“Rugby” Through Finding Its

Volume Page Count: 18

Throughout this paper, I aim to model and calculate the volume of a rugby ball using

mathematics. More specifically, I will attempt to model the shape of a rugby ball and use it to

find its volume and possibly explore further how the radius of the ball changes this measurement.

I have chosen this specific topic as the shape of a rugby ball is not of normal spherical shape and

I wonder how mathematics can be used to find its volume without the presence of traditional

volume equations for this shape. For this investigation, all units are rounded to three significant

figures unless specifically stated otherwise.

With 4.5 million people tuning in to this year’s National Rugby League, the rugby ball

has become amongst the most well-known sports balls of our time (Walsh). However, unlike the

traditional spherical shapes of most sports balls, these balls have their unique oval shape and

hence the method of calculating their volumes would be different. These balls come in a variety

of specific shapes and sizes. Hence, this report will first focus on finding and ultimately

exploring the volume of a size 5 rugby ball where its longest length spans 28cm (Promotional

Rugby Balls).

Before this exploration starts, the definition of volume must be identified. Volume is

defined as how much a 3-dimensional shape can hold (the capacity of the figure) and is measured

in cubic units (Surface Area and the Volume of Cylinders and Cones).
Fig. 1. A demonstration of how a prolate spheroid is created through the rotation of a 2-

dimensional ellipse on its major axis by 180 degrees. Drawn by Yichan Kim, 8 October

2020.

Moving on, the shape of a rugby ball is defined as a prolate spheroid (Mathematical

Name of a Rugby Ball). A prolate spheroid is defined as a 3-dimensional shape obtained by

rotating a 2-dimensional ellipse by its major axis as seen in fig. 1 (Spheroids and Spheres).

Therefore, using the knowledge that the shape of a rugby ball can be made by rotating an ellipse

180 degrees and the definition of volume, the volume of the rugby ball can be found by dividing

the rugby ball shape by a near-infinite amount of circles and adding up each circle’s area. This

method is called the solid of revolution by disks in which a single curve is rotated around the x

axis (Svirin).

Fig. 2. A top-down view of a rugby ball that will be used to graph the shape of the prolate

spheroid on a 2-axis shape. “R500 Rugby Ball”. Decathlon. www.decathlon.vn. This exploration

will first start with the volume calculation of a size 5 rugby ball using the method of solid

revolution by disks. To do so, the shape of a rugby ball must first be graphed on a Cartesian
plane. Considering that the scale of all rugby balls (the ratio between length and width) is the

same for all sizes, a top-down picture of a rugby ball could be imported to a graphing software

and scaled so that it matches the size of a size 5 rugby ball. The top-down view picture has been

chosen from a sporting goods store website (see fig. 2). After importing the image on Desmos, a

default scale of 10 has been applied to both the width and height of the image. However, as the

calculation would be much easier if 1 unit in the Cartesian plane would equal 1cm, the image

must be modified to follow the dimensions of a size

5 rugby ball with the correct scale of 1 unit to 1cm. The longest width of a size 5 rugby ball is

28cm (Promotional Rugby Balls). In other words, the width of the ball in Desmos must span

between the coordinates (−14,0) and (14,0) (half of the width as the ball is centered at the

origin) considering the scale of 1 unit to 1cm. However, as the width of the ball on Desmos (at

scale 10) spans between the coordinates (−4.88,0) and (4.88,0), the scale of the image must be

adjusted accordingly. The following equation can be constructed:

���� = ��

Where �� represents how long the image spans (width) per 1 inputted scale, ��

represents the inputted scale on Desmos and �� represents the width of the shape of the rugby

ball. Using the coordinates of the two horizontal ends ((−4.88,0) and (4.88,0)) of the ball when

the image is imported (with a default scale of 10.0):

10.0�� = 4.88 − (−4.88)

Solving for ��:

�� =976
1000

This specific value of �� would mean that as the scale on Desmos increases by 1 unit,

the width of the rugby ball would also increase by 0.976 units on the plane. Using this scale to
find variable ��, the value of the inputted scale for the image of the ball to be of a certain

width (28.0cm in width):

976
1000 �� = 28.0

Solving for ��:

�� =1750
61
4

As the proportion of the height of the image must stay constant with the width of the

image (1 to 1 ratio as both the scale of the width and height of the image is 10.0), the value

�� must be inputted in both the height and width scales of the image. As a result, the width

of the ball spans from (−14,0) and (14,0), which is exactly 28 units wide. Using the

conversion of 1 unit on the axis to 1 cm, the ball will span 28cm, which follows the exact

dimension of a size 5 rugby ball. Furthermore, the rugby ball’s height spans from (0, −9) and

(0,9).

As stated previously, the shape of a rugby ball is an ellipse rotated by its major axis 180

degrees. Therefore, to graph the shape of a rugby ball on a 2-dimensional axis, it is most suitable

to graph the shape as an ellipse. The ellipse equation is as follows (Ellipse Equation from

Graph):

(�� − ℎ)2
2
�� +(�� − ��)2
2
�� = 1

Where (ℎ, ��) is the coordinates of the center of the ellipse, �� is the horizontal radius and

�� is the vertical radius. As the image is centered at the origin on the Cartesian plane,

variable ℎ and �� will be zero. Also, given that the farthest horizontal and vertical points are

(−14,0), (14,0) and (0, −9), (0,9), variable �� = 14, and �� = 9. Substituting these
 variables: (�� − 0)2

2
14 +(�� − 0)2
2
9 =1

Therefore, the simplified equation that would graph the outline of the rugby ball on a 2-

dimensional plane is the following:

2
196 +��
��2
81 = 1

This would be the equation of the ellipse that would outline the perimeter of the rugby

ball on a 2-dimensional plane.

