular transport of energy, mass and
momentum are usually expressed in terms of fluxes of energy, mass and momentum. A flux of a
property is defined as the quantity of that extensive property, which crosses a unit area per unit
time.

Conservation Laws in Transport processes:-

The conservation laws of mass, energy and momentum are the most widely applicable laws in
our universe. Many practical problems ca be solved by application of these laws either alone or
in combination. The conservation of energy forms the basis for the first law of thermodynamics,
a separate subject in itself.

Einstein’s theory of relativity relates mass to energy, but the relation becomes important only
under conditions encountered in some nuclear engineering applications. The laws of
conservation of mass, energy and momentum will be expressed in an analogous fashion. The
resultant generalized equation is called the general property balance.

The general conservation equation can be expressed as follows:

[ INPUT ]− [ OUTPUT ] + [ SOURCES ] −[ SINK ] =[ ACCUMULATION ]

which holds good for all conserved quantities (energy, mass and momentum).

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Let us consider a typical differential volume element as the suitable system for one-dimensional
transport in different geometries.

The first two terms ( [ INPUT ] , [ OUTPUT ] ) in the conservation equation represent the flow of
material (mass, energy or momentum) across the boundaries of the system (differential element).
Because the basic laws of transport phenomena are all written in terms of fluxes, and we will
eventually need these laws t solve molecular transport problems, it is common practice to specify
these flow terms as fluxes.

( [ SOURCES ] , [ SINKS ] ) in the conservation equation refers to the generation and consumption
of either mass, energy or momentum within the system (differential element). In order to be
considered as sources and sinks in the conservation equation, these phenomena must occur
uniformly throughout the physical system (differential element being analysed.

The [ ACCUMAULATION ] term, which appears on the right-hand side of the conservation
equation, refers only to accumulation with time. In other words, it accounts for an increase or
decrease of the conserved quantity within the system (differential element), as time increases. If
there are no changes in any of the variables with time, the system is said to be at “steady-state”.

Continuous concept in Transport Processes:

In its most fundamental form, at the microscopic level; the description of the motion of a fluid
involves a study of the behavior of all the discrete molecules, which make up the fluid.

However, when one is dealing with problems in which some characteristic length in the flow is
very large compared with molecular distances, it is convenient to think of a lump of fluid
sufficiently small from macroscopic point of view, but large enough at the macrospic level so as
to contain a large number of molecules and to work with the average statistical properties of such
large number of molecules.

In such a case, the detailed molecular structure is washed out completely, and is replaced by a
continuous model of matter having appropriate continuum properties, so defined as to ensure that
on the macroscopic scale, the behavior of the model resembles with the behavior of the real fluid.

When the characteristic length in the flow is not large, compared with molecular distances, the
continuum model is invalid, and the flow must be analyzed on the molecular scale.

The smallest lump of fluid material, having sufficiently large number of molecules to allow
statistically of a continuum interpretation is here called a “fluid particle”.

Fields of fluid flow in Transport Processes:

The term Field refers to a quantity, defined as a function of position and time throughout a given
region. There are two different forms of representation for fields in transport phenomena,
namely, the Lagrange’s form and the Euler’s form. The difference between these approaches lies
in the manner, in which the position in the field is identified.

In the Lagrangian approach, the physical variables are described for a particular element of fluid,
as it traverses the flow. This is the familiar approach of particle, and rigid-body dynamics. The
coordinates (x,y,z) are the coordinates of the element of fluid, and as such are functions of time.
The coordinates (x,y,z) are therefore, dependent variables in the Lagrangian form.

The fluid element is identified by its position in the field at some arbitrary time, usually, t = 0.
The velocity field in this case is written in the functional form as follows:

v = v(a,b,c,t)

where the coordinates (a,b,c) refer to the initial position of the fluid element, The other fluid flow
variables being functions of the same coordinates, may be represented in a similar manner.
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The Lagrangian approach is seldom used in transport phenomena, since the type of information
desired is usually the value of a particular fluid variable at a fixed point in the flow, rather than
the value of a fluid variable, experienced by a element of fluid along its trajectory.

For example, the determination of the force on a stationary body in a flow field requires that we
know the pressure, and shear stress at every point on the body. The Eulerian form provides us
with this type of information.

The Eulerian approach gives the value of a fluid variable at a given point at a given time. In
functional form, the velocity field is written as follows:

v = v(x,y,z,t)

where x, y, z and t are all independent variables. For a particular point(x 1,y1,z1), and t1, the above
equation gives the velocity of the fluid at that location at time t1. In transport phenomena, the
Eularian approach will be followed exclusively.

