Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lesson 1
• Volcanoes, Eartquakes, and
Mountain Ranges
Lesson Objectives:
• describe and relate the distribution of active volcanoes,
earthquake epicenters, and major mountain belts to
Plate Tectonic Theory
1
Introduction
Our territory is traversed by the Pacific Ring of Fire. As a result, there are numerous
earthquakes and numerous gorgeous but dangerous volcanoes.
The crust, mantle, inner, and outer cores of our planet are made up of diverse
components. The lithosphere, which is made up of the crust and upper mantle, will be the
focus of this module.
Earth's Crust
The lithosphere is supposed to move constantly but slowly. These motions aren't uniform
across the board. Tectonics refers to the movement of the lithosphere.
The Plate Tectonics Theory states that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into multiple
parts called plates (see Figure 1). The arrows indicate the plate movement direction,
whereas the other lines are fault lines.
Figure 1. Moving Plate soft the Earth
2
VOLCANO
A volcano is a hill or mountain formed by the eruption of lava or rock fragments from a
magma source beneath it.
Volcanic eruption undergoes two processes before eruption:
1. Melting of rock masses
2. Movement of this
10km below the earth's
magma toward the earth's
surface to produce
surface.
magma.
•determines
the
initial
•controls
the
nature
and
temperature
and timing
of
eruption.
composition
of
the
magma.
The Philippines has a unique tectonic context that is conducive for the creation of
volcanoes. Subducting plates encircle the archipelago, as seen by the trenches associated
with volcano creation.
Classification of Volcanoes (According to Physical form)
1. • Shield volcanoes are so named Example:
Lava, Dome or because of their form. Shield volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes are not particularly steep, although Mauna Loa Volcano
they can be rather massive. At and Mauna Kea
spreading centers or intraplate hot Volcano (world's
zones, shield volcanoes are common. tallest volcano) in
• The lava that forms shield volcanoes is Hawaii
fluid and easily flows. The shield is
formed by the expanding lava. Many
layers of shield volcanoes are
developed over time, and the layers
are usually of similar composition.
Shield eruptions are also non-explosive
due to their low viscosity.
2. Composite • Made of felsic to intermediate rock. Mt. Fuji, the
volcanic cones The viscosity of the lava means that highest mountain
eruptions at these volcanoes are often in Japan, is a
explosive dormant composite
volcano.
3
3. • Simplest type of volcano. Taal Volcano
Cinder cones • Volcanoes of this class are the most
common. The shape of a cinder cone is
similar to that of a composite volcano,
although it is much smaller. Cinder
cones are rarely taller than 300
meters, but they have steep slopes.
Cinder cones grow quickly, often
during a single eruption cycle. Cinder
cones are made up of small rock
fragments heaped on top of one
another, such as pumice. The boulder
flies through the air and lands not far
from the vent. The composition of the
lava erupted by the volcano
determines the specific composition of
a cinder cone. A crater is common on
the summit of cinder cones.
• Cinder cones are often found near
larger volcanoes.
4. Supervolcanoes • In the history of the Earth, eruptions The largest
are extremely infrequent. It's a good supervolcano in
thing, too, because they're enormous. North America is
A supervolcano must spew more than beneath
1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cubic Yellowstone
miles) of material, compared to 1.2 National Park in
km3 for Mount St. Helens and 25 km3 Wyoming.
for Mount Pinatubo, the Philippines' Yellowstone sits
1991 major eruption. Supervolcanoes, above a hotspot
unsurprisingly, are the most hazardous that has erupted
type of volcano. catastrophically
• In the field of volcanology, three times: 2.1
supervolcanoes are a relatively recent million, 1.3 million,
concept. It's still unclear what causes and 640,000 years
supervolcano eruptions. Scientists ago.
believe, however, that a massive
magma chamber bursts in a single
catastrophic explosion. This forms a
massive hole, or caldera, into which
the surface of the earth collapses.
4
Volcanic Hazards- are volcanic-related phenomena that pose potential threat or cause
negative impact to man, property and the environment in a given period of time.
Volcanoes represent a constantly changing array of risks, and each one is unique. Some
erupt with terrifying force, such as Mount St. Helens in 1980. Other volcanoes, such as
Kilauea, pour streams of lava down their flanks, as happened during the 2018 eruption.
And these dangers can lead to a slew of other problems, such as fires and debris flows.
The following are just a few of the many dangers that volcanoes can bring:
1. Lava flows: These molten rock rivers are tremendously hot. Lava flows can reach
temperatures of over 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which is hot enough to melt copper,
depending on its composition. The viscosity of the lava, which determines how quickly it
flows, is also affected by temperature and chemistry. While some people can be easily out
walked, others go at a breakneck pace. Kilauea erupted in 2018, flowing lava at a rate of
15 miles per hour near the vent, quicker than the great majority of people could run.
2. Volcanic Projectiles: Hot rock shards are hurled from active vents and volcanic
craters. Lava bombs are defined as anything larger than 2.5 inches in diameter. While
reports of refrigerator-sized lava bombs during Kilauea's 2018 eruption were exaggerated,
these flaming chunks can span several yards. Even little volcanic projectiles can cause fires,
break bones, and melt human flesh when temperatures are extremely high.
3.
Pyroclastic flows: Blistering-hot avalanches of gasses, boulders, and volcanic ash can
bury structures, cause flames, and destroy everything in their path as they slide down a
volcano's slopes. They are exceedingly fast, with some reaching speeds of up to 450 mph.
