BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

ANPH 111 (Anatomy and Physiology)

COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK
1 2 3
The Cell and Cellular Metabolism & Reproduction

ü Read course and unit objectives

ü Read study guide prior to class attendance
ü Read required learning resources; refer to unit terminologies for jargons
ü Proactively participate in classroom discussions
ü Participate in weekly discussion board (Canvas)
ü Answer and submit course unit tasks.

VanPutte, Cinnamon. Regan, Jennifer. Russo, Andrew (2016). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology Penn Plaza, New York, New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 10th Edition

Computer device or smartphone with internet access (at least 54 kbps; average data
subscription will suffice)
At the end of the course unit (CM), learners will be able to:

Cognitive
• Explain how the structures of a cell contribute to its function.
• Identify and describe the different functions of each organelle
• Elaborate the four main functions of a cell.
• Describe the structure of the cell membrane.
• Define diffusion and concentration gradient.
• Explain the role of osmosis and that of osmotic pressure in controlling the movement of
water across the cell membrane. Compare hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solutions.
• Differentiate the transport mechanisms across the cell
• Describe endocytosis and exocytosis.
• Elaborate the phases of how Mitosis and Meiosis occurs

Affective
• Listen attentively during class discussions
• Demonstrate tact and respect of other students’ opinions and ideas
• Accept comments and reactions of classmates openly

Psychomotor
• Participate actively during class discussions
• Follow class rules and observe compliance to Netiquette
• Use critical thinking to identify areas of care that could benefit from additional research or
application of evidence-based practices
• Integrate knowledge of trends in Anatomy and Physiology

Active transport - Transport process in which solutes move from areas of lesser to
greater concentration. It requires energy in the form of ATP
Cilia - Hair-like processes on the surface of the cell that propel materials across a
surface
Cytoplasm - The gel-like substance surrounding the nucleus and filling the cell
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Large polymer of a nucleotide that carries the genetic
information of a cell
Diffusion - A passive transport mechanism that involves the movement of particles
from an area of higher to lower concentration
Endocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that brings substances into the cell
Exocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that releases substances outside the cell
Facilitated diffusion - Transport process involving the diffusion of a substance through
a channel protein
Filtration - Transport process in which water and dissolved particles are forced across
a membrane from an area of higher to lower pressure
Golgi apparatus - Prepares proteins and packages them for export to other parts of the
body
Hydrostatic pressure - Pressure exerted by water
Hypertonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a higher concentration of solutes
compared to the fluid within the cell
Hypotonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a lower concentration of solutes
compared to the fluid within the cell
Isotonic - Pertains to a solution in which the concentration of solutes in the solution is
the same as the concentration of solutes in the cell
Microvilli - Folds of a cell membrane that greatly increase the surface area of a cell to
facilitate absorption
Mitochondria - Organelle that converts organic compounds into ATP
Mitosis - Type of cell division in which the “mother” cells splits into two identical
daughter cells
Nucleus - The cell’s “control center” that contains a complete set of 46 chromosomes
Organelles - The structures within the cell that perform specific tasks in cellular
metabolism
Osmosis - A passive transport mechanism involving the diffusion of water from an area
of greater concentration of water (and a lesser concentration of solutes) to an area of
lesser concentration of water (and a greater concentration of solutes)
Osmotic pressure - Water pressure that develops in a solution as a result of osmosis
Phagocytosis - Process in which large particles are trapped in the plasma membrane
and brought into the cell
Pinocytosis - Process in which fluid and dissolved particles are trapped in the plasma
membrane and brought into the cell
Plasma membrane - The external boundary of the cell
Polymer - Large molecule consisting of many smaller molecules joined in sequence
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - Nucleotide that assists in protein synthesis
Ribosomes - Granules of protein and RNA scattered throughout the cytoplasm; some
are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
2.1 CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Our cells have distinct parts, it constitutes our body with more than 100 trillion of it. Though very
minute structures, these cells determines form and functions of the human body. No wonder why
many disorders, through the advent of technology, can now be attributed to its cellular basis.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

If we try to compare the size of a single cell, most of its size are from 10 to 15 micrometers. For
instance, a blood cell measure 7.7 micrometers and an ovum measures 100 micrometers. And
since different cell varies, a very unique cell called nerve cells can have a meter in length of its
extensions. (Thompson, 2015)

These cells may be the smallest units but they perform several important functions. Let’s review
their finest functions that are essential to every living organism. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo,
2016)
1. Cell metabolism and energy use – different chemical processes during cell metabolism
provides energy for muscle contraction and heat production.
2. Synthesis of molecules – Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The different cells of the body do not all produce the
same molecules. Therefore, the structural and functional characteristics of cells are
determined by the types of molecules they produce.
3. Communication – Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow
them to communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate with one
another and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
4. Reproduction and inheritance – Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of
the individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic
information to the next generation.