Reference Frames in Transport Processes:

Reference frames are said to be the approaches, in which the coordinates of the transport
properties are fixed in the fields by the observer, who is attempting the above said transport
problem.

Broadly speaking there are two ways to set up a transport problem: the Eulerian approach in
which the coordinates are fixed in the reference frame of the observer; and the Lagrangian
approach, in which the coordinates are fixed in the reference frame of the transported fluid.

The present work focuses upon the Eulerian approach. However, a number of formulations of
quantum transport theory are expressed in terms of Lagrangian variables. These include the
center-of-mass approach of Lei and Ting(1985) and the quantum Langevin-equation approach of
Hu and O’Connell(1987).

The accelerated basis states studied by Krieger and Iafrate(1986) adapt the Lagrangian variables
to pure-state quantum mechanics. It appears that none of these approaches has yet been applied
to an open-system problem in the present sense, so there has been no analysis of the effects of
boundary conditions within the Lagrangian approaches.

Moreover, it is not at all clear that such approaches are well adapted to the description of
tunneling, where there is no classical trajectory. (Although in this connection one should note the
work of Jensen and Buot. 1989b, in which the trajectories in a resonant-tunneling diode were
inferred from a solution for the Wigner function.)

Substantial Derivative in Transport Processes:

The substantial derivative is the one, which has the property of being zero for a steady-state
problem, incompressible flow with no net velocity vector relative to the position of the observer,
who is attempting the given transport problem. It has a physical significance of changes with
time, as the observer moves with the fluid motion.

Suppose a person getting into a canoe and allows himself to float along the river and observe the
fish concentration. Now the velocity of the observer is same as the velocity of the river ‘v’.
When the change of fish concentration with time is reported, the numbers would depend upon
the local stream velocity.

This derivative is a special kind of total time derivative called ‘substantial derivative’ or
sometimes more reasonably called the derivative following the fluid motion. It is related to the
partial time derivative as follows

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 in which vx, vy, & vz are the components of the velocity of the local fluid velocity (v). Here
[ ∂c/∂t ]is the derivative at affixed point in space, and [ Dc/ Dt ] is a derivative computed by
an observer floating downstream with the fluid.

Boundary Conditions in Transport Processes:

The differential equation resulting from the differential conservation balance describes what is
happening within the system, it is the “boundary conditions”, which mathematically describes
the physical phenomena occurring at the boundaries of the system.

We know that the solutions to differential equations can be either “general” or “particular”. A
general solution is said to be a “family of solutions”, and is accompanied by arbitrary constants
(or constants of integration). The values of the arbitrary constant are determined by the
specification of the boundary conditions.

The number of arbitrary constants is dictated by the order of the differential equation, and
therefore, the number of specified boundary conditions must be equal to the order of the
differential equation. As engineers we typically deal with specific problems, and consequently,
the boundary conditions are every bit as important as modeling the physical system to obtain the
applicable differential equation.

In transport phenomena, we look to the physical phenomena occurring at the boundaries of the
physical system, in order to specify the boundary conditions for a given transport problem. It is
important to realize that these conditions must have an assignable numerical value, in order to be
viable boundary conditions. That is, either the dependant variable (temperature, concentration or
velocity) or their derivatives must be specified.

We must be able to assess, what is happening at the physical boundaries of the system, and then
to specify numerical values for the dependent variables and their derivatives. Sometimes, the
numerical values at the boundaries are given symbols, so that specific numerical values can be
substitutes as they become available.

The engineering task is to evaluate the physical phenomena and to then decide, what is the
realistic boundary condition.

Methods of Analysis:

The equations of the transport phenomena laminar or turbulent flow are in general, so complex
that in most practical cases, exact solutions are impossible. In these situations, relationships
between variables must be specified empirically, rather than analytically.

If there are many variables, as usually is the case, the resulting correlations in terms of any one
variable are hopelessly complex; however, if variables are grouped in a logical manner, the
correlations are considerably simplifies.

Experience has shown that, dimensionless groups of variables are the most useful tools in
correlating the experimental data.

Following are the different methods of analysis, which are encountered under practical situations
in transport phenomena:

1. Differential methods of analysis

2. Integral methods of analysis
3. Experimental methods of analysis
 Inspection analysis
 Dimensional analysis

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  Modeling analysis
1. Differential methods of analysis:

At this stage, the principles of the conservation of energy (heat), mass & momentum and their
applications to transport phenomena must be familiar topics. These conservation laws are used
to describe transport phenomena, except the balances are taken around the differential volume
elements.

