08 BBMP1103 T4

Topic  Matrices
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of matrix and the classification of matrices;
2. Define matrix addition, scalar multiplication and multiplication of
matrices and the properties related to these operations;
3. Calculate the determinant for square matrix using the cross
multiplication method and the cofactor expansion method;
4. Determine the inverse of an invertible matrix and use inverses to
solve the linear equation system; and
5. Apply Cramer’s rule to find the solution for a two-linear equation
system.
 INTRODUCTION
Data is an important source of information. Therefore, it is necessary for the data
to be arranged in an easily understood and straightforward manner. Matrix is one
method which is frequently used.
In economics, the matrix is used to formulate problems and displaying data. For
example, a manufacturer who produces products D, E and F could represent the
units of labour and materials required for one week’s production as shown in
Table 4.1.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

70  TOPIC 4 MATRICES
Table 4.1: Manufacture of Products D, E and F

Product
D E F
Labour 10 12 16
Materials 5 9 7
10 12 16 
More simply, the data can be represented by the matrix A   
5 9 7
A matrix can be categorised into several classes or types. Later on, this topic will
discuss matrix operations, each with its own properties which differ from the
operations of real numbers. The application of a matrix is to solve simultaneous
equation systems. Two methods will be employed to solve the simultaneous
equation systems, which is the inverse matrix method and the Cramer’s rule. The
knowledge of finding the determinant of a given matrix is essential in order to apply
these methods.
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers consisting of m horizontal rows and n

vertical columns, as shown here:
 a11 a12 ... a1n 

a a22 ... a2 n 
 21
 . . ... . 
 
 . . ... . 
 . . ... . 
 
 am1 am 2 ... amn 
This matrix is called an m  n (read as “m by n”) matrix or a matrix of order m  n.
For any matrices, the data has to be placed in a rectangular table form, as shown
here:
2 0 1 
 0 1 3
 

TOPIC 4 MATRICES  71
The above matrix consists of two rows and three columns. Hence, the dimension,
order, size or degree of the above matrix is 2  3. The dimension of a matrix is the
number of rows first, followed by the number of columns. The elements or entries
of the above matrix in the first row are 2, 0 and 1 while the elements for the second
row are 0, –1 and 3.
Generally, a matrix is denoted by a capital letter. Let us consider the following

matrix:
 a11 a12 a13 

A   a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
Based on matrix A above, we can conclude that A is a matrix with the dimension of
3  3 since there are 3 horizontal rows and 3 vertical columns. Each element of
matrix A is denoted by a variable with two subscripts. For example:
(a) a11 lies in the first row and the first column;
(b) a21 lies in the second row and the first column; and
(c) a32 lies in the third row and the second column.
The dimension of the matrix A can be written at the lower right side of the letter, in
the form of a subscript, i.e. A33.
In general, a matrix A with the dimension of m  n (matrix A with m rows and n

columns) is often written as Amn. The elements of matrix A are denoted by aij
where i = 1, 2, …, m and j = 1, 2, …, n.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
If numbers are arranged in a non-rectangular form, can that still be called

a matrix? Explain.

4.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OR TYPES OF MATRICES

Matrices can be categorised into several types based on its dimensions and
elements. Let us find out more about the types of matrices.
4.1.1 Row Matrix (Row Vector)

Row matrix or row vector is a matrix with only one row, as illustrated by the
following matrices:
(a) B13  1 0 1 (b) B14  1 3 2 1
4.1.2 Column Matrix (Column Vector)

A matrix with only one column is called a column matrix or column vector. The
following are samples of column matrices:
3
1  2
(a) L31   0  (b) L41   
1 
 3   
0 
4.1.3 Square Matrix

A matrix with equal numbers of rows and columns is called a square matrix. The
m × n matrix is square, if and only if, m = n. Examples of square matrices are as
follows:
3 2 1
 1 2 
(a) S 2 2   (b) S 33   3 1 0 
 4 0   2 1 4 
The elements on the main diagonal of any given square matrix are all the elements
which lie from the upper left corner to the lower right corner. The main diagonal
elements for matrix S22 above are 1 and 0 while the main diagonal of matrix S33
are 3, 1 and 4.

