1.

Carbohydrates

Digestion of carbohydrates start from mouth. Presence of food stimulates secretion of saliva
from salivary glands. Salivary amylase (6.5-7.5) from saliva hydrolyses starch into maltose.

Salivary amylase hydrolyses starch into maltose.

Bolus is formed and moved by peristalsis in the oesophagus until it reaches stomach.
Carbohydrate is not digested in the stomach because salivary amylase action is stopped by
hydrochloric acid. Semifluid called chyme is formed in stomach and enters duodenum when
sphincter muscle relaxes. Duodenum receives bile produced by liver which flows through bile
duct and receives pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas. Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice
contained pancreatic amylase, lipase and trypsin.

Pancreatic amylase hydrolyses starch into maltose.

Glands on the ileum wall secretes intestinal juice that contains sucrase, maltase, Erepsin, lactase
and lipase.

Maltose is hydrolysed by maltase into glucose.

Sucrose is hydrolysed by sucrase into glucose and fructose.

Lactose is hydrolysed by lactase into glucose and galactose.

In the small intestine, ileum absorbs nutrients from digested food. Fructose is absorbed via
facilitated diffusion by epithelial cells of villus into blood capillaries. While glucose and galactose
are actively transported by epithelial cells of villus into blood capillaries.

The blood capillaries in small intestine combines to form hepatic portal vein that transport blood
to liver. Glucose is transported to liver and body cells by blood circulatory system to be
assimilated.

Glucose in liver is used for cellular respiration. Excess glucose will be stored in liver in the form of
glycogen. Glycogen will be converted into glucose when glucose level in blood decreases and
when body needs energy. When glycogen supply reached maximum level, glycogen will be
converted to fat.

2. Protein

Digestion of protein starts from the stomach. Epithelial cells lined on surface of stomach to form
gastric glands secretes pepsinogen, hydrochloric acid and mucus. Hydrochloric acid activates
pepsinogen, which is an inactive enzyme to form pepsin.

Protein is hydrolysed by pepsin into polypeptides.

Semifluid called chyme is formed in stomach via peristaltic action of stomach wall. Chyme enters
duodenum when sphincter muscle relaxes. Duodenum receives bile produced by liver which
flows through bile duct and receives pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas. Pancreas secretes
pancreatic juice contained pancreatic amylase, lipase and trypsin.

Polypeptide is hydrolysed by trypsin into peptides.

Glands on the ileum wall secretes intestinal juice that contains sucrase, maltase, Erepsin, lactase and
lipase.

Peptides is hydrolysed by Erepsin into amino acids.

In the small intestine, ileum absorbs nutrients from digested food. Amino acid is actively transported
via epithelial cells of villus into blood capillaries. The blood capillaries in small intestine combines to
form hepatic portal vein that transport blood to liver. Amino acid is assimilated in liver and body
cells.

In liver, amino acid is synthesised to form plasma protein and enzyme. Excess amino acid cannot be
stored in body and are broken down to form urea via deamination to be expelled. Amino acid is
converted to glucose when glucose supply is insufficient.

In cells, amino acid is used to form new protoplasm and repair damaged tissues. Amino acid is also
used to synthesise hormones and enzymes.

3. Lipid

Lipid digestion starts in the duodenum. Duodenum receives bile produced by liver which flows
through bile duct and receives pancreatic juice secreted by pancreas. Pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice contained pancreatic amylase, lipase and trypsin.

Lipid is hydrolysed by lipase into fatty acid and glycerol.

Glands on the ileum wall secretes intestinal juice that contains sucrase, maltase, Erepsin, lactase and
lipase.

Lipid is hydrolysed by lipase into fatty acid and glycerol.

In the small intestine, ileum absorbs nutrients from digested food. Fatty acid and glycerol recombine
via condensation process to form tiny droplets of lipids in the epithelial cells. Fatty acid and glycerol
are absorbed via simple diffusion by epithelial cells into lacteal.

Lacteals combine to form larger lymph vessel in the lymphatic system. Contents of lymphatic vessel
enter thoracic duct that flows into left subclavian vein. Then, lipid is transported by blood
throughout body.

Lipid assimilation occurs in body cells. Lipid such as phospholipid and cholesterol are primary
components to build plasma membrane. Excess fat is stored in adipose tissues underneath skin as
stored energy. Fat is oxidised to release energy when glucose is insufficient.