Ecological Framework of Sustainable Development
I. Ecology of Life
ESC 20: Environmental Science and Engineering
Lecture 1: Ecological Framework of Sustainable Development
Karl Adrian Gandionco
College of Engineering
Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan
Ecology of Life
Ecology is the science that deals with the relationships
between living organisms with their physical Biosphere
environment and with each other. The assemblage of regions of the Earth that
supports life.
Biomes
A group of closely related ecosystems.
Ecosystems
A sizable interacting system composed of
living organisms and their physical
environment.
Biotic factors
Organisms and their products (secretions,
wastes, and remains).
Abiotic factors
They include rainfall, temperature, light,
water, wind, chemical nutrients, pH, salinity,
and fire.
Energy and Mass Flows
II. Biogeochemical Cycles
a. Carbon cycle
b. Nitrogen cycle
c. Phosphorus cycle
d. Sulfur cycle
e. Oxygen cycle
Part 1.
f. Hydrogen cycle
Ecology of Life
III. Different Biomes
a. Aquatic Biomes
b. Terrestrial Biomes
Ecology of Life Ecology of Life
Community
A coherent assembly of populations
that inhabit the same habitat and
interact with each other.
Population
A population consists of all the
members of a species living in a given
area at the same time. It is an
interbreeding reproducing group.
Habitat Characteristics of Ecosystems
Location within an ecosystem where a Ecosystems are communities of organisms
that interact with one another and with their 1. Can vary greatly in size
population actually lives and thrives.
physical environment, including sunlight, 2. There is a flux of matter
rainfall, and soil nutrients. 3. Can change naturally or anthropogenically over time
4. Can be natural or artificial
Energy and Mass Flows Trophic Levels
The position an organism occupies in a food chain is called its trophic level.
Energy enters, flows through, and exits an ecosystem,
whereas chemical nutrients cycle within it. Energy (dark
orange arrows) entering from the sun as radiation is
transferred as chemical energy through the food web;
each of these units of energy ultimately exits as heat
radiated into space. Most transfers of nutrients (blue
arrows) through the food web lead eventually to detritus;
the nutrients then cycle back to the primary producers.
Food Chain
Food chain is the sequence of transfers of matter from
organism to organism.
The transfer of chemical energy from its source in plants and
other autotrophs (primary producers) through herbivores
(primary consumers) to carnivores (secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary consumers) and eventually to decomposers is
referred to as a food chain.
Biogeochemical Cycles
Because nutrient cycles involve both biotic and
abiotic components, they are called
biogeochemical cycles. We can recognize two
general scales of biogeochemical cycles: global
and local. Gaseous forms of carbon, oxygen,
sulfur, and nitrogen occur in the atmosphere, and
these elements’ cycles are essentially global. For
example, some of the carbon atoms a plant
acquires from the air as CO2 may have been
released into the atmosphere by the respiration of
an organism in a distant locale. Other elements—
including phosphorus, potassium, and calcium—
are too heavy to occur as gases at Earth’s
surface, although they are transported in dust. In
terrestrial ecosystems, these elements cycle
more locally, absorbed from the soil by plant
roots and eventually returned to the soil by
decomposers. In aquatic systems, however, they
cycle more broadly as dissolved forms carried in
currents.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen cycle, circulation of nitrogen in
various forms through nature. Nitrogen, a
component of proteins and nucleic acids, is
essential to life on Earth. Although 78
percent by volume of the atmosphere is
nitrogen gas, this abundant reservoir exists
in a form unusable by most organisms.
Through a series of microbial
transformations, however, nitrogen is made
available to plants, which in turn ultimately
sustain all animal life. The steps, which are
not altogether sequential, fall into the
following classifications: nitrogen fixation,
nitrogen assimilation, ammonification,
nitrification, and denitrification.
Food Web
Food webs consist of many interconnected food chains and are more realistic representation of
consumption relationships in ecosystems.
Part 2.
Biogeochemical Cycles
The Carbon Cycle The Carbon Cycle
Carbon cycle, in biology, circulation of carbon in various forms through nature. Although carbon is only
the 14th by weight in abundance on earth, it is by far, one of the most important elements on earth as it Humans have affected significantly the carbon cycle through the combustion of fossil fuel, the large-scale
is the building block of all organic substances and thus, of life itself. production of livestock, and the burning of forests.
• Carbon is a building block of life
• Photosynthesis is the major driving force for
the carbon cycle. Plants take up carbon
dioxide and convert it to organic matter.
• The cycling of carbon also involves the
release of carbon dioxide by combustion of
fossil fuel, animal respiration, fires, diffusion
from the oceans, weathering of rocks, and
precipitation of carbonate minerals.
• The ocean is a major sink of carbon, much
of which is found in the form of dissolved
carbon dioxide gas, and carbonate and
bicarbonate ions.
The Nitrogen Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle
Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixation
electrical
N2 (g) + O2 (g) energy 2NO (g)
2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)
2NO2 (g) + H2O (g) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)
Industrial Nitrogen Fixation
catalyst
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
NH3 + 2O2 HNO3 + H2O
NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3
The Nitrogen Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle The Phosphorus Cycle