4.1.4 Diagonal Matrix

If a square matrix has at least one non-zero element on its main diagonal and all the
other elements are 0’s, the matrix is known as a diagonal matrix or aij = 0 for i ≠
j.
The following are examples of such matrices:
1 0 0 
1 0 
(a) P22    (b) P33  0 0 0 
0 1  
0 0 3 
4.1.5 Special Matrix

An identity matrix, denoted by I is the diagonal matrix whose main diagonal
entries are 1’s. Let us look at some examples of identity matrices:
1 0 0 
1 0 
(a) I 22   (b) I 33   0 1 0 
0 1 
 0 0 1 
A zero matrix or null matrix, denoted by 0 is the matrix when all the elements of
a matrix are set to 0. Examples as shown:
0 0
0 0 0 
(a) 032   0 0  (b) 023   
 0 0  0 0 0 
SELF-CHECK 4.2
If there exists only one element in a matrix, can the matrix be called a
square matrix? Explain.

EXERCISE 4.1
1. Given:
 3 1 6
(a) B   6 2  (b) C   1 5 8 (c) D  9 
 1 0   4 
State the order of each matrix.
a 0 0
2. Find the value(s) of a, that makes  0 0 0  a diagonal matrix.
 
 0 0 0 
1 0 0 
3. Is the matrix   an identity matrix? Clarify your answer.
0 1 0
4. Determine the classes for each of the matrices below:
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
(a) 
0 0 0
(b) 0
 
(c)  1 2 1 0
   2 
0 0 0
4.2 MATRIX OPERATIONS

In this subtopic, you will learn about the following matrix operations:
(a) Equality of matrix;
(b) Transpose;
(c) Matrix addition;

(d) Matrix subtraction;

(e) Scalar multiplication; and
(f) Matrix multiplication.
4.2.1 Equality of Matrix

Matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are equal if and only if they have the same order and
aij = bij for each i and j. Thus,
 1
5 2  5 0.5
  3 
1
0 1   0
 2
 2 
but [1 2] ≠ [1 2 0]
A matrix equation can be defined as a system of equation. For example, suppose

that
 3 q q  1  3 q 5 
 q  1 2r 
 p  1  r 2r q  4

By equating corresponding entries, we must have
a13 = q + 1, b13 = 5. Therefore a13 = b13, then
q 1  5
q  5 1
q4
a21  q 1, b21  r . Therefore b21 = a21, then
r  q 1
r  4 1
r 3

a 23  p  1, b23  q  4 . Therefore a 23  b23 , then
p 1  q  4
p  q  4 1
p  q 5
p  4  5  1
4.2.2 Transpose
Given a matrix Amn with elements aij where i = 1, 2, …, m and j = 1, 2, …, n. The
transpose matrix for Amn, which is denoted by AT nm is a matrix with elements aij
where i = 1, 2, …, n and j = 1, 2, …, m. In other words, we just reverse the order of
the row and column elements of matrix Amn so that the rows turn into columns and
columns into rows.
Example 4.1
2 3 1 2 1 0
(a) If A = 1 2 0 , then A =  3 2 1 
  T
   
 0 1 3   1 0 3 
 1 3
1 0 1
(b) If B =   , then B =  0 2 
T
3 2 0   1 0 
T
The transpose operation has the property of  AT  = A

4.2.3 Matrix Addition

Adding two or more matrices is only feasible if all the matrices are of the same
dimensions. The sum is obtained by adding the corresponding elements (i.e. the
elements that lie on the same position). The addition operation cannot be done if
the matrices have different dimensions.
Example 4.2
1 0   2 4   1 4 
(a)  2 2  +  1 3  =  1 5 
     
 2 2 0  1 2 0  3 4 0
(b)  4 1 3 +  3 2 0  =  7 1 3
     
2 3 7 1 3
(c) 1 5 + 3 1 3 , cannot be performed because the two matrices have
   
different dimensions.
4.2.4 Matrix Subtraction

Two or more matrices can be deducted from another, as long as they have the same
dimension. To perform the subtraction operation, the corresponding elements that
lie on the same position of the respective matrices are subtracted from the other.
This subtraction operation also cannot be performed if the dimensions of the
matrices are different.
Example 4.3
 3 0 1   0  2 5   3 2 4 
(a)  2 1 3    1 3 2    1 4 1 
     
 1 4 1  2 1 2   1 3 3
 2 3   7 1 3
(b)    , the subtraction cannot be carried out because the two
 1 5   3 1 3
matrices have different dimensions.

