L1: PHONOLOGY
consonant sounds
INTERNATIONAL PHONETICS ALPHABET (IPA)
Note: The symbol double back slash (//) is called
virgule. All sounds are placed inside the virgules to
represent how words are to be read based on its
transcription.
Vowels - these are vowel sounds used in English
language.
/i/ - lead, read, feel, deal, heel, team, keen
/ɪ/ - lid, rid, fill, dill, hill, Tim, kin, sin, tin, live
/e/ - mate, bait, Kate, rate, date, late, fate
/Ɛ/ - met, bet, kept, rent, dent, Lent,
/æ/ - bad, lad, Pam, cam, carry, Barry
/a/ - bard, lard, palm, calm, car, bar
/Ɔ/ - saw, law, raw, lawn, drawn,
/O/ - so, low, row, lone, drone, close
/U/ - fool, pool, womb, food, Luke, tooth, shoot
/u/ - full, pull, woman, took, should
/Ə/ - mud, nut, but, must, bust, bus, Russ
Dipthongs - are combinations of two vowel
sounds.
/aɪ/ - buy, bite, dine, time, grind, mice
/au/ - bough, bout, down, town, gown, pound,
mouse
/ƆI/ - boy, boil, Doyle, toy, oil, groin, point, moist
Consonants - these are sample words and their
consonant sounds
/b/ - baby, best, buy, bring
/s/ - center, cellar, cigarette, cinema,
/k/ - cake, come, cucumber, clean, cry,
/d/ - day, dear, die, door, duty, admire
/f/ - fast, female, five, forest, fund, fry
/g/ - game, gap, get, go, gun, global
/h/ - hair, help, history, home, hunt
/dǯ/- jacket. jar, jaguar
/k/ - Kate, kind, kill, kilogram
/l/ - late, let, live, alone, close
/m/ - make, men, mind, mother, must
/n/- napkin, never, night, no,
/p/ - paper, person, pick, pour,
/r/ - rain, red, read, real
/t/ - task, tell, time, tone, tune, hotel, /v/ - vast, vein,
vivid, voice, review
/w/ - wall, water, wore, wear
/j/ - yellow, boy, May
/z/ - Xerox, Xenon, xenophobia, xylophone
Special Consonants - these are combinations of
/ŋ/ - sing, ring, ding, bing
/ʃ/ - ship, sheep, shepherd, shield
/ʧ/ - chip, cheap, chill, choice, cheer
/Ө/ - thought, think, thin, thine, thieves
/ᶞ/ - breathe, bathe, brother, clothing
/ǯ/ - mirage, garage, beige, rouge
L2: COMMUNICATION – FUNCTIONS, NATURE,
AND PROCESS
COMMUNICATION
• Communication is vital to our daily lives. We
cannot live without communicating because we
need to share thoughts, impart information,
persuade others in our beliefs, and show our
love and affection.
• According to Wood (2004), communication is a
systemic process in which individuals interact
with and through symbols to create and
interpret meanings (as cited in Agnaou, 2012).
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
1. Communication is a process – It is creative,
continuing condition of life, a process that changes
as communicators' environments and
needs change.
2. Communication is systematic – The
components or elements of communication are
linked to one another as parts of one system. The
absence of one can result to ineffective
communication.
3. Communication involves meaning – Meanings
are assigned, given, invented, not received. How
you interpret a message is not the same with
how others do it.
4. Communication is symbolic – The words used
to communicate are already symbols. The
gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, posture
and the like are another
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
The process of communication happens as
components and elements work together. The
success of communication depends on the
functionality of each element.
1. Sender - the source of the message
2. Message - any information or anything the
speaker wants to communicate
3. Medium - any form in which the speaker
conveys the message. It may be a speech,
conversation, letter, email, etc.
4. Channel - mode, method, or means of sending
the message. It may be any of the senses, light and
sound waves in a face-to-face interaction, or digital
audio and video signals in a mediated
communication.
5. Listener/Receiver - the recipient of the message
sent
6. Feedback - the receiver's response, verbally or
nonverbally
7. Context - is the situation or environment in
which communication takes place.
8. Noise - is anything that impedes or distracts the
communication process.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
FUNCTIONS OF COMUNICATION
4. To facilitate emotional expression – It is the
unloading of emotions resulting to catharsis or
relief. It is used in persuading people to change
their mind or behavior.
5. To effect social interaction – This function is
utilized to make social relationships and is used to
form bonds, intimacy, relations, and connections
with others
L3: MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Models of communication are conceptual models
used to explain the human communication process.
1) Shannon and Weaver’s Model
• One- way process of communication.
• Transmitter is the means of how
communication is being delivered.
• Signal refers to the perceived message.
• Destination connotes end of the
communication process.
• The receiver only gets the message without
a chance to give a feedback.