2.2 CELL STRUCTURE

Most cells have three major portions, with the exception of the red blood cells.
• The plasma membrane, or cell membrane, defining boundaries with gate-like properties
• The cytoplasm contains organelles and molecules
• The nucleus, acts as the control center and contains a cell’s genetic information.
Figure 2.1 showcases the most important structures of many different types of cells. Keep in
mind that this is a representative rather than an actual cell. No single cell contains all of the
specialized components found in the many different cells of the body. (Thompson, 2015)

Figure 2.1 Generalized Cell

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

The highlighted texts shows the three major portions of the cell: the nucleus, plasma membrane
and cytoplasm. Furthermore, the figure depicts different organelles resting inside the cytoplasm.
However as mentioned, no single cell contains all of these organelle types. Furthermore, one
kind of cell may contain many organelles of one type, whereas another kind of cell may contain
very few.
2.3 CELL MEMBRANE

Figure 2.2 Cell Membrane

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a) Fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane. The membrane is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins “floating”
in the membrane. The nonpolar hydrophobic region of each phospholipid molecule is directed toward the center of the membrane, and the polar
hydrophilic region is directed toward the fluid environment either outside or inside the cell. (b) Colorized transmission electron micrograph
showing the cell membrane of a single cell. Proteins at either surface of the lipid bilayer stain more readily than the lipid bilayer does and give
the membrane the appearance of having three parts: The two yellow, outer parts are proteins and the phospholipid heads, and the blue, central
part is the phospholipid tails and cholesterol.

According to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011) cell membranes or plasma membranes are like
gatekeepers that manages which does and does not enter the cell. Its flexible barrier, which is
made of two layers of phospholipids referred as lipid bilayer (figure 2.2), separates the inside
and outside of the cell and controls the flow of substances. Associated with this lipid bilayer are
phosphate-containing ends which made it hydrophilic or attracted to water and the fatty acid
ends that are hydrophobic.

To describe better, the double layer of phospholipids has a liquid quality. Cholesterol within the
phospholipid membrane gives it added strength and flexibility. Protein molecules “float” among
the phospholipid molecules and, in some cases, extend from the inner to the outer surface of
the cell membrane. Carbohydrates may be bound to some protein molecules, modifying their
functions. The proteins function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules,
enzymes, or structural supports in the membrane. Membrane channels and carrier molecules
are involved with the movement of substances through the cell membrane. Receptor molecules
(figure 2.2) are part of an intercellular communication system that enables cell recognition and
coordination of the activities of cells. For example, a nerve cell can release a chemical
messenger that moves to a muscle cell and temporarily binds to a receptor on the muscle cell
membrane. The binding acts as a signal that triggers a response, such as contraction of the
muscle cell.

Moreover, this barrier permits exchange of certain substances such as those substances found
outside are called extracellular substances while those inside the cell are termed as
intracellular substances. And because these cell membranes works as a gatekeepers, they
determine which moves in and out of the cell, proving its capability to have selective
permeability. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

As a summary, this provides the four basic functions of a cell membrane and these are:
• It acts as a barrier that separates the internal and external structures
• It controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell through its property called
selective permeability
• Its external glycoproteins helps identify the cell to other cells such as immune cells
• It participates in intracellular signaling by its receptor proteins.

2.4 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES

According to Thompson, (2015) the cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the space
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It consists of the intracellular fluid called cytosol
and organelles.