The properties of matrix addition and matrix subtraction are:
A B  B  A
A B  B  A
 A  B  C  A   B  C 
 A  B  C  A   B  C 
AO  O  A  A
AO  O  A
4.2.5 Scalar Multiplication

Scalar multiplication is obtained by multiplying each entry of the matrix by a scalar.
Example 4.4
1 0 
(a) If A   
 2 3
1 0 5(1) 5(0)   5 0 
5A  5  = = 
 2 3 5(2) 5(3)  10 15
3 0 1 
(b) If B =  2 1 3 
 1 4 1
 3 0 1   1(3) 1(0) 1(1)   3 0 1

 B  ( 1)  2 1 5  =  1(2) 1( 1) 1(5)  =  2 1 5 
  
 6 4 7   1(6) 1(4) 1( 7)   6 4 7 

4.2.6 Matrix Multiplication

Multiplication of two matrices is possible only if the number of columns in the first
matrix is the same as the number of the rows in the second matrix. Suppose the first
matrix is denoted by Amn and the second matrix is Bst. The multiplication of
Amn  Bst can be done if and only if n = s. The product of this multiplication is
another matrix (say C) with m rows and t columns. If AB exists, then
AB = Amn  Bst= Cmt
Generally, suppose that
b b12 b13 
a a12 a13   11
AB   11 b b22 b23 
 a21 a22 a23   21
 b31 b32 b33 
c c12 c13 
  11
 c21 c22 c23 
where:
c11  a11 b11  a12 b21  a13 b31

c12  a11 b12  a12 b22  a13 b32
c13  a11 b13  a12 b23  a13 b33
c21  a21 b11  a22 b21  a23 b31
c23  a21 b12  a22 b22  a23 b32
c12  a21 b13  a22 b23  a23 b33

Example 4.5
 1 1
 1 1  1 0 2 
Given A32   0 2  , B2 2  

 , and C 23   
 1 0   1 0   0 1 1
 (1)(1)  ( 1)( 1) (1)(1)  ( 1)(0) 

(a) AB  A32  B22   (0)(1)  (2)( 1) (0)(1)  (2)(0) 
 (1)(1)  (0)( 1) (1)(1)  (0)(0) 
 2 1
  2 0 
 
 1 1  3×2
(b) BA= B22  A32 is not possible because the number of columns in matrix B22
is not the same as the number of rows in matrix A32.
 (1)(1)  ( 1)(0) (1)(0)  ( 1)(1) (1)( 2)  ( 1)( 1) 

(c) AC33  A32  C23   (0)(1)  (2)(0) (0)(0)  (2)(1) (0)( 2)  (2)( 1) 
 (1)(1)  (0)(0) (1)(0)  (0)(1) (1)( 2)  (0)( 1) 
 1 1 1
  0 2 2 
 1 0 2 
Properties of matrix multiplication are:
A  BC    AB  C
A  B  C   AB  AC and  A  B  C  AC  BC
AB  BA
AI  IA  A
There are cases where the multiplication of two matrices is the matrix itself, i.e.
A  A = A. This matrix A is known as idempotent matrix.

Example 4.6
      
1 0 0 1 0 0  1 0 0  1 0 0
      
1 1 0 1 1  1 1  1 1
Given A =  0 , then AA = 0  0 A
 2 2  2 2  2 2  2 2
 1 1  1 1   1 1  1 1
0  0  0  0 
 2 2  2 2  2 2  2 2
Hence, A is an idempotent matrix.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
List several examples of idempotent matrices.
EXERCISE 4.2
1. Suppose:
 2 1  4 2 
 2 1 3  4 1 2     
A=  , B =  , C =  0 6  and D   3 5 
4 0 1  5 1 3   3 2   1 3 
   
Find:
(a) 3A (b) A+B (c) CD
(d) AB (e) (2A)(5C) (f) (2A  B)D
(g) (AT )A
2. Determine matrix A that satisfies the following equation:
 1 0   1 3
A  
 1 3  3 6 