1. To provide information – This function is used

for grabbing and sharing information.
• Downward flow – from superiors or elders to
the subordinates in the form of directives or
updates.
• Upward flow – from the subordinates or
family members to the superiors or elders in
the form of feedback and reports or
suggestions; and
• Horizontal Flow (peer to peer) – from
worker, husband to wife and vice versa, 2) Weiner’s Interactive Model
sibling to sibling, or manager in the form of • A two-way process of communication.
data and reports. • Destination can become an information
source since it can provide a feedback.
2. To motivate – This is used to power up • Delayed feedbacking is caused by the
references, desires, needs, wants, decisions, goals, processing of the information by new
and strengths. It is the influence of a person's source.
behavior in the pursuit of goals and objectives.
• It is the modified model of Shannon’s
model.
3. To control or regulate – To exercise restraint or
direction formally or informally. This is used in order
to literally regulate or control behavior of people
and the nature or number of activities that they
engage in.
3) Schramm’s Model Strategy 2: Clarification
• A circular type of communication. Ensures speaker’s points
• Contextual ideas play a major role in both Reassures interests
sides of communication. Reduces misunderstanding
• Overlapping circle means shared Emphasis for repetition
knowledge of the sender and receiver.
• Noise is present in the entire process. It can Strategy 3: Keeping the Stress in Check
affect any of the components in the process. Thinking time
Speak clearly
Be open-minded
Don’t be bias
Don’t feel the pressure

Strategy 4: Self-assertion
Value yourself
Respect the speaker
Constructive criticism
Accept the compliments

Nonverbal Communication
4) Intermediary/Gatekeeper Model
• Communication is solely dependent on the Strategy 5: Positive Body Language
gatekeepers. The gatekeepers are the ones Maintain eye contact
who edit, amend, and fix the message Smiling
before it is released to the receiver of the Nodding in agreement
communication. Handshake
• Censorship is usually the main purpose of Composed posture
this model.
Effective Communication Skills