Cytosol consists of water plus dissolved ions, proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, ATP, and gases
which provides the avenue for most chemical reactions to occur. While organelles are
considered to be the “little organs” found inside the cytoplasm and are bound to perform different
tasks in cellular metabolism. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

Table 2.1 represents a summary of the organelles found inside the cell. However, no single cell
contains all of these organelle types. One kind of cell may contain many organelles of one type
whereas another kind of cell may contain very few.
 TABLE 2.1 : ORGANELLES , THEIR LOCATION AND FUNCTIONS

Organelles Location Function/s

Cell’s control center; contains DNA and Nucleoli; site for

Nucleus Often near the center
RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly

Ribosomes In the cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis

Rough Endoplasmic
In the cytoplasm Where many ribosomes attached; site of protein synthesis
Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic
In the cytoplasm Site of lipid synthesis; participates in detoxification
Reticulum
Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in
Golgi Apparatus In the cytoplasm
secretory vesicles

Contains materials produced in the cell; formed by the

Secretory Vesicle In the cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis

Lysosome In the cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell

Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP

Mitochondrion In the cytoplasm
synthesis

Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and forms

Microtubule In the cytoplasm
components of cilia and flagella

Centrioles In the cytoplasm Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell

division

On the cell surface with

Cilia Move substances over surfaces of certain cells
many on each cell
On the sperm cell surface
Flagella Propel sperm cells
with one per cell
Extensions of cell surface
Microvilli Increase surface area of certain cells
with many on each cell

2.4.1 Nucleus

According to Tortora & Freudenrich (2011), the nucleus is the large organelle usually found
centrally. It important thing about this structure is that it carries the genetic material that contains
information for cell activities and cell division. Some of its functions also includes controlling the
cell’s activities and cellular structure and produces ribosomes through its nucleoli. It has three
distinct parts namely nuclear envelope, nucleolus and chromatin (figure 2.3). In the body, cells
more often have one nucleus but there are also some cell, like the skeletal muscle cells that
contains more than one of this structure.
The outer part of the nucleus is covered by two layers called the nuclear envelope which then
contains small openings termed as nuclear pores. Just like the cell membranes, these nuclear
pores regulates movement of different substances into and out of the cells.

The nucleolus is a round structure that is made of the DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleolus
is also the one responsible for making ribosomes which contains small units of RNA.

Figure 2.3 Nucleus

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a) The nuclear envelope consists of inner and outer membranes, which become fused at the nuclear pores. The nucleolus is a condensed
region of the nucleus not bounded by a membrane and consisting mostly of RNA and protein. (b) Transmission electron micrograph of the
nucleus. (c) Scanning electron micrograph showing the membranes of the nuclear envelope and the nuclear pores.

As mentioned, the nucleus carries all the information necessary to control cell activities and
make new cells. In a non-dividing cell, the genetic material is spread out in the form of
chromatin, which encompass the last part of the nucleus. Whereas in a dividing cell, the genetic
material is condensed into structures called chromosomes. There are 23 pairs of
chromosomes, which also consists of DNA and protein, can be found in the human cells.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
2.4.2 Ribosomes

Ribosomes are made of RNA and proteins. These organelles are formed by the nucleolus and
were sometimes associated with the rough endoplasmic reticulum, some are located within
mitochondria, and some are free-floating or termed as free-ribosomes. But whether free-floating
or associated with organelles, ribosomes are involved in making new proteins. (VanPutte,
Regan, & Russo, 2016)

Functions of the ribosomes includes being associated with the Endoplasmic reticulum so they
can synthesize proteins that are allocated for the plasma membrane. The free ribosomes also
synthesize proteins that are intended to be used in the cytosol.

2.4.3 Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a large membrane system that extends outward from the outer
nuclear membrane throughout the cytoplasm (figure 2.4). There are two types:

Those that extends from the nuclear envelope and filled with ribosomes are the
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. These organelles synthesize glycoproteins and
phospholipids that are then transferred into the plasma membrane, or secreted during
exocytosis. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

Figure 2.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a) The Endoplasmic Reticulum is continuous with the nuclear envelope and can exist as either Rough (with Ribosomes) or Smooth
(without Ribosomes) (b) Transmission Electron Micrograph of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 On the other hand, Endoplasmic Reticulum without ribosomes is called smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum. It is where fatty acids and steroids are being made. And more
importantly, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum detoxifies harmful substances and serves
as a storage site for ionized calcium, which gets released as part of an intracellular signal
for muscle contraction and the actions of some chemical messengers called hormones.
(Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

2.4.4 Golgi Apparatus and Secretory Vesicle

The Golgi apparatus is like a flattened sacs (figure 2.5) that acts like a pathway for processing
proteins and lipids made by the Endoplasmic Reticulum. It forms several things. It forms
secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis into extracellular fluid. It
forms membrane vesicles that ferry new molecules to the plasma membrane and lastly, it forms
transport vesicles that carry molecules to other organelles, such as lysosomes. (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)

Figure 2.5 Golgi Apparatus

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a) The Golgi apparatus is composed of flattened, membranous sacs and
resembles a stack of dinner plates or pancakes. (b) Transmission electron
micrograph of the Golgi apparatus.