4.3 DETERMINANT
The determinant is defined only for square matrices. The determinant of matrix A
is denoted by Aand has a scalar value. This subtopic will only emphasise on
obtaining the determinants for square matrices with the dimensions until 3  3.
Determinants are used to find the invertible matrices which are then used to
explicitly describe the solution to the linear equation system.
If A =  a11  is a square matrix of order 1, then A  a11.
a a 
Given matrix A22 =  11 12  . The determinant of a matrix can be obtained by
 a21 a22 
taking the difference between the multiplication of elements on the main diagonal
(a11 and a22) and that of the opposite diagonal ( a12 and a21 ). The determinant of the
matrix A22 is given by:
A22   a11  a22    a12  a21 
Example 4.7
 0 1 1 2 
If A =   and B =  0 1  , determine
2 4   
(a) |A| (b) |B| (c) |AB|
(d) |BA| (e) |A| |B| (f) |B| |A|
Solutions:
(a) |A| = 0(4) – (–1)(2) = 2
(b) |B| = 1(1) – 2(0) = 1
 0 1
(c) AB =   . Therefore, AB = (0)(8) – (–1)(2) = 2
2 8 

4 7
(d) BA =   . Therefore, BA= (4)(4) – (7)(2)
 2 4
= 16 –14
=2
(e) | A| | B| = (2)(1) = 2
(f) | B| | A| = (1) (2) = 2
 a11 a12 a13 

The determinant of matrix A33   a21 a22 a23  is obtained as follows:
 
 a31 a32 a33 
For entry a11, we delete the entries in row 1 and column 1, as shown next:
 a11 a12 a13 

a a23 
 21 a22
 a31 a32 a33 
a a23 
This leaves the matrix  22 of order 2. The determinant of this matrix is
 a32 a33 
called the minor of a11.
a21 a23 a a 22
Similarly, the minor of a12 is , and for a13 is 21 .
a31 a33 a31 a32
So, the determinant of any square matrix A of order 3 is given by:
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

A  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
 a11  a22 a33  a23 a32   a12  a21a33  a23a31   a13  a21a32  a22 a31 

4.3.1 Minor of Element aij
The minor of the element aij is the determinant of the sub-matrix left after omitting
the i th row and j th column. For instance, suppose
1 4 1 
A   0 2 0 
 2 3 3 
Then, the element of minor is:
1 4 1
2 0
m11 (i.e. 1) = 0 2 0  = (2)(3) – (0)( –3) = 6
3 3
2 3 3
1 4 1
0 0
m12 (i.e. 4) = 0 2 0  = (0)(3) – (0)(2) = 0
2 3
2 3 3
1 4 1
0 2
m13 (i.e. 1) = 0 2 0  = (0)(3) – (2)(2) = – 4
2 3
2 3 3
1 4 1
4 1
m21 (i.e. 0) = 0 2 0  = (4)(3) – (1)( –3) = 15
3 3
2 3 3

1 4 1
1 1
m22 (i.e. 2) = 0 2 0  = (1)(3) – (1)(2) = 1
2 3
2 3 3
1 4 1
1 4
m23 (i.e. 0) = 0 2 0  = (1)( –3) – (4)(2) = –11
2 3
2 3 3
1 4 1
4 1
m31 (i.e. 2) = 0 2 0  = (4)(0) – (1)(2) = –2
2 0
2 3 3
1 4 1
1 1
m32 (i.e. –3) = 0 2 0  = (1)(0) – (1)(0) = 0
0 0
2 3 3
1 4 1
1 4
m33 (i.e. ) = 0 2 0 = (1)(2) – (4)(0) = 2
0 2
2 3 3
 6 0 4 
The minor matrix A is Minor A =  15 
1 11 .
 2 0 2 


4.3.2 Cofactor of Element aij
The cofactor of element cij is the minor of element mij multiplied by (–1)i+j. Hence,
the cofactor of element:
c11 = (–1)1+1  m11 = 1  6 = 6

c12 = (–1)1+2  m12 = –1  0 = 0
c13 = (–1)1+3  m13 = 1  (– 4) = – 4
c21 = (–1)2+1  m21 = –1  15 = –15
c22 = (–1)2+2  m22 = 1  1 = 1
c23 = (–1)2+3  m23 = –1  (–11) = 11
c31 = (–1)3+1  m31 = 1  (–2) = –2
c32 = (–1)3+2  m32 = –1  0 = 0
c33 = (–1)3+3  m33 = 1  2 = 2
 6 0  4
The cofactor matrix is cofactor A =  15 1 11 
 
 2 0 2 
The following steps are required to compute the determinant of a matrix using the
cofactor expansion method:
(a) Step 1: Select one row or column to perform cofactor expansion. In general,
we choose the row or column with many zeroes. In matrix A, the second row
has many zeroes. Therefore, choose the second row of matrix A to perform
the cofactor expansion.
(b) Step 2: Perform cofactor expansion by multiplying each element in the

selected row or column with its corresponding cofactor. Hence,
Determinant A = |A| = a21 c21 + a22 c22 + a23 c23