The Phosphorus Cycle The Sulfur Cycle The Sulfur Cycle

• Phosphorus usually exists as dissolved

inorganic orthophosphate, suspended as In the environment, sulfur is found predominantly as Sulfur cycle, circulation of sulfur in various
organic colloids, adsorbed onto particulate sulfides (S2−), sulfates (SO42-), and in organic forms. forms through nature. Sulfur occurs in all living
organic and inorganic sediment, or contained in matter as a component of certain amino acids.
organic water. Natural sources It is abundant in the soil in proteins and,
through a series of microbial transformations,
• Soluble reactive inorganic orthophosphate • Volcanic eruption ends up as sulfates usable by plants.
species • Thermal vents in deep oceans
• Rocks and minerals Sulfur-containing proteins are degraded into
• During algal decomposition, phosphorus is their constituent amino acids by the action of a
returned to the inorganic form. variety of soil organisms. The sulfur of the
Until the Industrial Revolution the effect of sulfur on amino acids is converted to hydrogen sulfide
• Particulate organic phosphorus is transferred to environmental systems was quite small. (H2S) by another series of soil microbes. In the
the sediments presence of oxygen, H2S is converted to sulfur
• Use of sulfur-containing compounds as fertilizers and then to sulfate by sulfur bacteria.
• Liberation of phosphorus compounds from • Combustion of fossil fuels and in metal processing Eventually the sulfate becomes H2S.
sediments • Mining operations

The Oxygen Cycle The Oxygen Cycle The Hydrogen Cycle

Oxygen cycle, circulation of oxygen in various forms

through nature. Free in the air and dissolved in water,
oxygen is second only to nitrogen in abundance Free gaseous H2 is biologically produced during anaerobic fermentations and also as a side product of
among uncombined elements in the atmosphere. photosynthesis coupled with nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria and by Rhizobium legume associations.
Plants and animals use oxygen to respire and return it
to the air and water as carbon dioxide (CO2). Most of the H2 produced is utilized anaerobically to reduce NO3-, SO42-, Fe(III), and Mn(IV) or to generate
CH4.
CO2 is then taken up by algae and terrestrial green
plants and converted into carbohydrates during the When H2 rises through oxygenated soils or sediments, it is oxidatively metabolized to H2O, and only a
process of photosynthesis, oxygen being a by-product. small part is likely to escape to the atmosphere.
The waters of the world are the main oxygen
generators of the biosphere; their algae are estimated The aerobic utilization of H2 is performed by facultatively chemolithotrophic hydrogen bacteria:
to replace about 90 percent of all oxygen used.
Oxygen is involved to some degree in all the other
biogeochemical cycles. For example, over time,
detritus from living organisms transfers oxygen-
Atmospheric oxygen is removed through respiration and various industrial processes (mostly containing compounds such as calcium carbonates
combustion), which produce carbon dioxide. into the lithosphere.

Photosynthesis is the major mechanism by which molecular oxygen is regenerated from carbon dioxide
and water.
 Aquatic Biomes Aquatic Biomes

Part 3.
Biomes

Aquatic Biomes Aquatic Biomes Aquatic Biomes

Aquatic Biomes Aquatic Biomes Aquatic Biomes

Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes

Terrestrial Biomes Terrestrial Biomes References

1. Masten, S.J and Davis, M.L (2009). Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science. Mc-Graw
Hill Inc.

2. Urry, L.A, Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., Orr, R.B., and Campbell, N. A. (2021).
Campbell Biology (12th Edition). Pearson Education, Inc.

3. Encyclopaedia Britannica
https://www.britannica.com/science/penicillin
 Any Questions?

Should you have any questions regarding the lecture material, please feel free to contact me through my XU
email address. You can also post your questions on our eLearn virtual classroom by creating a discussion forum
on the main course section.