The goal here is to derive differential equations, which describe the conservation of energy,
mass and momentum at a point. Equations, which apply at a point, are then capable of
producing solutions to a wider variety of problems that is by solving the differential equations
over the region of interest.

In order to derive a differential equation from the general conservation equation, it is necessary
to apply it to a differential volume element. Thus the first task is to decide what this element
should look like. The construction of the element will not only depend on the geometry of the
system being analyzed, but also on the anticipated direction of the transport.

The next step in the differential analysis is to apply the conservation equation to the differential
element over some time period. The final step in the differential analysis is to divide the entire
conservation equation by the volume of the element, and the differential time increment, and
then let the differential quantities approach zero in the limit.

2. Integral methods of analysis:

In differential analysis, detailed balances to quantify the conservation of a property have been
made on a differential element in the system. After simplification of the entire conservation
equation, the result was integrated in order to obtain the velocity, temperature and concentration
distributions for specific geometries and boundary conditions.

For many cases, such detailed information is not necessary, it is impossible to obtain because of
the complexity of the equations and the nature of the boundary conditions. The complexity of
the system is often due to the presence of a turbulent flow in complex flow geometry, together
with heat and mass transfer.

Much of the complexity can be eliminated, if the principle of conservation of property is applied
to the system on an integral (overall or macro) basis, rather than on a differential (micro) basis.
Balance equations can be applied over a finite volume of the system, thereby obtaining the
overall balance of mass, momentum and energy (heat).

Since the overall balance equations represent integration over a volume, they can give no
information as to conditions inside the system. Since the details of the flow are not exceeded in
the integral equations, the equations apply equally well for both turbulent and laminar flow.
However, the nature of the flow will have an effect at both the entrance and the exit.

3. Experimental methods of analysis:

Although we have developed the fundamental equations governing the flow of a viscous
compressible fluid, there are no known general methods to solve these equations. The main
reason for the absence of such a general methods is the non-linear characteristics of the
governing equations.

Only in few particular cases, and that too under restricted conditions, exact solutions of these
equations, for all ranges of viscosity, exist. However, attempts have been made to simplify
these equations for two extreme cases of viscosity, very large and very small.

Even in these two extreme cases, we find great mathematical difficulties and therefore most of
the research on the behavior of viscous fluids has been carried out by experiments. In
experiments generally a proto type (geometrically similar but reduced in size) of the actual

6
 body is taken and the flow around it is investigated in the wind tunnel, in order to reduce the
cost of the full-scale test, and to have better control over the conditions.

Two fluid motions are said to be dynamically similar, if with geometrically similar boundaries
the flow patterns are geometrically similar. The experimental methods, which are adopted to
investigate the dynamical similarity conditions, are the inspection analysis, dimensional
analysis and modeling analysis.

Inspection Analysis:

In inspection analysis, we reduce the fundamental equations to a non-dimensional form and

obtain the non-dimensional parameters from the resulting equations.

Various dimensionless groups (or numbers) such as Reynolds number, Froude number, Peclet
number, Grashoff number, Sherwood number, Stanton number, etc., which are relative to mass
transport, energy(heat) transport, and momentum transport are obtained by inspection analysis.

Dimensional Analysis:

In dimensional analysis, we form non-dimensional parameters from the physical quantities

occurring in a problem, even when the knowledge of the governing equation is missing. They
are derived on the basis of the dimensions, in which each of the quantities involved in a
phenomenon is expressed.

It is based on the requirement of dimensional homogeneity, which must exist between

variables descriptive of a given system. A minimum number of fundamental dimensions or
units are used and all other dimensions are related to these.

Dimensional analysis can be used without knowledge of the controlling equations, so long as
all governing variables are included in the analysis. The selection of a set of fundamental units
is arbitrary. A convenient set includes length, mass, time and temperature.

Dimensional analysis can be performed by the following two methods:

1. Rayleigh method of analysis
2. Buckingham method of analysis

All the dimensionless numbers, which are found in mass transfer, energy (heat) transfer and
momentum transfer, are obtained uniquely by dimensional analysis.

Modeling Analysis:

In modeling, the idea is to make some tests or experiments on a small scale, in such a fashion
that the results for a large scale may be accurately predicted.
An ideal set-up would be to keep the entire dimensionless numbers constant between the model
and the full-scale system.
However, in modeling, it is impossible to keep these numbers constant. Attempts to keep these
numbers constant often require test fluids with impossible combinations of properties.
Consequently, limited modeling methods are developed for each specific case.
In modeling, one always attempts to maintain geometric similarity. A model and a larger unit are
geometrically similar, if all dimensions in the model are geometrically similar.

