1. Why multicellular cannot undergo substance exchange via diffusion between environment?

Because the cells are too far away from environment.

2. Why unicellular can undergo substance exchange via diffusion between environment?

Because the cells are in the environment.

3. How complex multicellular cells get essential substances?

Internal transportation system

4. Transportation system of vertebrae

Blood circulatory system

5. Circulatory system in multicellular organisms

Open circulatory system and closed circulatory system

6. What is haemolymph

Blood-like nutritious liquid found in invertebrates

7. What happen in open circulatory system

Haemolymph flows directly from heart to haemocoel to bath the cells

8. What happen in closed circulatory system

Blood is always contained in continuous closed blood vessel and is distributed to whole body.

Substance exchange that are essential to body occurs across wall of blood capillaries.

9. Circulatory system for insects

Open circulatory system

10. Circulatory system for fish, amphibians and human

Closed circulatory system

11. Characteristics of open circulatory system

One or more heart pumps haemolymph to haemocoel via blood vessels.

12. Tiny openings of insect

Ostium

13. What does gill capillaries carry

carry blood to blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood to systemic capillaries.

14. Blood vessel that transports deoxygenated blood to heart atrium

Veins
 15. Detail circulatory system of

Insects Open circulatory system

Fish Single circulatory system
Amphibians Incomplete double circulatory system
Human Complete double circulatory system
16. Heart cavity of

Insects Made up of many cavity segments

Fish Two chambers: one atrium and one ventricle
Amphibians Three chambers: two atria and one ventricle
Human Four chambers: two atria and two ventricles
17. Direction of blood flow

Insects -
Fish One
Amphibians Two
Human Two

18. Differences and similarities

Pulmonary/Pulmocutaneous circulation Systemic circulation

Transport blood to lung and skin(amphibians) Transport blood to body tissues (then back to heart)
Deoxygenated blood is transported via pulmonary artery Deoxygenated blood is transported via vena cava
Oxygenated blood is transported via pulmonary vein Oxygenated blood is transported via aorta
Ventricle pumps blood
Deoxygenated blood return to right atrium (via vein for fish)
+flows into right ventricle(human)/ventricle(amphibians)
-pumps blood to lung via pulmonary artery
Oxygenated blood return to left atrium (via artery for fish)
+flows into left ventricle(human)/ventricle(amphibians)
-pumps blood to whole body via aorta

19.

Incomplete double circulation system (amphibians) Complete double circulation system (human)
Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are mixed in the ventricle. Oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood do not mix.
-most of oxygenated blood remain on left side of ventricle
-most of deoxygenated blood remain on right side of ventricle

20. Main components in human circulatory system -3

Blood, heart and blood vessels

21.

22. Where is heart located

 Between lung in thorax cavity

23. Heart cavities of human

Four chambers: right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle and left ventricle

24. Muscular wall to separate left chamber and right chamber

Septum

25. Function of atrium

Receives blood then return to heart

26. Function of ventricle

Pump blood out of heart

27. Characteristics of ventricle

Thicker walls and contract harder than atrium

28. Why muscular wall of left ventricle is thicker than right ventricle

Because left ventricle has to generate greater pressure to pump blood out of aorta to whole
body, while right ventricle only has to pump blood to lungs.

29. Function of coronary arteries

Transport oxygenated blood for heart tissues

30. Function of coronary veins

Transport deoxygenated blood

31. Main blood artery

Aorta

32. Main blood vein

Vena cava

33. Functions of heart section

Aorta Transport oxygenated blood to whole body

Vena cava Transport deoxygenated blood back to heart
Pulmonary vein Transport oxygenated blood from lungs to heart
Pulmonary artery Transport deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs
Septum Separate left chamber and right chamber of heart
Ensure oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood do not mix
Semilunar valve Ensure blood that flow out of heart do not flow back to ventricle when ventricle relaxes
Tricuspid valve Ensure blood that flow into right ventricle do not flow back to right atrium
Bicuspid valve Ensure blood that flow into left ventricle do not flow back to left atrium
34.

Tricuspid valve Bicuspid valve

3 leaflets 2 leaflets
 Between right atrium and right ventricle Between left atrium and left ventricle
35. Location of semilunar valve

Base of pulmonary artery and base of aorta

36. Composition of human blood

55% plasma, 45% cell components (1% leucocytes and platelets + 44% RBC)

37. What is plasma

Medium of transportation in body

38. Component of blood cells -4

Plasma, leucocyte, erythrocyte and platelets

39. Component of blood plasma -5

Water, plasma protein, solutes (nutrients and excretory substances), hormones and enzymes

40.

41. Blood cell types -3

Erythrocytes, leucocytes, platelet

42.

43. Types of leucocytes

Granulocyte Neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil

Agranulocyte Lymphocyte, monocyte
 44.