= 0(15) + 2(1) + 0(11)
= 0 + 2(1) + 0
=2

Note: The same value of the determinant will be obtained even though cofactor
expansion is performed on a different row or column.
The transpose of a cofactor matrix is an adjoint matrix.
Adjoint A  [Cofactor A]T

T
 6 0  4
  15 1 11 
 2 0 2 
 6 15 2
  0 1 0 
  4 11 2 
EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find the determinant for the following matrices:
 2 5  a b
(a) 1 3  (b) b a 
   
1 2 3 3 2 1 
(c) 2 3 0 (d) 0 3 2 
   
 3 0 0  0 0 3 
2. (a) Calculate the value for a, given that the determinant for
 1 a
 2 4  is 6.
 
a b
(b) Find the determinant for  1 0  .

 2 4 

4.4 INVERSE MATRIX

Inverse matrix is only defined for square matrix. However, not all square matrices
have an inverse. If the determinant of a square matrix is equal to zero, then the
matrix has no inverse. A matrix without an inverse is known as a singular matrix.
The inverse matrix of A is denoted by A1.
a a  1 a  a12 
Let A   11 12  and A  a11a22  a12a21 . Therefore, A1   22 
 a21 a22  A   a21 a11 
1
If A is a square matrix of order 3, then A1  × Adjoint A
A
 6 15 2
 
Let us now calculate the inverse matrix for  0 1 0
 4 11 2 

 15 
3 1
 6 15 2  2
 
1   1
1
A   0 1 0    0 0 
2   4 11
2
 2   
 2 11
 1 
2 
When matrix A is multiplied by its inverse A-1, the following properties are then
true:
(a) A  A1 = I (b) A 1  A = I

EXERCISE 4.4
1. Find the inverse (if there exist any) for the following matrices. Then,
prove that your answers are correct.
2 3 4 
 3 4  
(a)   (b) 0 0  1
 2 2 1
 2 1 
4 2 2 1 4 1
   
(c)   1 3 4  (d) 2 3 2 
 3 1 6   1 2 3 
  
2. Given:
2 3 1 1 1
A  . Find A and show that (A ) = A.
 4 5 
3. Suppose:
a b
B 
c d
(a) Determine B1 and state the properties required for the
existence of B1 .
(b) Verify BB 1 = B1 B = I.

4.5 SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION SYSTEM

USING MATRICES
In this subtopic, we shall illustrate methods by which matrices can be used to solve
a system of linear equations. The two methods are the inverse matrix method and
Cramer’s rule.
4.5.1 Matrix Equation

Systems of linear equations can be represented by using matrix multiplication. For
example, consider the matrix equation:
x
 1 4 2     4 
 2 3 1   y    3 
  z  
 
x  4 y  2z  4 
 2 x  3 y  z    3 
   
By applying the concept of equality of matrices, the corresponding entries must be

equal, so we obtain the following system:
x  4 y  2z  4
2 x  3 y  z  3
Hence, this system of linear equations can be expressed in the form of matrix
equation system AX = B. Where A is the matrix obtained from the coefficients of
the variables, X is a column matrix obtained from the variables and B is a column
matrix obtained from the constants.
Example 4.8
Given a two-linear equation system:
x  2y  0
2x  y  5

1 2   x  0 
It can be expressed as     
 2 1  y  5 
1 2  x 0 
where A    , X    and B    as a matrix equation system.
 2 1  y 5 
Example 4.9
Given a three-linear equation system:
2 x  y  3z  3
x  2y  z  4
2x  2z  0
2 1 3   x   3 
The matrix form is  1    
2 1  y    4  , where
2 0 2   z   0 

 2 1 3  x 3
A   1 2 1 , X   y  and B   4 
   
 2 0 2   z   0 
4.5.2 Inverse Matrix Method

A system of linear equations can be written in a matrix form, AX = B, where A is
the coefficient matrix. If we can determine the values of the entries in the unknown
matrix X, we have a solution to the system. An inverse of matrix A, A1 is used to
solve an equation of AX = B. Multiply both sides of the equation AX=B by A1,
A1  AX   A1B
 A A X  A
1 1
B
IX  A1B where I is an identity matrix. Then,
X  A1B is called the method of inverse to solve a system of linear equations.