Newton’s law of viscosity:-

 Consider a fluid (gas or liquid) contained between two large parallel plates of area ‘A’
separated by distance ‘y’.
 The system is initially at rest. At time t = 0, the lower plate set in motion in the x-
direction at constant velocity ‘V’.
 As time proceeds, fluid gain momentum, finally steady state velocity profile is attained, a
constant force ‘F’ is required to maintain the motion of lower plate.

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 F V
=μ −−−(1)
A Y
(i.e) Force per unit area is proportional to velocity decrease in the distance ‘y’
µ - Viscosity of the fluid.1

dV x
τ yx =−μ −−−(2)
Eqn.(1) can be written as dy

Eqn.(2) is known as Newton’s law of viscosity

Where
τ yx - shear stress exerted in the x-direction on a fluid surface of constant ‘y’

Vx – fluid velocity vector

 It is defined as shear stress is directly proportional to velocity gradient. Velocity gradient

is the driving force for momentum transport.
Kinematic viscosity:

μ
ν=
ρ
It is defined as viscosity divided by mass density (mass per unit volume) of the fluid. Its unit is
cm2/sec.
Unit of viscosity is poise (or) gcm-1sec-1.(1cp = 0.01poise).
Non-newtonian fluids (or) Rheological Models:
If the fluid does not obey Newton’s law of viscosity it is termed as Non-newtonian fluid.

dV x
τ yx =−η
dy
dV x
τ yx or
Where η is a function of dy .
In regions where η decreases, with increasing rate of shear (-dV x/dy), the behaviour is
pseudoplastic.
If η increases, with increasing rate of shear (-dVx/dy), the behaviour is dilatent.

If η is independent of rate of shear the behavior is Newtonian.( η = μ)

dV x
τ yx ∧
Five models have been proposed to express the steady state relationship between dy
1. The Bingham plastic model:
dV x
τ yx =−μ 0 ±τ 0 ,if |τ yx|>τ 0 (Newtonian )
dy
dV x
=0 ,if |τ yx|<τ 0 (rigid )
dy
A substance that follows this two-parameter model is called a Bingham plastic, it remains rigid,
'
τ '.
when shear stress is of small magnitude than the yield stress 0 , but flows like a Newtonian,
'
τ '.
when the shear stress exceeds 0 . This model has been found reasonably accurate for many
fine suspensions and paste.

The Ostwald-de-waele Model:

1

8
 dV x n−1 dV x
τ yx =−m| |
dy dy
This two parameter equation is also known as Power law. For n=1, it reduces to Newton’s law of
viscosity with m = μ. Thus the deviation of ‘n’ from unity indicates degree of deviation from Newtonian
behavior. For n<1, the behavior is pseudoplastic, n>1, the behavior is dilatent.

2. The Erying Model:

1 dV x
τ yx = A arcsin h − ( B dy )
This 2-parameter model is derivable by the Erying kinetic theory of liquids predicts pseudoplastic

behavior at finite values of

τ yx. It reduces to Newton’s law of viscosity with μ=A/B as
τ yx.
approaches zero.
3. The Ellis Model:

dV x
− =(ϕ 0 +ϕ 1|τ yx |α −1 ) τ yx
dy
This model contains three adjustable positive parameters Φ0, Φ1, α. If α is choosen greater
than unity, this model approaches Newton’s law for small
τ yx. If α is choosen less than unity,
Newton’s law is approached for large
τ yx. this is a flexible model.
4. The Reiner- Philippoff Model:
dV x 1
− =
dy
( μ∞ +
μ 0−μ ∞
1+ ( τ yx /τ s )2 ) τ yx

This model contains three adjustable positive parameters.μ0, μ∞ and τs. Since Newtonian
behavior observed at both very low and very high shearing rates, this model reduce to Newton’s
law of viscosity with μ=μ0, and μ= μ∞.
Under unsteady state conditions, additional non-newtonian behaviours are possible. (e.g.) Fluids
that show limited decrease in η with time, under a suddenly applied constant stress are called
thixotropic, whereas those that show an increase in η with time called rheopectic.

Science of Rheology:
 The characteristics of flow of various fluids which obey Newton’s law, Bingham fluid law, power
law etc and the science regarding the determination of these factors such as viscosity of a
Newtonian fluid and such other parameters and the influence of temperature pressure etc on
these factors are grouped under the name of Rheology.
 Rheology is the science of deformation and flow and it includes the study of the mechanical
properties of gases, liquids, plastics, asphalts and crystalline materials.
 Rheology comprises Newtonian Fluid Mechanics at the one end of the spectrum of the subject
material and the Hookean elasticity at the other end.