Even uphill or across water, pyroclastic flows can travel. Volcanoes that create such flows
pose a serious threat. Pyroclastic flows, for example, abundant during the famed eruption
of Mount Vesuvious in 79 A.D., which wreaked havoc on the city of Pompeii, Italy.
4. Lahars or debris flows: According to the USGS, lahars or debris flows are a hot or
cold slurry of water and rock fragments that pours down a volcano's slopes like "rivers of
concrete." These are commonly found following valleys or river channels and can move at
breakneck speeds. While a lahar may begin small, it can quickly expand as it travels,
bringing any debris it comes across.
5. Toxic gases: Such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen
chloride, are also released by volcanoes. Sulfur dioxide, for example, is extremely corrosive
and can irritate the skin, eyes, and respiratory systems of unwitting bystanders. The gasses
can be deadly in rare cases: in 1986, a surge of carbon dioxide spilled out of Africa's
volcanic Lake Nyos, engulfing a nearby hamlet and killing hundreds of people and cattle.
6. Volcanic ash: Unlike the fluffy particles that linger after a campfire, is made up of
microscopic rock fragments and shards of glass. It is harmful to the lungs and can form a
thick blanket over adjacent towns, collapsing the roofs of certain buildings. Ash can also
rocket thousands of feet into the air and fall down for kilometers, posing a threat to people
living far away from an active volcano.
5
EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is a sudden vibration within the lithosphere from a quick release of energy
which results in the movement of rock due to folding or faulting.
Causes
Earthquakes can occur for many reasons. The ground can shake from the eruption of a
volcano, the collapse of a cavern, or even from the impact of a meteor. However, the
major cause of earthquakes is the stress that builds up between two lithospheric plates.
Most of the time, a friction between the plates prevents movement along the plate
boundary. Instead, the stresses cause the plates to deform, or change shape. Eventually,
the stresses become great enough to overcome the frictional forces, and the plates
suddenly move. This movement causes an earthquake. The plates then snap back to the
shapes they had before they were deformed but at new locations relative to each other.
This explanation for the cause of an earthquake is called the elastic-rebound theory and is
fundamental to understanding of earthquakes.
Source of Earthquake
1. Tectonic-earthquakes produces by sudden movement along faults and plate
boundaries.
2. Volcanic- earthquakes produces by the movement of magma beneath volcanoes.
Earthquakes are describes or measured in two ways:
Magnitude refers to the energy waves released during an earthquake. This is based on
the readings of a seismograph, and by examining the actual energy waves.
Richter scale is one of the most popular scales used to measure earthquake magnitude.
6
Intensity is defined as the strength od seismic shaking at a given location. In general, the
areas closest to the epicenter experience the highest intensities, and shaking diminishes in
strength farther away. This phenomenon is the result of seismic-wave attenuation, which is
the reduction in wave amplitude and wave energy as they travel away from their source.
There are several scales to measure earthquake intensity, such as the Original
Rossi-Forel Scale of Earthquake Intensities, the Adapted Rossi-Forel Scale of Earthquake
Intensities and the 1956 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. However, the Philippines
Department of Science and Technology-Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
developed its own intensity scale, which is the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale which
is more suitable for geographic conditions in the Philippines.
The Philippine Earthquake Intensity Scale
7
Earthquake Hazards
1. Ground rupture- The movement of the ground along one side of a Fault relative to the
other side.
2. Ground shaking- General term referring to the qualitative or quantitative aspects of
the movement of the Earth's surface from earthquakes. Ground motion is produced by
waves that are generated by a sudden slip on a fault or sudden pressure at the explosive
source and travel through the Earth and along its surface.
3. Liquefaction- A phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a soil are reduced
by earthquake shaking or other rapid loading.
4. Tsunami- are long period sea waves or wave trains that are generated by the under-
the-sea earthquake. Most tsunamis are caused by fault displacements on the sea floor and
of volcanic sudden displacement of water. They travel at high speed water as low broad
waves and build to great heights as they approach the shore. Origins would be volcanic or
volcano-tectonic earthquakes, explosions collapse or subsidence, landslides, lahars,
pyroclastic flows or debris avalanches entering bodies of water, and atmospheric waves
that couple with the sea.
5. Landslides or mass wasting.
6. Fire, diseases and famine.
Map of major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
8
Map of major mountain ranges
Map of active volcanoes in the ring of fire
Keep in mind that plates are always moving. Important geologic processes, such as the
development of major mountain ranges, active volcanoes, and earthquake epicenters,
occur as they interact along their borders. It means that where earthquakes occur, crusts
can either meet or separate, forming mountains and volcanoes.
Earthquakes may occur as a result of plate movements at a place where Plate Tectonics is
particularly obvious. Earthquakes can happen anywhere, on land or under water, at any
moment. On land, earthquakes can be caused by tectonic plate movement or volcanic
eruptions. Earthquakes beneath the sea can create tsunamis. Our country, the Philippines,
is situated in the Ring of Fire, a region characterized by strong Plate Tectonics. A long chain
of volcanoes and other tectonically active objects surrounds the Pacific Ocean. With regular
earthquakes and large volcanic eruptions, the Ring of Fire is one of the world's most
geologically active zones.
9
Enrichment resources:
To further understand the topic please watch the following videos.
VOLCANO 101: https://youtu.be/uZp1dNybgfc
Mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes: https://youtu.be/S9ty-ta1wyI
References:
Signey,
P.,
Christopher
Santos
Sicat,
&
Damaso,
W.
(2014).
Earth
Science.
Jimczyville Publications.
10