[NUR 1101] CHAPTER 03: CELL STRUCTURE & THEIR FUNCTIONS

OUTLINE OUTLINE
3.1. Cell Structure 3.5. Organelles
A. Organelles A. Nucleus
B. Cytoplasm 1. Nuclear envelope
C. Cell Membrane 2. Nuclear pores
3.2. Functions of the Cell 3. Chromosomes and Chromatin
A. Cell metabolism and Energy use 4. Nucleoli
B. Synthesis of Molecules B. Ribosomes
C. Communication C. Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
D. Reproduction and Inheritance D. Golgi Apparatus
3.3. Cell Membrane E. Secretory Vessels
A. Intracellular versus Extracellular F. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
B. Fluid mosaic model G. Mitochondria
C. Molecules of the Membrane include lipids, H. Cytoskeleton
proteins, and some carbohydrates 1. Microtubules
D. Membrane Protein function 2. Microfilaments
1. Membrane channels 3. Intermediate Filaments
2. Carrier molecules I. Centrioles
3. Receptor molecules J. Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli
4. Enzymes Clinical Impact: “Carbohydrate and Lipid
5. Structural support Disorder”
3.4. Movement through the Cell Membrane 3.6. Whole-Cell Activity
A. Diffusion A. Gene Expression
1. Solution 1. Transcription
2. Concentration gradient 2. Translation
3. Channels (leak v. gated) B. Cell Cycle
B. Osmosis 1. Interphase
1. Osmotic pressure 2. Mitosis
2. Hypotonic, Isotonic, Hypertonic C. Differentiation
C. Carrier-mediated transport mechanism D. Apoptosis
1. Facilitated diffusion Clinical Impact: “Cancer”
2. Active transport 3.7. Cellular aspects of Aging
3. Secondary active transport A. Cellular clock
D. Endocytosis and Exocytosis B. Death genes
1. Receptor-mediated endocytosis C. DNA Damage
2. Phagocytosis D. Free radicals
3. Pinocytosis E. Mitochondrial damage
Clinical Impact: “Cystic Fibrosis”

MACUTO, N-J 1|Page

 3.1 CELL STRUCTURE
The study of cells is an important link between
the study of Chemistry and the study of Tissues.
Cells, in turn, determine the form and functions
of the human body. From cellular function, we
can progress to the study of tissues.
The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms.
The simplest organisms consist of single cells,
whereas humans are composed of multiple
cells.
• Organelles
o Specialized structures in cells that
perform.
o Specific functions.
[e.g.,] nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
• Cytoplasm
o Jelly-like substance that holds
organelles.
• Cell membrane
o Also termed the plasma membrane.
o A structure that encloses the cytoplasm.
3.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
Cells are commonly defined as “the smallest
units of life”, meaning they have all the
characteristics of life. Though the cells of the
human body are very diverse, most share
common functions
MACUTO, N-J
• Cell metabolism and energy use
oThe chemical reactions that occur within
cells are collectively called cell
metabolism.
o Energy releases during metabolism is
used for cell activities, such as the
synthesis of new molecules, muscle,
contraction, and heat production, which
helps maintain body temperature.
• Synthesis of molecules
o Cells synthesize various types of
molecules, including proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids.
o The different cells of the body do not all
produce the same molecules.
o Therefore, a cell’s structural and
functional characteristics are determined
by the types of molecules the cell
produces.
• Communication
o Cells produce and receive chemical and
electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another.
[e.g.,] Nerve cells communicate with one
another and with muscle cells, causing
muscles to contract.
• Reproduction and inheritance
o Each cells contains one copy of the
genetic information of the individual.
o Specialized cells (sperm cells and
oocytes) transmit that genetic information
to the next generation.
3.3 CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the
outermost component in a cell. The cell
membrane encloses the cytoplasm and forms
the boundary between the material inside of the
cell and material outside it. It supports the cell
contents, acts as a selective barrier. And plays
role in communication between cells.
Substances inside the cell are called
cytoplasmic, or intracellular substances and
those outside of the cell are call extracellular
substances.
2|Page
 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• Fluid-mosaic model
o Studies of the arrangement of molecule in
the cell membrane have given rise to a
model of its structure.
o The phospholipids form a double layer of
molecules.
o The polar, phosphate-containing ends of
the phospholipids are hydrophilic (water-
loving) and therefore face the
extracellular fluid and cytoplasm of the
cell.
o The nonpolar, fatty acid ends of the
phospholipids, are hydrophobic (water-
fearing) and therefore face away from the
fluid on either side of the membrane, and
toward the center of the double layer of
phospholipids.
MOLECULES OF THE MEMBRANE
INCLUDE LIPIDS, PROTEINS, AND
SOME CARBOHYDRATES
o Membrane channels and carrier molecules
are involved with the movement of the
substances through the cell membrane.
o Receptor molecules are part of an
intercellular communication system that
enables cell recognition and coordination of
the activities of cells.
[e.g.,] a nerve cell can release a chemical
messenger that moves to a muscle cell and
temporarily binds to a receptor on the muscle
cell membrane. The binding acts as a signal
t6hat triggers a response, such as
contraction of the muscle cell.
3.4 MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL
MEMBRANE
The cell membrane has a selective permeability,
which allows only a certain substance to pass in
and out of the cell.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
chloride are found in higher concentrations
outside the cell.
DIFFUSION