Compressible and incompressible fluids:-

 A compressible fluid is one fluid for which the density varies with temperature and pressure.
All gases are generally compressible fluids.
 An incompressible fluid is one that does not vary in volume with pressure with temperature
being constant. All liquids are incompressible fluids.

Pressure and Temperature dependence of viscosity:-

 The above plot gives the pressure and temperature dependence of viscosity. The reduced
viscosity,

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 μ T
μr = T r=
μC is plotted versus the reduced temperature T C for various values of
P
Pr = .
reduced pressure PC
 A reduced quantity is one that has been made dimensionless by dividing by the
corresponding quantity at the critical point.
 This chart shows that the viscosity of a gas approaches a limit, as the pressure becomes
smaaler, most gases, this limit is attained near at 1 atm pressure.
 Viscosity of gas at low density increases with increasing temperature and the viscosity of
liquid decreases with increasing temperature.
 Experimental values of ‘μc’ are seldom available, ‘μc’ may be estimated in one of the
following ways,
i. If a value of viscosity is known at a given reduced pressure and temperature preferably
μ
μc =
at conditions near to those of interest ‘μc’ can be calculated from μr .
ii. If critical P-V-T data are available, ‘μc’ may be estimated by
1 −2
2 3
μ C =61. 6 ( μT C ) (VC)
1 2
2 3
μ C =7 . 7 ( μ ) ( PC ) T −1
6
C

μ C −micropoise , TinK
P−atm , Vincm 3 / gmol
- used for rough estimation of viscosities of mixtures.
 For N-component mixture, use is made of “pseudocritical” properties defined as
N N N

T 'C = ∑ X α T Cα P'C = ∑ X α P Cα μ'C = ∑ X α μ Cα
α=1 α =1 α =1
' ' '
(i.e) PC T C μC estimated, one uses the chart exactly as for pure fluids, but with pseudo
critical properties instead of the critical properties.
 It works well, unless there are chemically dissimilar substances in the mixtures or the
critical properties of the components differ greatly.
Note:
 Thermal conductivity of gas at low density increases with increasing temperature,
thermal conductivity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature.
 For binary gas mixture, at low pressures, DAB inversely proportional to pressure increases
with increasing temperature.
Molecular theory of viscosity of gases at low density:-
Consider a pure gas composed of rigid, non-attracting spherical molecules of diameter ‘d’ and
mass’m’ and number density is to be taken ‘n’ At equilibrium, the molecular velocities are
randomly directed and have an average magnitude relative to fluid velocity ‘v’
8 KT
u=
where ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant.
√ πm
−−−(1)

The frequency of molecular bombardment per unit area on one side af any stationary surface
exposed to the gas is
1
z= n u−−−(2)
4
The average distance traveled by a molecula between successive collisions is the mean free path
‘λ‘ is given by
1
λ= −−−(3 )
√2 πd 2 n
The molecule reach a distance ‘a’ from the plane is given by a=(2 3 ) λ−−−( 4 )
The flux of x-momentum across any plane of constant ‘y’ is formed by summing the x-
momentum of the molecules, that cross in the positive y-direction and subtracting the x-
momentum of those that cross in the opposite direction. Thus
τ yx =Z . mV x −Z . mV x −−−−(5)
y −a y +a

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 The velocity profile Vx(y) is linear from a distance of several mean free paths and is
given by 2 dV x
Vx =V x ± λ −−−( 6 )
y −a y
3 dy

Substitute (6) in (5) then

dV x
τ yx =Z . m
Substitute (2) in (7) then
(−4
3
λ
dy )
−−−(7)

1 dV x
τ yx = n u .m
4
−4
λ
3 dy ( )
1 dV
τ yx = n u . m λ x −−−(8)
3 dy ( )
According to Newton’s law of Viscosity,
dV x
τ yx =−μ −−−( 9)
dy
Comparing (8) & (9)
dV x 1 dV
−μ
dy
=− n u. m λ x
3 dy ( )
1
μ= nu .mλ−−−(10)
3
Substitute the values of u∧ λ in eqn.(10)
1 8 KT 1
μ= n
2
3 πm
.m
√
√ 2 πd 2 n
√ mKT −−−(11 )
μ= 3
2
d2
3π
Eqn.(11) represents the viscosity of a gas composed of hot spheres at low density.

11