Skill 1: Becoming an Engaged Listener

- Concentrate on the speaker
L4: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION - Avoid interrupting
- Set aside judgment or bias
Communication Breakdown – also known as - Show interest
barrier or noise. It comes in different circumstances - Provide feedback
and may cause misunderstanding between
and among communicators. It is anything that Skill 2: Paying Attention to Nonverbal Signals
disrupts effective communication
In interpreting nonverbal:
Verbal Communication - Be aware of both individual and cultural
differences
Strategy 1: Listening - Consider the nonverbal signals as a group, not as
Stop talking single cues
Preparation
Remove distractions In delivering nonverbal:
Empathize - Use nonverbal signals that match your words
Avoid prejudice - Adjust your nonverbal to the context
Listen for the salient points - Use body languages to convey positive feelings
Listen to the tone
Effective Communication Skills
Skill 3: Keep Stress in Check
- Give yourself time to think
- Pause to collect your thoughts
- Make one point and provide an example or
supporting piece of information
- Speak clearly and audibly
- Summarize your response and stop talking
Skill 4: Asserting Yourself
- Value yourself and opinions
- Learn to express your needs and wants without
violating the rights of others
- Express negative thoughts in a positive way
- Accept compliments graciously
On Listening Skills
1. Informative Listening - the primary concern
is to understand the message
2. Empathic Listening - the primary concern is
to provide a shoulder to cry on
3. Appreciative Listening - this is listening for
Enjoyment
4. Critical Listening - this kind of listening
involves skillful criticism for judgment
5. Discriminative Listening - it involves the
ability to sense subtle changes in the speaker’s
voice quality - rate, pitch, volume, force, and
emphasis.
L5: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Cultural Differences in practice and patterns
1) Eye Contact
• Americans look directly in a person’s eyes.
• Western countries can easily know if a
person is hiding something through glances
of the eyes.
• In China, long eye contact is weird, and
oftentimes offensive.
• In Japan and Africa, eye contact is
disrespectful.
• In Arab & Latin countries, making prolonged
eye contact means you are interested
2) Facial Expressions
• Americans smile freely at strangers.
• Russians consider smiling impolite
3) Gestures
• In China, USA, Japan, and Middle East,
nodding indicates agreement while in India
and Bulgaria interpret it oppositely.
• Bowing is predominantly done by Chinese,
Korean, and Japanese.
4) Touch
• In China, girls like touching each other’s
hands.
• In Thailand, patting someone’s head is not
allowed.
• In Latin America, touching is normal.
• Arab women do not normally handshake.
5) Posture
• Resting feet on top of the table is accepted
in US culture, but not for Asians.
• Slouching means laziness for Asians and
Europeans.
• Asian countries do not allow the soles of
their feet to be seen in formal gatherings.
L6: TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXTS
Types of Speech Contexts
1) Intrapersonal Communication
• It is learned
• It is organized
• It is dynamic
1. Self-image (physical, academic, social, and
transpersonal)
2. Self-esteem
• Environment
• Perception of others
• Experience
• Evaluation & Expectation
• Roles
3. Self-awareness – Knowing yourself by personal
viewpoint and others appraisals
2) Interpersonal Communication – Interpersonal
communication is a formal or informal
interaction in the process of sending and
receiving information between two or more
people.
Interpersonal Communication
• is a way of expressing the researcher’s
interest in a problem or a phenomenon
• it pinpoints exactly what you want to find out
and gives your work a clear focus and
purpose. All research questions should be:
Principles of Interpersonal Communication
1. It is inevitable and irreversible
2. It is influenced and affected by culture and power
3. It changes with technology
4. It involves rules. Guidelines and expectations
control our manner of communication
Characteristics:
• It involves at least two persons.
• It must have feedbacks.
• Face-to-face is not prerequisite.
• It does not need to be intentional or planned.
• It provides an effect.
• It does not need to involve words.
Dyadic Communication – with at least two
participants (ex. conversation, dialogue, interview)
Small Group Conversation – with three or more
members with a common purpose to achieve
through interaction. (ex. panel discussion,
symposium, lecture panel, round-table discussion,
brainstorming session, the buzz session, meeting,
committee)
1. Conversation - is an informal dyadic face-to-
face communication using verbal and nonverbal
symbols. A good conversation will lead you to
have informative, stimulating, and enjoyable
communication; a bad one, on the other hand,
will bring boredom (Verderber, 2006).
2. Dialog - it involves two active participants or two
groups interacting actively in a face-to-face
encounter.
3. Interview - it involves two parties—the
interviewer and the interviewee—for the
purpose of gathering information
3) Public & Mediated Communication
1. Public Communication – is a process of
exchanging messages among individuals
or groups of individuals engaged in a
public dialogue to deliver a message to a
particular audience
examples are public speaking events, newspaper
editorials, billboards, advertisements, and concerts.
Components:
• Audience (general and specific) - general
audience refers to everyone who will hear the
speech; whereas, specific audience refers to
the sub-group of general audience whom you
may want to reach in particular.
• Occasion - can be affected by time and place
• Purpose - (to inform and persuade)
2. Mediated Communication – is any form
of communication using technology as a
primary channel.
Mass Communication
• It uses technology to deliver messages to a
large group of audience.
• Professional communicators can be
television or news reporter, author, or