Example 4.10
Solve x  2 y  3
2x  y  5
using the inverse matrix method.
Solution:
Step 1: Convert the equation into a matrix equation form, which is
1 2   x  0 1 2  x 0 
 2 1  y   5 where A   2 1 , X   y  and B  5
          
Step 2: Determine the inverse of matrix A, that is, A1
A  1 1   2  2   5
1 2
1  1 2  5 5
A1       
5  2 1  2 
1
 5 5 
Step 3: Use the formula X = A1B to obtain the solution:
1 2 
 x  5 5  0 
 y    
   2  1  5 
 5 5 
2
  
 1
Hence, solutions for the above simultaneous linear equations are x = 2,

y = 1.

Example 4.11
Solve 2 x  y  3 z  3
x  2y  z  4
2x  2z  0
using the inverse matrix method.
Solution:
Step 1: Firstly, we have to convert the equation into a matrix equation form, which
is
2 1 3   x   3 
1 2 1  y    4  , where

 2 0 2   z   0 
 2 1 3  x 3
A   1 2 1 , X   y  and B   4 
   
 2 0 2   z   0 
Step 2: Determine the inverse of matrix A i.e. A1. To do this we need to compute
its determinant, i.e.
1 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 3
A   1 1   2  1   0  1
2 2 2 2 1 1
A  1 1 2    1 2    2  2  2    3 2    0
A  1 0   2  10 
A  20

The minor elements are:
n11  – 4, n12 = 0, n13 = – 4, n21 = 2 and n22 = –10, n23  2
n31 = –5, n32 = –5, n33 = 5.
Therefore,
 4 0 4   4 0 4 
Minor A   2  10 2  , Cofactor A    2
  10 2 
 5 5 5   5 5 5 
 4 2 5 
Adjoint A   0  10 5 
  4 2 5 
Using the formula:
1
A 1   Adjoint A
A
 4 2 5 
1 
  0
 10 5 
20
 4 2 5 
1 1 1 
5 10 4 
 
1 1
 0 
 2 4
1 1 1
  
 5 10 4 

Step 3: Use the formula X = A1B to obtain the solution for:
1 1 1 
 4   3  1 
 x   5 10 
 y  0 1 1    
 4  2
   2 4
 z    0  1 
 1 1 1    
 
 5 10 4 
Thus, the solution for the given simultaneous equations are x = 1, y = 2 and z = 1.
4.5.3 Cramer’s Rule

Another method which can be applied to solve the simultaneous equation AX = B
is Cramer’s rule. The following steps have to be taken to solve a system of n linear
equations in n unknowns.
Step 1: Determine the determinant for coefficient matrix A, that is,A. If A=
0, Cramer’s rule is no longer applicable.
Step 2: Find Aiwhere Ai is the matrix formed when ith column in matrix A is
substituted by matrix B as shown:
 a11   b1  a1n 
a   b2  a2 n 
 21 
      
Ai  
      
 
       
 a1n   bn  a2 n 

ith column

Step 3: To obtain xi, use the following formula:
Ai
xi 
A
Example 4.12
Solve x  2 y  0
2x  y  5
using Cramer’s rule.
Solution:
1 2   x   0
Step 1: Determine A for      
 2 1  y   5
A = (1)(1) – (2)(2) = 5
Step 2: Find A1and A2.
0 2 
A1    . Therefore, A1= (0)( 1) – (2)(5) = 10
 5 1
1 0 
A2    . Thus, A2= (1)(5) – (0)(2) = 5
2 5

Step 3: Obtain the value for x and y.
A 1 10
x  2
A 5
A2 5
y   1
A 5
Example 4.13
Solve 2 x  y  3 z  3
x  2y  z  4
2x  2z  0
using Cramer’s rule method.
Solution:
2 1 3   x   3 
Step 1: Determine A for  1 2 1  y    4 

 2 0 2   z   0 
by using the cofactor expansion on the third row:
31 1 3 33 2 1
A  2  1   2  1
2 1 1 2
 2  1 1   2  3   2  2  2   1 1 
 2  5  2  5 
 20

Step 2: Find A1,A2 and A3.
3 1 3  2 3 3  2 1 3
A1   4 2  1  , A2   1 4  1  , A3   1 2 4 
 0 0  2   2 0  2   2 0 0 
3 3 3 1
A1  2   1    2   3  2     1  4     20
4 2
3 1 3 3 3 1 2 3
A2  2   1     2   1 
4 1 1 4
 2   3   1    3  4      2    2  4    3 1  
 2   15   2  5 
  40
3 1 1 3
A3  2   1   2    1   4    3  2     20
2 4
Step 3: Obtain the value for x, y and z.
A1 20
x  1
A 20
A2 40
y  2
A 20
A3 20
z  1
A 20

