Chapter 5

LEARNING THEORIES AND STYLES

OBJECTIVES:

After the completion of the chapter, the students will be able to:
1. discuss the theories and laws of learning;
2. determine the types of learning and learning styles;
3. apply the different theories into practices;
4. characterize the principal concepts of behavioral, cognitive and social learning theories; and
5. classify the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

PRETEST: : Let us see if you know something about out topic for today since assignment was
given previously. Write your answer on the space provided that corresponds to the description.
______________ 1. The things that strengthen the learners’ responses like praises or rewards
or recognition
______________ 2. It is also known as Thinking domain like memorization and recalling
______________ 3. The process by which learner has the ability to judge, assess or appraise
the importance of something
______________ 4. When objects are classified or categorized or arranged based on the
relationship with one another
______________ 5. An information processing or self-reflection based on ideas and
imaginations to be aware of existing realities

Theories of Learning:
- Concepts and propositions put together to explain “why people learn and predict
under what circumstances they will learn” (Young, 2003).
- NO single theory can be considered the best, depends on the perspective of learning
- Start of 20th century- emergence of Educational Psychology, the catalyst for the scientific
study of teaching, learning and assessment (Gage and Berliner, 1998; Woolfolk, 2001)
- Concerned with systematic evidence and data gathering to test theories and hypotheses
about learning
- Learning theory is a coherent framework and set of integrated constructs and principles
that describe, explain or predict how people learn, how learning occurs, and what
motivates people to learn and change.

Major learning theories in patient education and health care:

1. Behaviorist
2. Cognitive
3. Social learning

A. Behavioral Theories of Learning

Behaviorism – behavior can be explained by external factors and behavioral conditioning
can be used as a universal learning process
- Ideas of positive and negative reinforcement are effective tools of learning and behavior,
as well as punishment and reward system
John B. Watson – proponent of behaviorist theory;
- emphasized the importance of observable behavior in the study of human beings
- behavior as muscle movement associated with the Stimulus-Response (SR)
psychology
 - postulated that behavior results from a series of conditioned reflexes
- that all emotions and thoughts are products of behavior learned through
conditioning (de Young, 2003)
- learning is a result of the conditions (stimuli, S) in the environment and the learners
responses (R) that follow
- behaviorists observed the responses , then manipulate the environment to bring
about the desired change
- to bring about the desired change in the attitudes and responses of the subject,
some stimuli are altered or the effects or consequences of a response are
changed
- DRIVE-REDUCTION due to motivation to change
- made possible through practice or formation of habits

Behavioral Learning is based on:

a. respondent conditioning
b. operant conditioning

Figure 5-1. Three types of behavioral learning

https://www.verywellmind.com/learning-study-guide-2795698

A. Respondent Conditioning:
1. Classical or Pavlovian conditioning – a process w/c influences the acquisition of new
responses to environmental stimuli
NS – neutral stimulus elicits an unconditional response (UCR) through repeated
pairings w/ an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
NS has NO particular value, significance or meaning to the learner
 When NS is repeatedly paired w/ UCS and UCR; time comes NS even w/o UCS
elicits same UCR
Learned responses may be eventually unlearned if occurrence of a CS (conditioned
stimulus) is NOT accompanied by the UCS for a long period of time
Ex. A dog being fed on his feeding trough always, once that dog heard its sound, he is
expecting that there is food, “feeding time.”
2. Systemic decentralization – another technique based on respondent conditioning
widely used in psychology and medicine to reduce fear and anxiety in the patient
- based on the principle that repeated and gradual exposure to fear-inducing
stimulus under relaxed and non-threatening circumstances will give the patient that
sense of security that NO harm will come
- is also a stress-reducing strategy to help preoperative patients, rehabilitating drug
addicts, and tension, headaches and phobias
3. Stimulus generalization – tendency to apply to other similar stimuli what was initially
learned
Discrimination learning develops later due to varied experiences that enable
individual to differentiate among similar stimuli.
4. Spontaneous recovery – usually applied in relapse prevention program (rpp)
-May explain why it is difficult to eliminate “unhealthy habits and addictive behaviors
( alcoholism, drug abuse, smoking) w/c may be claimed successfully “kicked the habit” or
extinguished only to find out that it may recover or reappear anytime, even years later