The Golgi apparatus is present in larger numbers and is most highly developed in cells that
secrete protein, such as those of the salivary glands or the pancreas. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)
2.4.5 Lysosome and Peroxisomes

Lysosomes have a number of digestive enzymes that break down ingested material and worn-
out organelles and release their components into the cytosol. It can digest the entire cells
(autolysis) and carry out extracellular digestion. Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes. The enzymes within the lysosomes break down the materials in the endocytotic
vesicle. For example, white blood cells phagocytize bacteria. Then enzymes within lysosomes
destroy the phagocytized bacteria.

Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty
acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and
amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell. The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen peroxide to water and O2. Cells active in detoxification, such as liver and kidney cells,
have many peroxisomes. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

2.4.6 Mitochondrion

These bean-shaped organelles (figure 2.6) are the major structures to produce Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)-the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell.
Furthermore, it also participates in the regulation of intracellular ionized calcium. Each
mitochondrion is composed of a smooth outer membrane and a folded inner membrane, which
contain numerous enzymes that are involved in making ATP. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

Figure 2.6 Mitochondrion
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a) typical mitochondrion structure. (b) TEM of mitochondria in longitudinal an cross sections
ATP is the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell, and cells with a large
energy requirement have more mitochondria than cells that require less energy. For example,
cells that carry out extensive active transport, contain many mitochondria. When muscles
enlarge as a result of exercise, the mitochondria increase in number within the muscle cells and
provide the additional ATP required for muscle contraction. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

The outer membrane gives a mitochondrion its capsule shape while the inner membrane folds
on itself to provide a surface on which the energy-releasing chemical reactions of the cell occur.
The folds of the inner membrane are called cristae. It is on the cristae that cellular respiration
occurs, where food (chemical energy) is converted into another usable form of chemical energy,
ATP. For this reason, the mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. On the other
hand, the fluid that fills the inside of the membrane is termed as mitochondrial matrix. (Rizzo,
2016)

But in addition in producing ATP, mitochondria also participate in the regulation of intracellular
ionized calcium. They contain their own DNA and ribosomes, both of which make them capable
of reproducing themselves and making new proteins, but the main source of the cell’s DNA is
contained within its largest organelle, the nucleus. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

2.4.7 Cytoskeleton and Microtubules

Figure 2.7 Cytoskeleton

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a) Diagram of the cytoskeleton. (b) Scanning electron micrograph of the cytoskeleton.
The cytoskeleton is made of networks of the following protein elements (figure 2.7). It is like
tree-branches that holds organelles in place and aid them in changing shape. These protein
elements consists of microfilaments, intermediate filament and microtubules.

Microfilaments are small protein strands that provide mechanical support and generate force
for movement. They are analogous to muscles in your body. They also anchor proteins within
the plasma membrane and provide support for microvilli. Intermediate filament on the other
hand are protein strands that are larger than micro laments but smaller than microtubules. They
hold organelles in place and attach cells to one another. Microtubules are long, hollow protein
tubes that determine shape and movement similar to the way bones shape your body. They are
also the stiff components of cilia and flagella. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

2.4.8 Centrosome and Centrioles

Figure 2.7 Cytoskeleton

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
(a)Diagram of the cytoskeleton. (b) Scanning electron micrograph of the cytoskeleton.