Thank you!
 Significant Environmental Issues Why should we worry about climate change?

a. Climate Change
b. Air Pollution
c. Ozone Depletion
d. Water Pollution
e. Eutrophication
f. Solid Waste
g. Land Degradation
ESC 20: Environmental Science and Engineering h. Resource Depletion
i. Nuclear Risks
Lecture 2: Significant Environmental Issues

Karl Adrian Gandionco

College of Engineering
Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan

Climate Change Climate Change Climate Change

Climate change encompasses global warming but refers to the broader range of changes that are
happening to our planet. These include rising sea levels, shrinking mountain glaciers, accelerating
ice melt in Greenland, Antartica and the Artic, and shifts in flower or plant blooming times.

The planet’s average surface temperature has risen about 0.9 degrees Celsius since the late 19th
Sea level rise is caused primarily by two factors related to global warming: the added water from melting
century, a change driven largely by increased carbon dioxide and other human-made emissions into the
ice sheets and the expansion of seawater.
atmosphere.

Global Warming Climate Change Carbon Dioxide Concentration in the Atmosphere

The trapping of heat near Earth’s surface by gases in the atmosphere is the greenhouse effect.
Why don’t N2 and O2 contribute to the
greenhouse effect ?
H2O + hν H2O*
CO2 + hν CO2*

N2 and O2 cannot absorb IR

radiation.

Human activities contribute greatly to the continuous increase

of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.

• Petrochemical plants
• Power plants
• Manufacturing plants
3 vibration • Transport vehicles
modes of H2O Many scientists consider an atmospheric CO2 concentration
of 450 ppm as a red line.

2 of the vibration modes of CO 2

9
Ozone Depletion Ozone Depletion Ozone Depletion

O3 production
UV Anthropogenic O3 destruction
O2 O+O
< 240 nm dynamic equilibrium UV
O + O2 + M O3 + M CFCl3 CFCl2 + Cl
UV
CF2Cl2 CF2Cl + Cl

O3 destruction
UV
UV Cl + O3 ClO + O2
O3 O + O2
O + O3 2O2 + ClO + O Cl + O2
Ozone Layer
O3 + O 2O2

Cl catalyzes the reaction

Ozone is a gas which is composed of three atoms of oxygen (O3). Ozone occurs both in the Earth’s
upper atmosphere and at ground level. Ozone can be good or bad, depending on where it is found.

Concentrations of Chlorine Monoxide and Ozone Versus Latitude Concentrations of Chlorine Monoxide and Ozone Versus Latitude Ozone Depletion (in purple) Over the South Pole

Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) provide a surface for the reaction:

HCl + ClONO2 Cl2 + HNO3

Cl2 + hν 2Cl
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
+ ClO + O Cl + O2

O3 + O 2O2

Air Pollution Indoor Pollution Indoor Pollution

Radon-222 is an alpha emitter. When it decays, it produces radioactive polonium-214 and polonium-218,
Air pollution problems may occur on three scales: micro,
which can build up to high levels in an enclosed space.
meso, and macro.

o Microscale problems The air quality in homes and in the workplace is affected by
human activities, by construction materials, and by other factors
range from those covering less than a centimeter to in our immediate environment. The common indoor pollutants are
those the size of a house or slightly larger. radon, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and
formaldehyde.
o Mesoscale problems
Radon is a member of Group 8A (the noble gases). It is an
are those of a few hectares up to the size of a city or intermediate product of the radioactive decay of uranium-238.
county.
Since the 1970s, high levels of radon have been detected in
o Macroscale problems homes built on reclaimed land above uranium mill tailing
deposits.
extend from counties to states, nations, and in the
broadest sense, the globe.

Sources of Background Radiation

Indoor Pollution Indoor Pollution Indoor Pollution

Carbon monoxide and Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide and Carbon dioxide Formaldehyde