45. What is found in haemoglobin -3

Polypeptide, iron and oxygen

Heme group which consists of iron atom as a binding site for oxygen.

46. Types of human vessels -3

Human vessels Artery Capillaries Veins

What is Blood vessels that
transport blood out form
heart
Function Quickly transport blood at
high pressure to tissues
Blood pressure High (due to pumping
action of heart)
Wall Thick, muscular & elastic
(expands when receive
blood from heart)
-elastic to prevent artery to
break due to high pressure
blood flow
Lumen Small
Direction of blood flow Heart to whole body
Valve No, except semilunar valve
Main part Aorta
Special characteristics -Branch out into small
vessel called arterioles
when reach body tissues
-Continue to branch out
until ends at capillaries
-Group of capillaries called
One cell thick blood vessel
with thin wall
Allow exchange of gases to
occur between blood and
cells via diffusion
Low
One cell thick, non-muscular
& not elastic
Very tiny
Artery to vein
No
- Vena cava
Nutrient, hormones and
excretory substances diffuse
through blood capillaries.
Combination of venules, a
rejointing of capillaries to
form larger blood vessels.
Transport blood back to heart
Very low
Thin, less muscular and
less elastic
Large
Whole body to heart
Yes, maintain one-way
blood flow
Vena cava is main vein that
carries deoxygenated blood
back to heart.
 capillaries network

47. Characteristics of heart muscle -5

Made up of cardiac muscles: muscles intersect and connects with one another

Allows electric impulses to spread rapidly through heart

Stimulated cardiac muscle tissues to contract simultaneously and uniformly

Cardiac muscles are myogenic: heart contracts and relaxes without receiving nerve impulses

Cardiac muscles contract and relax if stored in a warm container with nutrient

48. What is a pacemaker

Group of specific heart muscle cells that initiates the heart contraction rate which locates on the
right atrium wall.

49. Function of pacemaker -2

Initiate and coordinate heart contraction

Generates electrical impulses that spreads rapidly through both walls of atrium and causes the
atrium to contract rhythmically.

50. Location of pacemaker

Right atrium wall

51. Main pacemaker

Sinoatrial node (SA)

52. “Lub” sound

Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valve

53. “Dub” sound

Closure of semilunar valve

54. Blood flow of vein is assisted by -2

Contraction of smooth muscles in venule and vein walls

Contraction of skeletal muscles around veins

(Presses and constrict veins, causing valve to open and allow blood flow to heart)

55. Meaning of myogenic

Heart contracts and relaxes without receiving nerve impulses

56. Why person who stands too long may faint

 Blood flow back to heart requires contraction of skeletal muscles around veins. If someone
stands on feet too long, less oxygen flows to brain, hence less oxygen and glucose are
transported to brain, causing a person to pass out.

57. Why person after donating blood may faint

After donating blood, reduction of blood especially in brain may cause nausea and faints.

58. Mechanism of blood clotting -5

Prothrombin (inactive plasma protein), thrombin (active plasma protein -acts as enzyme),
thrombokinase, fibrinogen and fibrin. PTTFF

59. How is thrombokinase formed

Formation of coagulated platelets, damaged cells and clotting factors in blood plasma

60. What aids thrombokinase to convert prothrombin to thrombin

Calcium ions and vitamin K

61. Function of thrombin -2

Acts as an enzyme

Catalyses conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin

62. Characteristics and function of fibrin

Threadlike protein fibre that forms a network on wound surface

Traps erythrocyte and close wound to prevent blood lost

63. Health issues related to blood clotting -3

Haemophilia, thrombosis, embolism

64. Explain health issues related to blood clotting

Haemophilia: prevent blood clot, lack of clotting factor in blood, excessive bleeding due to small
wounds or bruises (may cause death)

Thrombosis: thrombus formation, cause blood vessel damage and sluggish blood flow
(accumulation of clotting factor)

Embolism: blood clot transported by blood flow (embolus) is stuck in tiny blood vessel causing
blood flow to stop

65. Explain why blood clots in blood vessel can cause heart attack

If blood clot formed in coronary artery, the cardiac muscles may die or suffer permanent
damage due to lack of oxygen supply which leads to heart attack.

66. In what condition agglutination will occur

Blood group of both donor and recipient are not compatible

67.
68. What is rhesus factor (Rh factor)

Antigen found on RBC (red blood cell) surface

69. Explain Rh-negative and Rh-positive

Rh-negative: red blood cells with no Rh factor or antigen D

Rh-positive: red blood cells with Rh factor or antigen D

70. What will happen if Rh-n and Rh-p blood mixed

Agglutination occurs which may cause death.

Blood of recipient reacts by producing Rhesus antibody or anti-D antibody

71. Rhesus factor of mother and father to face rhesus problems

Rh-negative mother and Rh-positive father

72. Will the first child be affected by rhesus factor?

No

73. Why?

Because concentration of antibodies produced is not enough to affect the first child.