Centrioles are like mini-tunnels that were stacked together by threes (microtubule triplet) and
formed a cylindrical organelle composed of nine triplets (figure 2.7). Putting a pair of these
centrioles plus a pericentriolar material will make up a Centrosome is found near the nucleus
and will be later essential for cell division called Mitosis. That is, the pericentriolar material of the
centrosome contains tubulins that build microtubules in nondividing cells and form the mitotic
spindle during cell division. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
2.4.9 Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli

Cilia and Flagella are surface organelles that resembles projections on the surface that help
cells move, beat or vibrate. (Rizzo, 2016)

Cells may have numerous amounts of cilia in a cell. Cilia are hairy-like projections that propels
materials across the surface. They vary in number from hundreds to thousands. For instance,
the respiratory tract is lined with cilia to trap foreign materials such as dusts. In this way, it aids
in maintaining airways clear from contaminants. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

Flagella on the other hand, is like a whip tail placing itself at the terminal end of a cell. Unlike
cilia that were numerous to be found in a cell, flagella usually appears singular like in the sperm
cells. Moreover, this structure allows cells to mobilize like again in the case of sperm cells that
travels its way to find the egg cells. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

Microvilli are folds of the cell membrane that greatly increase the surface area of a cell. Typically
found in cells charged with absorbing nutrients—such as the intestines—microvilli can increase
a cell’s absorptive area as much as 40 times. (Thompson, 2015)

2.5 CELL TRANSPORT

Since cells were known to be the basic unit of life, it requires to undergone several chemical
processes where coordinated movement are essential to maintain its functions. Also, some
substances are needed to be shifted in and out of the cells. In order to understand further, let’s
recall the two fluid compartments before moving into cell transport. (Tortora & Freudenrich,
2011)

Intracellular fluid - inside the cell

- sample substances that can be found are enzymes, glycogen and
potassium ions

Extracellular fluid - outside the cell

Interstitial fluids – fluids between cell within tissue
Plasma – fluid within a blood vessel
Lymph – fluid within lymphatic vessel
Cerebrospinal fluid – fluid that surrounds brain and spinal cord
As they move across cells and within the cells substances including gases, nutrients and ions
are dissolved in the various fluids. Certain terms in concentration also applies: (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)
Solute – a substance that is being dissolved in the various fluids
Solvent – a. fluid or gas in which solute is being dissolved
Concentration – the amount of solute dissolved in given volume of solvent
Concentration Gradient – the difference in concentration of a substance between two
areas

Cell membranes has the unique capability to only allow certain substances to pass through its
walls—Selective Permeability. Because of this, coupled with the transport capacity, cells
maintains its concentration of molecules. Movement of substances may include two processes:
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Passive transport – no cellular energy required during transport. Examples includes
Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion
Active transport – certain amount of cellular energy is needed to help transport to be
Successful. Includes itself, secondary active transport, endocytosis
and exocytosis

2.5.1 Diffusion

Diffusion is the process wherein solutes moves from an area of high concentration to areas of
low concentration. It can occur in two conditions. One, the membrane must be permeable
enough to allow passage of substances and two, there must be a concentration gradient of the
particular substance across the membrane because it will be the driving force for the process to
occur. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

In the discussion about cell membrane, it was mentioned that cell membranes has bilipid layers.
This means that those substances which are lipid soluble like oxygen, carbon dioxide and
steroids can easily pass-through the phospholipid bilayer. While these substances can readily
pass, other substances needs channels for cell to accommodate them. For instance, sodium
only enters through sodium channels and the same is true with potassium. (VanPutte, Regan,
& Russo, 2016)

In addition, cell membrane channels differ in the degree to which ions pass through them. Some
channels constantly allow ions to pass through. These channels are called leak channels. Other
channels limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and closing. These
channels are called gated channels. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
In the body, diffusion is an important means of transporting substances through the extracellular
and intracellular fluids. In addition, substances, such as nutrients and some waste products, can
diffuse into and out of the cell. The normal intracellular concentrations of many substances
depend on diffusion. For example, if the extracellular concentration of O2 is reduced, not enough
O2 diffuses into the cell, and the cell cannot function normally. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo,
2016)

2.5.2 Osmosis

Osmosis involves the diffusion of water down the concentration gradient through a selectively
permeable membrane. In the body, this often happens when a particular substance can’t cross
the membrane. In that situation, the water and not the particles, moves in an effort to equalize
the concentration. (Thompson, 2015)

Osmosis is important to cells because large volume changes caused by water movement can
disrupt normal cell functions. Osmosis occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable,
selectively permeable, or not permeable to solutes and a concentration gradient for water exists
across the cell membrane. Water diffuses from a solution with a higher water concentration
across the cell membrane into a solution with a lower water concentration. The ability to predict
the direction of water movement across the cell membrane depends on knowing which solution
on either side of the membrane has the higher water concentration. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo,
2016)