announcer and use technology to
disseminate information to distant places or
large audience
Kinds of Mass Media
1. Newspaper - the oldest mass media and the
most reliable source of information
2. Television - most widely used source of not
only news but of entertainment
3. News Magazine - is for formal and in-depth
study of events.
4. Internet - where most outrageous news
comes from.
Computer-mediated Communication – is a person-
to-person interaction using networked computer
channels. It may either be synchronous or
asynchronous communication.
L7: SPEECH STYLES
Speech Style - The way how a speech or
utterance is being delivered. Also, when using a
specific speech style, communicative competence
factors are always considered.
Casual Style
• Used in conversations between friends and
insiders who have something to share
• Slang and colloquial are common terms
used
• A carefree way of communicating, and
everyone can easily relate to.
Intimate Style
• An utterance done between two persons
who know each other very well.
• Economy of words, high incidence of
nonverbal cues, easy participation
• Completely private language used within
family of very close friends or group
• Uses personal language codes
• Grammar is unnecessary
• Does not need complete language
• Certain terms of endearment, slangs or
expressions whose meaning is shared with
a small subset of persons to person
• Lovers; Married couples
Eg. Two lovebirds are showing to the public that
they are really in love with each other.
Informal Style
• A style used by friends who have shared
background knowledge.
• Language used between friends
• Often very relaxed and focused on just
getting the information out
• Slangs are quite often used in these
instances
• This style is used in informal situations and
language
• Relationship between speaker and hearer is
closed
• Casual conversations with friends and
family members; Chats; Phone calls and
messages
Eg. Mia and her friends spent their time at the
beach last summer.
Consultative Style
• A normal conversation to a stranger.
• Opposite of intimate style
• People who do not share common
experience or meaning
• Used in semi-formal communication
• Happens in two-way participation
• Speaker does not usually plan what he
wants to say
• Speaker supplies background information
(he does not assume that he will be
understood easily)
• Listener responds with information sufficient
only for understanding (he does not usually
add or subtract)
• Sentences end to be shorter and
spontaneous
• Doctor-patient; Teacher-student; Regular
conversation; Expert-apprentice
Eg. A tourist asked you where the famous Seven
Falls is located.
Formal Style
• This style intends to captivate the audience
to listen.
• Usually, the purpose is just to inform,
therefore, it is planned and prepared.
• Used for imparting information
• Well-organized and correct grammar and
diction
• Speech or utterance are planned in
advance
• Formal English is used in serious texts and
situations (reading a news or delivering a
speech)
• Avoids using slang terminologies
• Meeting; Interview; Court
Eg. You are invited to become a guest speaker in
an event because you are expert in Philippine
studies.
Frozen Style
• This style is for all forms of media. 2. Illocutionary acts, then, carry a directive for the
• It is for declamation and print. The listener is audience. It might be a promise, an order, an
not allowed to question the speaker (writer). apology, or an expression of thanks—or merely an
• It is more characterized by writing than answer to a question, to inform the other person in
speech. It is here where careful the conversation. These express a certain attitude
development of thought, logical planning, and carry with their statements a certain
attention to stylistic features, rules of usage, illocutionary force, which can be broken into
etc come into play. families:
• It uses the most complex grammatical
sentence structure and vocabulary known 1. Directives (speakers try to get their listeners
only to experts to do something, e.g. begging,
• A very formal style not really intended to commanding, requesting)
give message but to allow a reader to find 2. Commissives (speakers commit themselves
many meaning for oneself to a future course of action, e.g. promising,
• Does not require any feedback from the guaranteeing)
audience 3. Expressives (speakers express their
• Usually uses long sentences with good feelings, e.g. apologizing, welcoming,
grammar and vocabulary sympathizing)
4. Declarations (the speaker's utterance brings
• Prayers; Pledges; Oath; The Preamble
about a new external situation, e.g.
christening, marrying).
Eg. You have read a newspaper so that you will be
informed of the current news happening in the
e.g. “It’s hot in here.” (the intention could be to get
country.
someone to open the window-commisive)
L8: SPEECH ACTS
3. Perlocutionary acts, on the other hand, bring
about a consequence to the audience. They have
Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary
an effect on the hearer, in feelings, thoughts, or
Acts
actions, for example, changing someone's mind.
• In linguistics, a speech act is an utterance
Unlike illocutionary acts, perlocutionary acts can
defined in terms of a speaker's intention and the
project a sense of fear into the audience.
effect it has on a listener. Essentially, it is the
action that the speaker hopes to provoke in his/
e.g.“It’s hot in here.” (could result in someone
her audience.
opening the windows)
• Speech acts might be requests, warnings,
promises, apologies, greetings, or any number
of declarations.
• Speech acts are an important part of
communication.
• To determine which way a speech act is to be
interpreted, one must first determine the type of
act being performed.

1. Locutionary act is the mere act of producing

some linguistic sounds or marks with a certain
meaning and reference. So this is merely an
umbrella term, as illocutionary and perlocutionary
acts can occur simultaneously when locution of a
statement happens.

e.g. “It’s hot in here.” (Literally, it is a statement of

fact)