74. What will last in circulatory system of mother after having first child

Anti-D antibodies/rhesus antibody

75. Will the second child face problems of rhesus factor?

Yes

76. Symptom of disease where red blood cells of foetus is destroyed

Erythroblastosis fetalis (haemolysis of fetal’s red blood cells)

77. Why RBC of foetus is destroyed

Mother’s blood with anti-D antibody/rhesus antibody crosses the placenta into the fetal blood
circulatory system

78. How to overcome this problem

Replace blood of baby with rhesus negative blood through blood transfusion
79. What will the baby suffer from in less serious situation?

Anaemia (pin xue) and mental retardation

80. Treatment for affected mother with rhesus-negative

Anti-rhesus globulin is given after first pregnancy to stop production of anti-D antibodies/rhesus
antibodies

81. Ways to ensure healthy circulatory system -4

Balanced intake of food that is low in fat

Exercise regularly

Do not smoke

Do not drink alcohol

82. Cardiovascular disease -6

Atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, hypertension, stroke, angina and myocardial infarction.

83.
84. What does lymphatic system do?

Formation of tissue fluid

85. Blood plasma condition at end of venule in blood capillaries -2

Hypertonic compared to tissue fluid

Low blood pressure

86. What happen to fluid produced (100%)

85% -diffuses back into venule end

15% -left in intercellular space

87. What happen to lost fluid (15%)

Collected and returned to blood via lymphatic capillary

88. Lymphatic capillary is…

Smallest vessel in lymphatic system

89. Colour of fluid-lymph

Pale yellow

90.
91. Characteristics of lymphatic capillary -4

Wall consists of one layer of cells only

Differs from blood capillary because one of its ends is blocked or closed while the other end is
connected to the lymphatic vessel

Found in intercellular spaces merge to form a larger lymphatic vessel

Lymph nodes at certain distances are found along lymphatic vessel

92. Organs of lymphatic system -6

Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, bone marrow, appendix and tonsils. BALTTS

93. Aid for lymph flow -4

Heartbeat pulse, contraction of skeletal muscles, peristalsis action in digestive tract and changes
in pressure during inhalation and exhalation of breath. SHPP

94. Why lymph flow need aid

Lymphatic system does not have its own pump to circulate lymph flow through lymphatic vessels

95. What keeps lymph flow in one way

One-way valves

96. Main lymphatic vessels, where all lymph vessel joins

Thoracic duct, right lymphatic duct

97. Differences between lymphatic vessels receive lymph from

Thoracic duct Right lymphatic duct

Receives lymph from left side of head, Receives lymph from right side of head and
neck, chest and all body parts below ribs neck, right hand and chest
Transport lymph into left subclavian vein Transport lymph into right subclavian vein
98. Necessity of lymphatic system -3
 99. State the differences between the composition of blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph.

Body fluids Composition

Blood plasma Plasma and cell components
Tissue fluid Plasma without plasma proteins, erythrocytes and platelets
Lymph Plasma without plasma proteins, erythrocytes and platelets
More lipid droplets
Large number of lymphocytes produced by lymph nodes

100. After eating fatty food, the number of lipid molecules in the lymph increases by 1%.
Explain why.

Fatty acid and glycerol diffuse into lacteals in villi of small intestines. These simple molecules then
form a part of lymphatic components that are transported to the lymphatic vessel through the
lacteal. Therefore, the number of lipid molecules in lymph increases after fat-rich meal.

101. What is oedema

Condition when excess tissues fluid do not return to blood circulatory system and cause
accumulation in intercellular space, resulting in swelling of body tissues.

102. Causes of oedema -4

Pregnancy, prolonged bedridden patient, parasitic infection and deficiency in plasma protein

103. Lipid droplets or fat globules cannot diffuse into the villus blood capillary but must
diffuse through the lacteal. Explain why.

Lipid globules are too large to diffuse into blood capillaries but are able to diffuse through small
opening between epithelial cells of lymphatic capillaries. Because unlike blood capillaries,
epithelial cells forming wall of lymphatic capillaries are not continuous end to end. On the
contrary, ends of lymphatic capillary cells overlap and can open like a one-way door to allow
tissue fluid diffusion.
104. Name one example of nutrient found in blood and how the nutrient can be
transported to cells.

Glucose. Heart pumps blood from artery to blood capillaries. Arterial diameter is larger than
capillaries. This produces high hydrostatic pressure to force glucose to diffuse from blood
capillaries into interstitial spaces to form tissue fluid. Glucose concentration in fluid is higher
than cells. Glucose diffuses into cells via facilitated diffusion.

105. Effect if one lymphatic vessel is clogged

Tissue fluid will accumulate in blocked vessels and cannot be returned to blood circulatory
system. Individual suffers from oedema.