The concentration of a solution, however, is expressed not in terms of water, but in terms of
solute concentration. For example, if sugar solution A is more concentrated than sugar solution
B, then solution A has more sugar (solute) than solution B. As the concentration of a solution
increases, the amount of water (solvent) proportionately decreases. Water diffuses from the less
concentrated solution B (less sugar, more water), into the more concentrated solution A (more
sugar, less water). In other words, water diffuses toward areas of high solute concentration and
dilutes those solutes.

Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent the movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane. Thus, osmotic pressure is a measure of the tendency of water to move
by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane. It can be measured by placing a solution
into a tube that is closed at one end by a selectively permeable membrane and immersing the
tube in distilled water (see figure 2.8, step 1). Water molecules move by osmosis through the
membrane into the tube, forcing the solution to move up the tube (see figure 2.8, step 2). As the
solution rises, its weight produces hydrostatic pressure (see figure 2.8, step 3), which moves
water out of the tube back into the distilled water surrounding the tube. Net movement of water
into the tube stops when the hydrostatic pressure in the tube causes water to move out of the
tube at the same rate at which it diffuses into the tube by osmosis. The osmotic pressure of the
solution in the tube is equal to the hydrostatic pressure that prevents net movement of water into
the tube.

Figure 2.8 Osmosis

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

Why is osmosis so important to your health? As a result of fluid intake, transfusions, injuries,
and diseases, the salt and water concentrations of various fluid compartments within your body
change. So, cells within those compartments, like red blood cells traveling through blood
vessels, may find themselves in environments with different solute and water concentrations
There are specific names for such environments; it is important to note that these terms refer to
the concentrations of solutes, not the concentration of water: (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

• Isotonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is the same as that inside the cell.
Therefore, water concentration is also the same on both sides of the cell, and the net
movement of water is zero.
• Hypotonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is less than the concentration
inside the cell. Therefore, the water concentration outside is greater than that inside, and
water flows into the cell.
• Hypertonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is greater than the concentration
inside the cell. Therefore, the water concentration is greater inside the cell than outside,
and water flows out of the cell.

Figure 2.9 Effect of Hypotonic, Hypertonic and Isotonic solutions on Red Blood Cells
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
2.5.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanism

Certain molecules just need a medium to bind to be transported inside the cell. These usually
involves the use of specificity wherein a molecule can only be accommodated by specific carrier
molecule. Carrier molecules are protein present in the cell membranes that serves as a flexible
gate that changes shape. There are three kinds of carrier-mediated transport and these are
facilitated diffusion, active transport, and secondary active transport. (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)

2.5.3.1 Facilitated diffusion

Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated

transport process that moves substances
across the cell membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance. Because
movement is with the concentration gradient,
metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not
required. For instance, the carrier molecule
binds with a molecule, such as glucose, on the
outside of the cell membrane (figure 2.10).
The carrier molecule changes its shape and
releases the molecule on the inside of the cell
membrane. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo,
2016)

Figure 2.10 Facilitated Diffusion

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

2.5.3.2 Active transport

Active transport is the process in which energy is used to move substances across a
membrane against a concentration gradient, that is, from lower concentration to higher
concentration. Substances must be highly-concentrated on side to have enough stimulation of
the energy required. In most cases, ATP is the energy needed to assist in active transport. One
example of active transport is the movement of various amino acids from the small intestine into
the blood. The malfunction of active transport can lead to serious health conditions. (VanPutte,
Regan, & Russo, 2016)
In some cases, the active transport mechanism can exchange one substance for another. For
example, the sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells (figure 2.11).
The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside the cell and a higher concentration of K+
inside the cell. The concentration gradients for Na+ and K+, established by the sodium-
potassium pump, are essential in maintaining the resting membrane potential. (VanPutte,
Regan, & Russo, 2016)

Figure 2.11 Sodium-Potassium Pump

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
2.5.3.3 Secondary Active Transport