• Phospholipids
oThe double layer of phospholipids has a
fluid quality, meaning that the
phospholipids are not completely
• Diffusion
stationary but are able to move.
oGenerally involves movement of
• Cholesterol
substances in a new solution down a
o Within the phospholipid membrane gives
concentration gradient.
it added strength and stability by limiting
• Solution
how much the phospholipids can move.
o Is generally composed of two major parts,
• Protein
solutes and the solvent.
o Molecules ‘float’ among the phospholipid
o Solutes are substances dissolved in a
molecules and, in some cases, extend
predominant liquid or gas, which is called
from the inner to the outer surface of the
the solvent.
cell membrane.
o Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend
• Carbohydrates
to move from an area of higher
o May be bound to some protein
concentration of a solute to an area of
molecules, modifying their functions.
lower concentration of that same solute in
solution.
MEMBRANE PROTEIN FUNCTION
o This movement from high concentration
o The membrane proteins function as
to a low concentration is diffusion.
membrane channels, carrier molecules,
receptor molecules, enzymes, or structural
supports in the membrane.

MACUTO, N-J 3|Page

• Concentration gradient
oIs the difference in the concentration of a
solute in a solvent between two points
divided by the distance between the two
points.
o The concentration gradient is said to be
steeper when the concentration
difference is large and/or the distance is
small.
• Channels
o Water-soluble substances, such as ions,
can diffuse across the cell membrane
channels.
o Leak channels constantly allow ions to
pass through.
o Gated channels limit the movement of
ions across the membrane by opening
and closing.
OSMOSIS
• Osmosis
oThe diffusion of water (a solvent) across
a selectively permeable membrane from
a region of higher water concentration to
one of lower water concentration.
o Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed
osmotic pressure, which is the force
required to prevent movement of water
across cell membrane.
• Osmotic pressure
o Depends on the difference of solution
concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.
o A cell may be placed in solutions that are
either hypotonic, isotonic, or
hypertonic compared to the cell
cytoplasm.
MACUTO, N-J
• Hypotonic solution
o Has a lower concentration of solutes and
a higher concentration of water relative to
the cytoplasm of the cell. Has less
osmotic pressure than the cell. If the cell
swells up, it can rupture, a process called
lysis.
• Isotonic solution
o Has the same solute concentrations
inside and outside the cell. The cell will
neither shrink or swell.
• Hypertonic Solution
o The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic
solution has a lower solute
concentration and higher water
concentration than the surrounding
solution. Water moves by osmosis from
the cell into the hypertonic solution,
resulting in cell shrinkage or crenation
CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT
o Some water-soluble, electrically charged or
large sized particles cannot enter or leave
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
These substances include ammino acids,
glucose, and some polar molecules
produced by the cell. Carrier molecules are
proteins within the cell membrane involved in
carrier-mediated transport.
• Facilitated diffusion
o Is a carrier-mediated transport process
that moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance. Because
movement is with the concentration
gradient, metabolic energy in the form of
ATP is not required.
4|Page
• Active transport
o Is a carrier-mediated process requiring
ATP, that moves substances across the
cell membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration
gradient. Active transport processes
accumulate necessary substances on the
side of the cell membrane at
concentrations many times greater than
those on the other side.
• Secondary active transport
o Involves active transport of one
substance, such as Na+, across the cell
membrane, establishing a concentration
gradient, which then provide3s the
energy for moving a second substance
across the membrane. No additional
energy is required above the energy
provided by the initial active transport
pump.
ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS
• Endocytosis
o Is the uptake of material through the cell
membrane by the formation of a vesicle.
The cell membrane invaginates to form a
vesicle containing the material to be
taken into the cell. The vesicle then
moves into the cytoplasm.
MACUTO, N-J
• Exocytosis
oInvolves the use of membrane-bound
sacs called secretory vesicles that
accumulate materials for release from the
cell. The vesicles move to the cell
membrane and fuse, ultimately releasing
the material by exocytosis.
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
o Occurs when a specific substance binds
to the receptor molecule and is
transported into the cell.
• Phagocytosis
o Is often used for endocytosis when solid
particles are ingested.
• Pinocytosis
o Has much smaller vesicles formed, and
they contain liquid rather than solid
particles.
CLINICAL IMPACT: CYSTIC FIBROSIS
Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disorder that occurs
at a rate of approximately 1 per 2000 births and
currently affect 33,000 people in the United
States. It is the most common lethal genetic
disorder among white individuals. The diagnosis
is based on the following signs: recurrent
respiratory disease, increased Na+ in the sweat,
and high levels of unabsorbed fats in the stool.
3.5 ORGANELLES
The interior of a cell is composed of the
cytoplasm, which is like a jelly-like fluid that
surrounds the organelles.
Organelles are specialized structures that
perform certain functions.
Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria,
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli.
NUCLEUS
5|Page
• Nucleus
o A little nut or the stone of the fruit.
o Is a large organelle within the cell.
• Nuclear Envelope
o The contents of the nucleus is separated
from the rest of the cytoplasm by a
nuclear envelope.
o Consists of an outer membrane and an
inner membrane with a narrow space
between them.
• Nuclear Pores
o At many points on the surface of the
nucleus, the inner and outer membranes
come together to form nuclear pores.
o The passageways through which
materials can move into or out of the
nucleus.
• Chromosomes & Chromatin
o The nucleus contains most of the genetic
material of the cell; organized into 23
pairs of chromosomes which consists of
DNA and proteins.
• Nucleoli
o Are diffuse bodies with no surrounding
membrane that are found within the
nucleus. There are usually one to several
nucleoli within the nucleus.
RIBOSOMES
ROUGH & SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
oA series of membranes forming sacs and
tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
• Rough ER
o Endoplasmic reticulum with attached
ribosomes.
o A large amount of rough ER in a cell
indicates that it is synthesizing large
amounts of protein for exports from the
cell.
• Smooth ER
o Endoplasmic reticulum without attached
ribosomes are called smooth ER.
o A site for lipid synthesis and participates
in detoxification of chemicals within cells.
o In skeletal muscle cells, the smooth ER
stores calcium ions.