ACTIVITY 4.1
What are the advantages of using matrices to solve linear equation systems
compared to algebraic techniques (substitution/elimination)? Compile
your answer and share it with your course mates in myINSPIRE forum.
EXERCISE 4.5
1. Express the following linear equation systems in the form of matrix

equations. Subsequently, solve the equations by using the inverse
matrix method.
(a) x  2 y  14
2x  y  5
(b) x  2y  z  7
x y z  4
3x  y  z  2
2. Solve (1) using Cramer’s rule.
3. Solve the following equation system by using the appropriate

method:
3x  2 y  z  b1
3x  2 y  z  b2
x  y  z  b3
where:
(a) b1 = 2, b2 = 2, b3 = 4
(b) b1 = 8, b2 = 3, b3 = 6

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 4.1
1 2  4 7
1. Given A    and B  3 1 . Find:
3 2.5  
(a) A + 2B
8 9 9 7 
A. 6 2 B. 3 0.5
   
6 3 9 11 
C.  3 4 D. 9 4.5
   
(b) B
4 3
A. 7 1 B. –25 C. –17 D. 17
 
T
3 1 2  4 
2. 2 0 4   
  2
8 
A. 4 B. Does not exist
 
 0 
16 
4
C. 16 4 0 D.  
 0 

 3 1 1
3. Given |A| = 6 and its cofactor is  3 
1 1 . Find the inverse
 6 4 2 

of A.
 3 3 6  3 1 1
 1 1 4 1
A.   B.   3 1 1
6
 1 1 2   6 4 2 
3 3 6  3 1 1

1
C.   1 1 4 D. 6  3 1 1
6
 1 1 2   6 4 2 
 1 1 1  x 1
4.
     
Given A  3 2 1 , X  y , B  2 , and A  1
     
2 5 3  z   1
Calculate the value of z.
A. ă18 B. ă10 C. ă7 D. 18

 A matrix is an m by n, or simply, an mn set of quantities arranged in a

rectangular form where m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns.
These quantities are normally written inside a big bracket and the matrix is
normally denoted by a capital letter like A such that
First nth
column column
 a11 a12  a1n  First row

 
a a22  a2 n 
A   21
   
 
 am1 am 2  amn  mth row
 The quantity aij is called the element of the matrix. For example, a11 is the
first element of the matrix.
 The element aij represents the element at row-i and column-j of the matrix,
that is,
aij
ith row jth column
 A matrix is said to be of the order m  n if it has m rows and n columns. If the

number of rows and columns are identical ( m  n ), the matrix is then called a
square matrix. For a square matrix, the diagonal that contains the elements of
a11, a22 ,, ann is called the principal, main or leading diagonal.

 The types of matrices are as follows:
 Zero Matrices
A matrix of any size (or order) with every element equal to zero is called
the zero or null matrix. It is normally written as O.
 Diagonal Matrices
A square matrix with the elements of aii  0 and aij  0 for all i  j is
called a diagonal matrix.
 Identity Matrices
A square matrix of order n  n with every element of its principal diagonal
equal to 1 and all the others equal to 0 is called the identity or unit matrix.
It is often denoted by the notation I.
– Triangular Matrices
A square matrix A is called an upper-triangular matrix if aij  0 for every
i  j and a lower-triangular matrix if aij  0 for every i  j.
 Equality of Matrices
Two matrices A and B of the same order is said to be equal if and only if
aij  bij for all i and j.
 The operations of matrices are as follows:
 Addition of Matrices
The sum of two equal size matrices A   aij  and B  bij  is the matrix
C  cij  such that c ij  a ij  b ij for all i and j.
 Subtraction of Matrices
The difference of two equal size matrices, A   aij  and B  bij  , is
defined as A  B  A  (1) B   aij  bij  for all i and j.