Secondary active transport involves the

active transport of one substance, such as
Na+, across the cell membrane, establishing a
concentration gradient. The diffusion of that
transported substance down its concentration
gradient provides the energy to transport a
second substance, such as glucose, across the
cell membrane (figure 2.12). In cotransport,
the diffusing substance moves in the same
direction as the transported substance; in
countertransport, the diffusing substance
moves in a direction opposite to that of the
transported substance. Figure 2.12 Secondary Active Transport
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)

2.5.4 Endocytosis and Exocytosis

When substances are too large to be transported, cells would ingest these materials rather than
having it exchanged with ions. The cells forms a vesicle or a round, small sac through ATP and
contractions of microfilaments enabling the contents to be ingested. (Tortora & Freudenrich,
2011)

Endocytosis involves ingesting material by forming a vesicle from the plasma membrane. The
sac of ingested material buds off inside the cell and usually fuses with lysosomes. There are
three types of endocytosis: (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

Phagocytosis. The cell “eats” large particles such as bacteria, viruses, and dead cells.
White blood cells and some other cell types phagocytize bacteria, cell debris and foreign
particles.

Pinocytosis. The cell periodically “drinks” by forming small vesicles around droplets of
extracellular fluid. These droplets may have small particles dissolved in them as well.
These vesicles fuse with lysosomes and release their contents.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis. When hormones bind to receptors on the plasma

membrane, the hormone–receptor complex is often ingested by endocytosis after the
hormone has produced its effect. Cholesterol and growth factors are samples of which.
In contrast, cells often release substances by a process called exocytosis. They utilize
membrane-bound sacs called secretory vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane and finally
release its content towards the extracellular space. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Many
substances such as neurotransmitters, endocrine hormones, and digestive enzymes are
secreted via exocytosis. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

2.6 CELL DIVISION

Cells transport materials and make proteins as part of their normal functions. They grow and, at
some point, divide to produce new cells. Cell division is the way your body grows and how it
replaces worn-out cells and cells damaged by disease or injury. Most of the cells in your body
are somatic cells and divide through a process called mitosis. Somatic cells are cells other than
sex cells (sperm and egg). During mitosis, one starting cell divides into two identical cells. Each
cell has exactly the same genetic makeup as the parent cell. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

Mitosis is one part of the cell’s normal life cycle, called the cell cycle. The cell is continually
changing from the time it forms until it divides. Although the cell cycle is continuous, it is
commonly divided into interphase and mitosis. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

During interphase, the cells goes through three stages:

G1—a growth phase in which proteins are synthesized. The cell performs the tasks for
which it was created (such as carrying oxygen, secreting digestive enzymes, etc.). It
accumulates the materials it will need to replicate its DNA.
S— when DNA is replicated.
G2—another growth phase in which proteins are made.

Interphase, which may take 20 to 22 hours, is followed by mitosis.

Mitosis itself consists of four phases:

• Prophase - each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.
• Metaphase - chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
• Anaphase - chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles
• Telophase - the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is
completed, producing two new daughter cells.

As a result of mitosis, each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. This make-up, which is
identical to that of the starting cell, is called diploid.
 Figure 2.13 Mitosis
*taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)
Specialized cells called gametes undergo a different process of cell division called meiosis.
During meiosis, a starting cell undergoes two rounds of cell division to produce four cells. Each
cell has one-half the genetic material of the starting cell (only one set of chromosomes). (Tortora
& Freudenrich, 2011)

Meiosis is very similar to mitosis. In fact, the two are so similar that their stages are rather
confusingly referred to by the same names. One difference is that, in the first prophase of meiosis
(prophase I), pairs of homologous chromosomes (that is, pairs of chromosome #1, pairs of
chromosome #2, and so on) remain close together in tight groups called tetrads. During this
phase, the chromosomes may exchange pieces of DNA in a process called crossing over.
Crossing over “shuffles” the genetic material, which allows genetic variation from one generation
to the next. In the first anaphase of meiosis (anaphase I), the tetrads get pulled apart. Ultimately,
the two stages of meiosis divide the chromosome complement of the parent in half, a status
called haploid. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

Figure 2.14 Meiosis

*taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.). Boston,
Massachussetts: Cengage Learning.
Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive
Approach,2nd Edition. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company.
Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. .
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. New
York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

To set the tone right, we will help each other in the appreciation of the initial phase of
Anatomy and Physiology by accomplishing the Course Task/s in Canvas