B. Operant conditioning – developed by B.F. Skinner;

- Learning in which the consequences of behavior lead to changes in the probability of
occurrence
- focused on the behavior of the organism and the reinforcement that follows after the
response (Alberto & Troutman, 1990).
- Reinforcements are events that strengthen responses; most powerful tools in teaching
based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect (1911)
- Positive reinforcement – any consequence of behavior that leads to an increase in the
probability of its occurrence; timing; consistency

Thorndike’s Law of Effect:

1. “Of several responses made to same situation, those w/c are accompanied or closely
followed by satisfaction will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected w/ the
situation so that when the situation recurs, these responses will be more likely to recur.”
2. “ Those reinforcement w/c are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort will, other
things being equal, have their connections w/ that situation weakened, so that when the
situation recurs, the response will be less likely to recur.”
3. “A reinforcer is a stimulus or event that is given, applied or elicited after a response to
strengthen or reinforce the possibility that the response will be repeated.”
Elicit a response – do or say something which makes other people respond or
react
4. “When specific response are reinforced on a proper schedule, the behaviors can be
increased or decreased.”

Example: REWARD or PRAISE

Praise – assist in the transfer of learning
Reprove – speak angrily or seriously because they behaved in a wrong or foolish way
Reward preferred than punishment
Reward or motivation
 Motive to succeed
Punishment – negative consequence that leads to reduction in the frequency of the
behavior that produced it

1. Educational Reinforcements
Ways of employing positive reinforcement:
1. Verbal ways - Praising – good; well done
- Requesting students to share his success story
2. Non-verbal ways -Nodding, smiling, looking pleased, writing student’s comments on
the board, sign “thumbs up”
3. Citing in the class or bulletin board

Classification of Educational Reinforcements :

1. Recognition -
a. Praise, certification of accomplishments
b. Formal acknowledgments (awards, letters of recommendation, testimonials)
c. Informal acknowledgements (private conversations, “pat” on the back
2. Tangible rewards – grades, food (free lunch), prizes
3. Learning activities – opportunity for desirable enrichment assignment (membership in
“honors” class; more difficult or more interesting assignment
4. School responsibilities – a. for increased self –management and more participation in
decision-making ,
b.acceptance of suggestions for improving the curriculum
c. greater opportunity to control own schedule and set own priorities
      5. status indicators – appointment as a peer tutor or having own space ( study corner,
desk)
5. Incentive feedback – increased knowledge of exam scores (or contribution)
6. Personal activities - engage in special projects and extra time

2. Non-reinforcement
Non-reinforcement – behaviors may be decreased:
1. Ignoring the behavior (desirable or undesirable)
2. Giving punishment immediately after the response
3. Must be consistent and at highest reasonable level

Cardinal Rule of Operant Conditioning - Punish the behavior, not the person

B. Cognitive Learning Theories

B.1. Cognitive Theories of Learning – Cognition is more than knowledge acquisition;
- stresses mental processes or cognition occur between the stimulus and response;
- involves multiple intelligence (Gardner)
- deals with perception, memory, thinking skills, and ways of processing and structuring
info;
- stresses the importance of “what goes on inside the learner”

Theorists:

1. Bruer
 – Learning is a process whereby the novice becomes expert
2. Feden, 1994
– An active process which the learner constructs meaning based on prior
knowledge and view of the world
3. Ausubel, 1963
– Developed earliest model of cognitive learning
– The SubSumption theory of meaningful Verbal Learning
– New information is subsumed into existing thought and memory
structures
– repetition of meaningful material and its use in various contexts
would enhance the retention of the material
4. Rumelhart, 1980
– Concept of schema or schemata
– “all knowledge is packed into units. These units are schemata.”
– schemata are knowledge structures that stores concepts, and the knowledge of
how to use them, in memory.

Three kinds of learning based on Schema theory:

a. Accretion
– The learning of facts
– New information is added to existing schemata
– No changes are made to existing knowledge
b. Tuning (schema evolution)
– Existing schema evolve or refined throughout the lifespan as new situations
and issues are encountered
c. Restructuring (schema creation)
– Development of new schemata by copying an old schema and adding new
elements that are different to create a new schema

B.2. Constructivism- learners actively construct their own learning on the basis of their
prior knowledge and experiences and interactions with their environment.
- learning is an active process
- new information is linked to prior knowledge with subjective mental representation

Forefathers of Constructivism: John Dewey, Vgotsky, Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

“emphasizes learning that is meaningful rather than rote, instruction that is child
centered rather than curriculum centered, assessment based on transfer in addition to
retention, and a learner-centered rather than a technology-centered approach to using
educational technology”.
d. in order for learning to take place, new information must tie into existing beliefs,
values and knowledge.