Carbon dioxide is not a toxic gas, but it does have an
The indoor sources of these gases are gas cooking ranges, woodstoves, space heaters,
asphyxiating effect. In airtight buildings, the concentration of
tobacco smoke, human respiration, and exhaust fumes from cars (in garages).
CO2 can reach as high as 2000 ppm by volume (compared
with 3 ppm outdoors).
Carbon monoxide is also a colorless and odorless gas, but it
differs from CO2 in that it is highly poisonous. The toxicity of
CO lies in its unusual ability to bind very strongly to
hemoglobin, the oxygen carrier in blood. A small amount of
CO intake can cause drowsiness and headache; death may
result when about half the hemoglobin molecules are
complexed with CO.
Both O2 and CO bind to the Fe(II) ion in hemoglobin, but the
affinity of hemoglobin for CO is about 200 times greater than
that for O2 (see Chapter 25). Hemoglobin molecules with
tightly bound CO (called carboxyhemoglobin) cannot carry the
oxygen needed for metabolic processes.
Formaldehyde (CH2O) is a rather disagreeable-smelling
liquid used as a preservative for laboratory specimens.
Industrially, formaldehyde resins are used as bonding
agents in building and furniture construction materials such
as plywood and particle board. In addition, urea-formaldehyde
insulation foams are used to fill wall cavities.
The resins and foams slowly break down to release free
formaldehyde, especially under acid and humid conditions.
Low concentrations of formaldehyde in the air can cause
drowsiness, nausea, headaches, and other respiratory
ailments. Laboratory tests show that breathing high
concentrations of formaldehyde can induce cancers in
animals, but whether it has a similar effect in humans is
unclear. The safe standard of formaldehyde in indoor air has
been set at 0.1 ppm by volume.

Acid Rain Acid Rain Acid Rain

SO2 (g) + OH (g) HOSO2 (g)

HOSO2 (g) + O2 (g) HO2 (g) + SO3 (g)
It is estimated that volcanoes are the source of about two-thirds of the sulfur in the air.
SO3 (g) + H2O (g) H2SO4 (g)
At high temperatures, the hydrogen sulfide gas given off by a volcano is oxidized by air:

2H2S (g) + 3O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

Some of the SO2 is reduced by more H2S from the volcano to elemental sulfur and water:

2H2S (g) + SO2 (g) 3S (s) + 2H2O (g)

The rest of the SO2 is released into the atmosphere, where it reacts with water to form acid rain
An active volcano emits gases, liquids, and solids. The gases spewed into the atmosphere include (H2SO4). Mean
primarily N2, CO2, HCl, HF, H2S, and water vapor. H2SO4 aerosols have a local cooling effect on the precipitati
atmosphere. In addition to destroying ozone in the stratosphere, sulfuric acid aerosols can also affect on pH in
climate. Because the stratosphere is above the atmospheric weather patterns, the aerosol clouds often 1994
persist for more than a year. They absorb solar radiation and thereby cause a drop in temperature at
Earth’s surface. However, this cooling effect is local rather than global, because it depends on the site
and frequency of volcanic eruptions.

Acid Rain Acid Rain Water Pollution

Throughout history, the quality of drinking water has been a factor in determining human
CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) welfare. Fecal pollution of drinking water has frequently caused waterborne diseases that
have decimated the populations of whole cities.
2CaCO3 (s) + 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2CaSO4 (s) + CO2 (g)

The Effect of Acid Rain on the Marble Statue of George

Washington (New York City). Photos Taken in 1944 and Unwholesome water polluted by sewage has caused great hardship for people forced to drink
1994 it or use it for irrigation.
Water Pollution Water Pollution Water Pollution

An on-going concern with water safety now is the potential presence of chemical pollutants.
These may include organic chemicals, inorganics, and heavy metals from industrial, urban
runoff, and agricultural sources.

Important Trace Elements in Natural Waters

General Types of Water Pollutants

Eutrophication Eutrophication Eutrophication

Eutrophication, derived from a Greek word meaning “well-nourished”, describes a condition of lakes or
reservoirs involving excess algal growth.
The first step in eutrophication of a body of water is an input of nutrients from watershed runoff or
Dead biomass accumulates in the bottom of the lake, where it partially decays, recycling nutrient carbon
sewage. dioxide, phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium. If the lake is not too deep, bottom-rooted plants begin to
grow, accelerating the accumulation of solid material in the basin. Eventually a marsh is formed, which
finally fills in to produce a meadow or forest.

Although some algal productivity is necessary to support the food chain in an aquatic ecosystem, excess The nutrient-rich body of water then produces a great deal of plant biomass by photosynthesis, along
growth under eutrophic conditions may eventually lead to severe deterioration of the body of water. with a smaller amount of animal biomass.

Solid Waste Solid Waste Land Degradation

Solid waste includes any discarded item, things destined for reuse, recycle, or reclamation,
sludges, and hazardous wastes (US EPA).