GOLGI APPARATUS

• Ribosomes
• Golgi Apparatus
o Ribosome components are produced in
o Also known as the Golgi complex,
the nucleolus.
consists of closely packed stacks of
o The organelles where proteins are
curved, membrane-bound sacs.
produced.
o It collects, modifies, packages, and
o Ribosomes may be attached to other
distributes proteins and lipids
organelles, such as the endoplasmic
manufactured by the endoplasmic
reticulum.
reticulum.
o Ribosomes that are not attached to any
o The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles,
other organelles are called free
some of which are secretory vesicles,
ribosomes.
lysosomes, and other vesicles.

MACUTO, N-J 6|Page

 LYSOSOMES & PEROXISOMES o The outer membranes have smooth
contour, but the inner membranes have
numerous folds, called cristae, which
project into the interior of the
mitochondria.
o The material within the inner membrane
is the mitochondrial matrix and contains
enzymes and mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA)
o Cells with a large energy requirement
have more mitochondria than cells that
require less energy.

CYTOSKELETON

• Lysosomes
oMembrane-bound vesicles formed from
the Golgi apparatus.
o They contain a variety of enzymes that
function as a intracellular digestive
systems.
• Peroxisomes
o Small, membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes that break down fatty
acids, ammino acids, and hydrogen • Cytoskeleton
peroxide (H2O2). o Is the internal framework of the cell. It
o Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of consists of protein structures that
fatty acid and ammino acid breakdown supports the cell, hold organelles in
and can be toxic to a cell. place, and enable the cell to change
o The enzymes in peroxisomes break down shape.
hydrogen peroxide to water and O2. o These protein structures are
microtubules, microfilaments, and
MITOCHONDRIA intermediate filaments.
• Microtubules
o Hollow structures formed from protein
subunits. The microtubules perform a
variety of roles, including helping to
support the cytoplasm of the cells,
assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain
organelles, such as cilia and flagella.
• Microfilaments
o Small fibrils formed from protein subunits
that structurally support the cytoplasm,
determining cell shape. Some
microfilaments are involved with cell
movement; microfilaments in muscle
cells enable the cells to contract.
• Mitochondria • Intermediate Filaments
o Small organelles responsible for o Small fibrils formed from protein subunits
producing considerable amounts of ATP that are smaller in diameter than
by aerobic metabolism. microtubules but larger in diameter than
o They have inner and outer membranes microfilaments.
separated by a space. o Provide mechanical support to cells.
Keratin is a type of intermediate filament.