B.3. Connectionist Models- proposed that as information is acquired it is stored in many

places throughout the brain, forming a network of connections.

e. the more connections there are to an item in memory storage, the easier it is to
retrieve it from memory.
Other theories/ Models of Information Processes
1. Level of Processing Theory
– Information is processed sequentially, from Perception to Attention- to Labelling
and Meaning
2. The Parallel Distributing Model
– Information is processed by different parts of the memory system simultaneously
rather than sequential
3. Stage Theory of Information Processing
– Relates to memory activity
– Information is both processed and stored in 3 stages:
a. SENSORY MEMORY
– Fleeting or passing swiftly
– See: lasts only half a second
– Hear: lasts only 3 seconds
b. SHORT-TERM MEMORY
– Needs interest, or activate a known schema.
– A.k.a working-memory
– Lasts for 20 seconds unless it is mentally or verbally repeated.
c. LONG-TERM MEMORY
– Use of mnemonic device, relate to other similar name, face or place. or create a
mental association picture.

Common Concepts of Cognitive Theories

1. Learning
– Behaviorist: acquisition of knowledge and skills that changes a person’s
behavior
– Cognitive theorists: focuses more on the acquisition of knowledge than on the
resulting behavior
2. Metacognition
- study of information processing.
- Sometimes defined as “thinking about one’s thinking
- A process that learners use to gauge or measure their thinking while reading,
studying or problem-solving
- To know what they know and what they do not know
- Journal writing, group dialogue, problem-based learning, rationalization of test
questions
3. Memory
- Sensory, short term and long term
- Consolidation- - items are stationed in memory, the more we connect, recall and
think about it, there long lasting it will be.
- Chunking: information is clustered into patterns
4. Transfer
- Ability to take information learned in one situation and apply it to another
- Concepts and principles are used or adopted not just to one particular situation
but to all other situations as well
- Successful transfer depends on several factors:
a. The extent to which the material was originally learned
 b. The ability to retrieve information from memory
c. The way in which the material was taught and learned
The similarity of the new situation to original
Common Concepts of Cognitive Theories:
• Intelligence
– innate ability that predicts the success in learning.
– Multiple Intelligences ( 7 types of learners)
a. Linguistic or verbal learner
b. Logical and Mathematical learner
c. Spatial and Visual learner
d. Musical and auditory learner
e. Bodily-kinesthetic or physical learner
f. Interpersonal and social learner
g. Intrapersonal and solitary learner

Figure 5-2. Types of learners

Piaget’s 4 major Periods of Cognitive or Intellectual Development:

1. Sensorimotor stage – birth to 2 years;
- actual perception of the senses and the external and physical factors;
- Children think due to coordination of sensory input and motor responses;
- Intelligence is non-verbal or non-symbolic because has not developed language yet;
- Learning takes place on what is experienced and seen;
- Known as “object permanence”
- Marks the development of memory.
2. Abstract Thinking – represents reality using symbols, stories that can be manipulated
mentally Ex. PVA (Pictorial Verbal Analogy) strategy
3. Logical Thinking – more systematic; uses scientific method
- “Perspective thought” or relativism’ formal operations;
- Awareness on different views rather than one single thought;
- Recognizes individual differences(idiosyncracies), “ NO 2 individuals are alike;
4. Assimilation and accommodation – characterized by hypothesis testing;
- before making conclusions, things must be tested with logical pieces of evidence in
search of truth;
- being “teenagers” at this stage, they have their own mind, called metacognition
 - metacognition is self reflection wherein ideas and imaginations are tied out to be
aware of existing realities; also called internal dialogue
- “Experience Is the best teacher”- - self correction in solving problems is apllied
- Understands that “NO 2 individuals are alike”.