– Matrix Multiplication by a Scalar

If A   aij  and k is a scalar, then the multiplication of k and the matrix A
is the matrix B  bij  such that b i j  k a ij for all i and j.
 Matrix Multiplication
c
The product of a row vector  a b  and a column vector   is defined as
d 
c
 a b     ac  bd .
d 
 If A is a matrix of order m  p and B is a matrix of order p  n, then the

product AB is possible and is a matrix of order m  n.
Order of matrix A Order of matrix B

23 3 2
number of column of A  number of row of B
 Generally, matrix multiplication has the following properties:

– AB  BA : non-commutative law
– A( BC )  ( AB )C : associative law
A( B  C )  AB  AC 
–  : distributive law
( A  B)C  AC  BC 
 If there are two matrices, A and B, that satisfy AB  BA  I , then the matrix B
is called the inverse of A and is written as B  A 1 . On the other hand, the matrix
A is the inverse of B and is written as A  B 1 . The matrix A and its inverse
satisfy the multiplicative commutative law where AA 1  A 1 A  I . So does
matrix B where BB 1  B 1 B  I .
 Finding the inverse of 2  2 matrices.
a b 1 1  d b 
If A    and   ad  bc  0 then A   .
c d   c a 

 Elementary Row Operations (ERO) are operations performed on the rows of

matrices as follows:
 Interchange any two rows (row i and row j) and it is denoted as:
Ri  R j
 Multiply row i by a scalar k (k  0) and it is denoted as:

Ri  kRi
 Add multiple of row j to row i and it is denoted as:

Ri  Ri  kR j
Cramer’s rule Matrix multiplication

Determinant Matrix subtraction
Equality of matrix Scalar multiplication
Inverse matrix Transpose
Matrix Types or classifications of matrices
Matrix addition
Aufmann, R. (2005). Algebra: Beginning and intermediate. Boston, MA: Houghton

Mifflin.
Merecek, L. (2017, March 14). Intermediate algebra. Retrieved from

https://openstax.org/details/books/intermediate-algebra
Ratti, J. S., & McWaters, M. (2008). College algebra. Boston, MA: Pearson
Addison-Wesley.

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Topic  Matrices

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 4.1: Manufacture of Products D, E and F

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers consisting of m horizontal rows and n

 a11 a12 ... a1n 

This matrix is called an m  n (read as “m by n”) matrix or a matrix of order m  n.

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Generally, a matrix is denoted by a capital letter. Let us consider the following

 a11 a12 a13 

In general, a matrix A with the dimension of m  n (matrix A with m rows and n

If numbers are arranged in a non-rectangular form, can that still be called

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4.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OR TYPES OF MATRICES

4.1.1 Row Matrix (Row Vector)

(a) B13  1 0 1 (b) B14  1 3 2 1

4.1.2 Column Matrix (Column Vector)

4.1.3 Square Matrix

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4.1.4 Diagonal Matrix

The following are examples of such matrices:

4.1.5 Special Matrix

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State the order of each matrix.

4. Determine the classes for each of the matrices below:

4.2 MATRIX OPERATIONS

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(d) Matrix subtraction;

4.2.1 Equality of Matrix

A matrix equation can be defined as a system of equation. For example, suppose

By equating corresponding entries, we must have

a13 = q + 1, b13 = 5. Therefore a13 = b13, then

a21  q 1, b21  r . Therefore b21 = a21, then

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a 23  p  1, b23  q  4 . Therefore a 23  b23 , then

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4.2.3 Matrix Addition

4.2.4 Matrix Subtraction

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The properties of matrix addition and matrix subtraction are:

4.2.5 Scalar Multiplication

 3 0 1   1(3) 1(0) 1(1)   3 0 1

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4.2.6 Matrix Multiplication

AB = Amn  Bst= Cmt

Generally, suppose that

c11  a11 b11  a12 b21  a13 b31

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 (1)(1)  ( 1)( 1) (1)(1)  ( 1)(0) 

 (1)(1)  ( 1)(0) (1)(0)  ( 1)(1) (1)( 2)  ( 1)( 1) 

Properties of matrix multiplication are:

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Hence, A is an idempotent matrix.

List several examples of idempotent matrices.

(a) 3A (b) A+B (c) CD

(d) AB (e) (2A)(5C) (f) (2A  B)D

2. Determine matrix A that satisfies the following equation:

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If A =  a11  is a square matrix of order 1, then A  a11.

A22   a11  a22    a12  a21 

(a) |A| (b) |B| (c) |AB|

(d) |BA| (e) |A| |B| (f) |B| |A|

(a) |A| = 0(4) – (–1)(2) = 2

(b) |B| = 1(1) – 2(0) = 1

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