Land degradation is caused by multiple

forces, including extreme weather
conditions, particularly drought. It is also
caused by human activities that pollute or
degrade the quality of soils and land
utility. It negatively affects food
production, livelihoods, and the
production and provision of other
ecosystem goods and services.
Desertification is a form of land
degradation by which fertile land
becomes desert.

Composition of Municipal Solid Waste

Land Degradation Resource Depletion Nuclear Risks

What are the threats to land integrity? Resource depletion is the consumption of a resource Natural Background
Land degradation has accelerated during the 20th and 21st centuries due to increasing and combined faster than it can be replenished. Natural resources are
pressures of agricultural and livestock production (over-cultivation, overgrazing, forest conversion), commonly divided between renewable resources and non- People are exposed to natural radiation from
urbanization, deforestation and extreme weather events such as droughts and coastal surges, which renewable resources (see also mineral resource cosmic, terrestrial, and internal sources.
salinate land. classification). Use of either of these forms of resources
beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be Cosmic radiation is a type of radiation that
resource depletion. The value of a resource is a direct originates outside of our atmosphere. This radiation
What does land degradation mean for the planet? result of its availability in nature and the cost of extracting consists predominately, if not entirely, of protons
These social and environmental processes are stressing the world's arable lands and pastures essential the resource, the more a resource is depleted the more whose energy spectrum peaks in the range of 1 to
for the provision of food and water and quality air. Land degradation and desertification can affect human the value of the resource increases. There are several 2 GeV.
health through complex pathways. As land is degraded and deserts expand in some places, food types of resource depletion, the most known being:
production is reduced, water sources dry up and populations are pressured to move to more hospitable Aquifer depletion, deforestation, mining for fossil fuels and
areas. minerals, pollution or contamination of resources, slash-
and-burn agricultural practices, soil erosion, and
What effect does desertification on human health? overconsumption, excessive or unnecessary use of
The potential impacts of desertification on health include: resources.

higher threats of malnutrition from reduced food and water supplies; more water- and food-borne Resource depletion is most commonly used in reference
diseases that result from poor hygiene and a lack of clean water; respiratory diseases caused by to farming, fishing, mining, water usage, and consumption
atmospheric dust from wind erosion and other air pollutants; the spread of infectious diseases as of fossil fuels. Depletion of wildlife populations is called
populations migrate. defaunation.

Nuclear Risks Nuclear Risks Nuclear Risks

Radioactive Wastes
Internal Radiation
Terrestrial radiation exposure comes from the 50 There are three principal sources of radioactive wastes: reactors and chemical processing plants,
Any radioactive material that gains entry into the body is an internal hazard. The extent of the hazard
naturally occurring radionuclides found in the research facilities, and medical facilities. Regulations for the handling and disposal of radioactive
depends on the type of radiation emitted, its energy, the physical and biological half-life of the
Earth’s crust. Of these, radon has come to have wastes are designed to minimize exposure to the general public, but the regulations obviously provide
material, and the radiosensitivity of the organ where the isotope localizes. Alpha and beta emitters
the most significance as a common environmental less protection to those handling the waste.
are the most dangerous radionuclides from the standpoint internal hazard because their specific
hazard to the general public. ionization is very high.
Types of Waste
The hazard of radon does not come from radon Radionuclides with half-lives of intermediate length are the most dangerous because they combine
itself but from its radioactive decay products (218Po, No single scheme is satisfactory for classifying radioactive waste in a quantitative way. Usage has led us
fairly high activity with a half-life sufficiently long to cause considerable damage. Polonium is an example
214Po, 214Bi). The decay products are charged to categorize wastes into “levels.” High-level wastes are those with activities measured in curies per
of a potentially very serious internal hazard. It emits a highly ionizing alpha particle of energy 5.3 MeV
atoms of heavy metals that readily attach liter; intermediate-level wastes have activities measured in millicuries per liter; low-level wastes
and has a half-life of 138 days.
themselves to airborne particulates. have activities measured in microcuries per liter.

References

1. Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry. 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

1. Masten, S.J and Davis, M.L (2009). Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science. Mc-Graw Any Questions?
Hill Inc.

3. Global Monitoring Laboratory, Earth System Research Laboratories Should you have any questions regarding the lecture material, please feel free to contact me through my XU
https://gml.noaa.gov/ email address. You can also post your questions on our eLearn virtual classroom by creating a discussion forum
on the main course section.
3. World Health Organization
https://www.who.int/

4. Wikipedia Thank you!

https://en.wikipedia.org

5. Encyclopaedia Britannica
https://www.britannica.com

6. Google Images