C. Social Learning Theories (SLT)

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES – emphasize the importance of environmental or situational
determinants of behavior
Reciprocal Determinism – by Albert Bandura states that “environmental conditions
shape behavior through learning and the person’s behavior, in return, shapes the environment.
- SLT takes place through observation and sensorial experience
- That behavior need not be performed and reinforced for learning to occur.
- Modeling or observational learning occurs vicariously, even in infants, where the
individual learns of consequences of a behavior by observing another person
undergoing the experience.
- A. Bandura (1977) – Observational Learning Theory/Modeling or Social Cognitive
Theory (Imitation)

- 4 operations involved in modeling:

1. attentional processes – which determine what a person can do and what he or
she can attend to;
2. retentional processes – which determine how experience is encoded or retained
in memory
3. motor reproduction processes – determine what behavior can be performed
4. motivational and reinforcement processes – determine the circumstances under
which learning is translated into performance

3 Interrelated determinants of how behavior occurs:

1. Antecedents – behavior based on the past as seen
2. Consequence – influenced by its result
3. Cognitive factor – how motivated

D. Types of Learning

Figure 5-3. Types of learning

Types of learning according to delivery:

1. Formal learning - delivered “in a systematic intentional way”.
 - planned and guided by an instructor, usually occurs in a face-to-face setting or
through an online learning platform, like an LMS

2. Informal learning - occurs away from a structured, formal classroom environment. 

- in forms of viewing videos, self-study, reading articles, participating in forums and chat
rooms, performance support, coaching sessions and games
- a style of learning in which the learner sets their own goals and objectives

3. Non-formal learning - not provided by an education or training institution and

typically does not lead to certification
- structured (in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning support)
 - intentional from the learner's perspective." ( Cedefop 200
- includes various structured learning situations which do not either have the level of
curriculum, syllabus, accreditation and certification associated with 'formal learning
- Examples are swimming sessions for toddlers, community-based sports programs, and
programs developed by organizations such as the Boy Scouts, the Girl Guides, community or non-
credit adult education courses, sports or fitness programs, professional conference style seminars,
and continuing professional development
  - The learner's objectives may be to increase skills

Figure 5-4. Non-formal learning (Khamla Panyasouk of Big Brother Mouse 

in Laos reads to children)

Table 5.1. Contrasts of formal, informal and non-formal learning

FORMAL NON-FORMAL INFORMAL
Usually at school At institution out of school Everywhere
May be repressive Usually supportive Supportive
Structured Structured Unstructured
Usually prearranged Usually prearranged Spontaneous
Motivation is typically Motivation may be Motivation is mainly
more extrinsic extrinsic but is typically intrinsic
more intrinsic
Compulsory Usually voluntary Voluntary
Teacher-led May be guided or teacher- Usually learner-led
led
Learning is evaluated Learning is usually not Learning is not evaluated
evaluated
Sequential Typically non-sequential Non-sequential
Lifted from Bridging In-school and Out-of-school Learning: Formal, Non-formal, and Informal Education and Technology by Eshach,
H.(2007).
 Figure 5-5. Types of learning according to connection

E. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom)

Taxonomy – is a classification, categorization or arrangement of things based on their
relationship with one another.
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Bloom, et al (1956) – is a tool for the
systematic classification of behavioral objectives:
1. Cognitive
2. Affective
3. Psychomotor
These are interdependent and can be experienced simultaneously. Objectives in each
domain are arranged in hierarchy; simple behavior at lowest level, complex at the top.
Cognitive – known as “thinking domain”; at 6 levels (objectives):
 a. Knowledge and information– memorize, recall, define, recognize, identify, name,
outline, select, state, label, describe, identify, reproduce
b. Comprehension – understand, convert, explain, paraphrase, rewrite, give examples,
distinguish, estimate, summarize, appreciate what is being communicated
c. Application – learner’s ability to use or relate ideas, concepts, abstractions and
principles; change, compute, demonstrate, solve, use, apply
d. Analysis – recognize, examine, scrutinize and structure info by breaking it down into
its constituent parts and specifying the relationship between parts; breakdown,
diagram, differentiate, distinguish, infer, illustrate, subdivide
e. Synthesis – learner’s ability to put together or merge parts and elements into unified
whole by creating a unique product or output in written, oral, pictorial; categorize,
combine, compile, compose, create, design, organize, summarize, reconstruct,
devise, explain, modify plans, rearrange, rewrite, write, design
f. Evaluation – learner’s ability to judge, assess or appraise the value, significance,
importance of something like an essay, design or action using appropriate criteria :
compare, appraise, criticize, justify, interpret, summarize, relate, discriminate,
explain, interpret, contrast

Affective – “feeling” domain;