MACUTO, N-J 7|Page

 CENTRIOLES WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
o A cell’s characteristics are determined by
the types of proteins it produces. The
proteins produced are in turn determined by
the genetic information in the nucleus.
o Information in DNA provides the cell with a
code for its cellular processes.

• Centrioles
o Specialized area of cytoplasm close to
the nucleus where microtubule formation
occurs. It contains two centrioles, which
are normally oriented perpendicular to
each other.
o Each centriole is a small, cylindrical
organelle composed of microtubules. The
• Gene Expression
centriole is involved in the process of
o The process by which information stored
mitosis.
in the genes of DNA molecules directs
the manufacture of various proteins of our
CILIA, FLAGELLA, MICROVILLI cells.
• Cilia o A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides
o Project from the surface of certain cells. joined together to form tow nucleotide
o They are responsible for the movement of strands.
materials over the top of cells, such as o Protein synthesis; involves transcriptions
mucus. and translation.
o Cylindrical structures that extend from the
cell and are composed of microtubules.
• Flagella
o Have a structure similar to that of cilia but
are much linger, and they usually occur
only one per cell.
o Sperm cells each have one flagellum,
which propels the sperm cell.
• Microvilli
o Specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
o They do not actively move as cilia and
flagella do.
o Numerous on cells that have them and
they increase the surface area of those • Transcription
cells. o First step in gene expression and it takes
o They are abundant on the surface of cells place in the nucleus of the cell.
that line the intestine, kidney, and other o DNA determines the structure of mRNA
areas in which absorption is an important through transcription.
function. o During transcription, the double strands
of a DNA segment separate, and DNA
nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA
nucleotides that form the mRNA.

MACUTO, N-J 8|Page

 • Interphase
o A cell spends most of its life cycle in
interphase performing its normal
functions.
o During interphase, the DNA (located in
chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is
replicated.
o Interphase is divided into three phases:
G1 phase, during which the cell carries
out normal metabolic activity; S phase,
during which the DNA is replicated; and
G2 phase, during which the cell prepares
to divide.
• Mitosis
o Cell division is the formation of daughter
cells from a single parent cell. The new
cells necessary for growth and tissue
repair are formed through mitosis.
• Translation
o Most cells of the body, except those that
o Occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA
give rise to reproductive cells, divide by
has exited the nucleus through the
mitosis.
nuclear pores.
o During mitosis, a parent cell divides to
o The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
form two daughter cells, which have the
o Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the
same DNA as the parent cell.
mRNA are read by anticodons (3
o Divided into four phases: prophase,
nucleotide bases) on transfer RNA
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
(tRNA). Transfer RNA transports specific
ammino acids from the cytoplasm to the
ribosome-mRNA complex and initiates
formation of the polypeptide chain.
o The process continues until the entire
polypeptide is completely formed.

CELL CYCLE

• Cell Cycle
o During growth and development, cell
division occurs to increase the number of
cells or replace damaged or dying ones.
The cell division involves cell cycle.
o The cell cycle includes two major phases:
a nondividing phase, called interphase,
and a cell dividing phase, termed mitosis.

MACUTO, N-J 9|Page

 DIFFERENTIATION 3.7 CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING
o We are all familiar with the outward signs of
aging, such as wrinkled skin, gray hair, and
reduced vision. A number of cellular
structures or events appear to be involved
in causing these effects. The major
hypotheses that attempt to explain how
aging occurs concentrate on molecules
within the cell, such as lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids. It is estimated that at least
35% of the factors affecting aging are
generic.
o One hypothesis of aging suggests the
existence of a cellular clock that, after a
certain passage of time or a certain number
of cell divisions, result in the death of a given
cell line.
o Another hypothesis of aging suggests the
existence that there are “death genes”,
which turn on late in life, or sometimes
prematurely, causing cells to detonate and
die.
o Other hypothesis suggests that, through
time, DNA damage, both nuclear and
mitochondrial, leads to cell degeneration
and death.

• Differentiation
oA sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form
a single cell, then a great number of
mitotic divisions occur to give the trillion
of cells of the body.
o The process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is
called differentiation.
o During differentiation of a cell, some
portions of DNA are active, but others are
inactive.
• Apoptosis
o Normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and
controlled
o In some adult tissues, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between
developing fingers and toes. Damaged or
potentially dangerous cells, virus-infected
cells, and potential cancer cells are also
eliminated by apoptosis.
o Regulated by specific genes. The
proteins coded for by those genes initiate
events within the cell that ultimately lead
to the cell’s death.

MACUTO, N-J 10 | P a g e