- increased internalization or commitment of feelings expressed as emotions,
interests, attitudes, values, appreciations, . . .
- and how these are incorporated into one’s personality or value system;
- involve moral reasoning and ethical decision-making
a. Receiving – ask, choose, describe, follow, hold, identify, locate, name, reply, use
b. Responding – answer, assist, comply, confirm, discuss, greet, help, label, practice ,
read, recite, report, select
c. Valuing – complete, describe, explain, follow, initiate, justify, propose, study
d. Organization – adhere, alter, arrange, complete, depend, integrate, modify,, relate,
synthesize
e. Characterization by the value – act, discriminate, display, perform, practice, listen,
question, revise, serve, solve, use

Teaching methods most commonly used in the affective domain (Bastable, 2003):
1. Affective questioning – increases interest and motivation to learn about feelings, values,
beliefs and attitudes related to the lesson
2. Case study – develop critical thinking skills by exploring beliefs, values , attitudes
actively participating rather than being neutral observers.
3. Role playing –
4. Simulation (imitation, mock) gaming
5. Group discussion – for clarifying personal, social and moral values for increasing self-
awareness, self-discovery and self-acceptance

Psychomotor – or “skills domain” – motor skill;

- Movement oriented activities;
- Psychomotor skills Training
a. Perception – Choose, describe, detect,, differentiate, distinguish, identify, isolate,
relate, select, separate
b. Set – begin, display, explain, move, proceed, respond, show, start, volunteer
c. Guided response –assemble, build, calibrate,, construct, dismantle, display, dissect,
fasten, fix, grind, heat, manipulate, measure, mend, fix, organize, sketch, work
 d. Mechanism and Complex Overt Response – (same list as for guided response)
e. Adaptation – adapt, alter, change, rearrange, organize, revise, vary
f. Origination - arrange, combine, compose, create, design, originate

4 levels of psychomotor objectives:

1. imitation
2. manipulation – uses written procedures or handouts as the guide , the time and
speed may vary
3. precision – logical sequence of actions is carried out and the learner’s actions are
more coordinated with lesser errors; time and speed varies
4. articulation – logical sequence of actions, movements are coordinated at high level,
errors are limited; time and speed required are w/in reasonable limits
5. naturalization – sequence of actions are automatic, consistently high level of
coordination of movements, and errors are almost non-existent; time and speed
required are w/in realistic limits and performance reflects professional competence.

Teaching methods most commonly used in the psychomotor domain:

1. demonstration-return demo
2. self-directed study
3. role playing, peer teaching
Methods of evaluation include:
1. written or oral tests, return-demo, case studies
2. observation, interview, self-reports and self-monitoring
3. journals or learning feedback diaries

ASSIGNMENT: Read or search about adult learning.

1. Name some teaching strategies appropriate for adult learners;
2. Look for a model of adult learning;
3. Compare pedagogy from andragogy in terms of orientation to learning, motivation and self-
concept

POSTTEST: Let us see how much you have learned in this chapter. Answer the following.
________________ 1. The theory of learning which explains that positive and negative
reinforcements are effective tools of learning
________________ 2. A conditioning technique that will reduce fear and anxiety in the patient
________________ 3. Event that strengthens responses by giving rewards
________________ 4. Speaking angrily to the learner because he/she behaved in a foolish
way
________________ 5. This explains that environmental condition shape the behavior through
learning and the learner’s behavior, in return shapes the environment

ANSWERS TO PRETEST:
1. Reinforcement
2. Cognitive domain
3. Evaluation
4. Taxonomy
5. Metacognition

ANSWERS TO POSTTEST:
1. Behaviorism
2. Systemic decentralization
3. Reinforcement
4. Reprove
5. Reciprocal Determinism

REFERENCES:

Acero-De Ocampo,Victorina C.,Javier-Sanchez, E., and Castro-Ocampo,H.(2017).  

Principles of teaching I. Revised Ed. Rex Bookstore, Philippines.

Castro-Estrada, Cecilla. (2009). Teaching strategies in health education with

principles of teaching and learning. First Ed.Educational Publishing House, Inc. Ermita,
Manila.

Formal and Informal Learning: What's the Difference? | LearnUpon

         www.learnupon.com › blog › formal-and-informal-learning

Sumayao, Blanda R. (1990). Science teaching and testing. Upgrading Science Teaching Using
Distance Instruction, UP-STUDI. UP, Los Banos, Laguna.

https://www.knowledgeanywhere.com/resources/article-detail/10-informal-learning-        activities-to-boost-
employenon-formae-engagement

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How to Engage the 7 Types of Learners in your Classroom ...

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