Fig. 3. Comparison between the rugby ball image and the ellipse equation made. Taken by

Yichan Kim, 13 October 2020.

From fig. 3, the ellipse equation somewhat resembles the rugby ball shape (scaled at the

right size). However, it must be noted that the equation does not fully encompass the perimeter

of the rugby ball. Now that the shape of the rugby ball on a 2-dimension axis is graphed the

prolate spheroid (rugby ball) can be split into a nearly infinite number of circles and the area of

each circle can be added to find the volume. This is called the solid of revolution of disks that

were discussed above.

 However, to properly explain the solid revolution of disks, a basic understanding of

derivatives and integration must first be obtained. Derivatives are a method of finding the

gradient (rate of change) of the curve at a specific point (Introduction to Derivatives) and is the

reverse of integration (Introduction to Integration).

Progressing with derivatives, the formula for finding the slope of a line is the following

(Slope from Equation):

�� =∆��
∆��
6

Where �� represents the slope of the function (��(��)), ∆�� represents the

change in ��- coordinates of a function and ∆�� represents the change in ��-

coordinate of the function. Therefore, the slope equation can be modeled as the following

with similar variables:

�� =��(�� + ∆��) − ��(��)

∆��

Like the slice analogy when discussing the accuracy of finding the area between the
curve and x-axis (integration), the smaller the difference between two ��-coordinate values
(as ∆�� approaches 0), the calculation will be more accurate. Referring to this, the derivative
is found by simplifying the above slope equation and make ∆�� approaches zero. Using

��(��) =13��3 + �� where �� can be any real number as an example:

3 1 3
3(�� + ∆��) + �� − ( 3�� + ��)
1
��′(��) = ∆��

Where ��′(��) is the derivative of the function ��(��).

Simplifying the equation: 3��3 +

 1
��2∆�� + ∆��2�� + 3∆��3

1 3
− 3��

1
′
�� (��) = Further simplifying the equation:
∆��

1
��′(��) =��2∆�� + ∆��2�� + 3∆��3
∆��

Canceling out ∆��:

1
��′(��) = ��2 + ∆���� + 3∆��2

As ∆�� approaches zero:

��′(��) = ��2
7

Therefore, it can be stated that the derivative of the function ��(��) =13��3 +

�� where �� is any real number is ��′(��) = ��2. Therefore, the gradient of the
function at a specific point would be the ��-coordinate of that specific point substituted into

��′(��). As said previously, integral and derivatives are opposites (the process of
integration is reverse for derivatives). Furthermore, as

the derivative (gradient) of ��(��) =13��3 + �� where �� is any real number

would still be ��′(��) = ��2, when finding the integral of a function, the result function
must be added by a constant ��. This is called the constant of integration (Weisstein).

Using this knowledge of derivatives, a short investigation about integration will be

conducted. Integration is a mathematical method that is mainly used to find the area between a

curve and the x-axis by adding up an infinite amount of lines of length of the curve with width

that approaches 0 (∆�� → 0).

 Fig. 4. On the left is an illustration of the

�� = 2 function, and on the right is an illustration of the

�� = 2�� function. Illustrated by Yichan Kim, 26 October 2020.

Consider the function ��(��) = 2, which is illustrated on the left side of fig. 4. Our

goal is to find an area function that will give the area between the function and x-axis between

the two points �� = �� (not to be confused with natural exponent) and �� = ��. It is

to be noted that the derivative of �� = 2�� + �� is ��′ = 2. The area function can be

illustrated as:

�� ����
����(��) = ∫ 2 ��
8

As the area of a rectangle is its height multiplied by its width, the area between the ��(��)

function and the x-axis between the two points (shaded area) can be illustrated as the

following: ����(��) = 2(�� − ��)

Simplifying the equation:

����(��) = 2�� − 2��

It can be observed that an integral can be solved (area between a curve ��(��)

and the x axis) through ��(��) − ��(��) where ��(��) = 2�� + ��, or

the reverse derivative (called antiderivative) of ��(��) (Martin 636).

To further verify this statement, consider another function ℎ(��) = 2��, which is
illustrated on the right side of fig. 5. Our goal is to find an area function that will give the area

between the function and x-axis between the two points �� = �� and �� = ��. It is to

be noted that the derivative of �� = ��2 + �� is ��′ = 2��. The area function can be

illustrated as:

��
��ℎ(��) = ∫ 2�� �� ����

As the area of a trapezium is found by multiplying the average of its two different sides

lengths by its width, the area between the ℎ(��) function and the x-axis between the two

points (shaded area) can be illustrated as the following:

��ℎ(��) = (2�� + 2��

2) (�� − ��)

Simplifying the equation:

��ℎ(��) = ��2 − ��2

9

This further proves the previous finding that an integral can be solved (area between a relation

and x-axis) through finding the reverse/backward derivative (antiderivative) and finding the

difference between the two points substituted into the anti-derivative function (Martin 636). In

other words, the definite integral function will equate as follows (Dave): ��

∫ ��′(��) �� ���� = ��(��) − ��(��)

Where ��′(��) represents the function that is put into the integral, the integral

symbol ∫����represents finding the area between the function and x-axis from the x-
coordinates of point �� to point ��.

Now that an equation for solving integration is found, how the integral is used to

calculate the area between a curve and the x-axis between two different points will be discussed

using the ellipse equation as an example.

Fig. 5. An illustration of finding the area between the curve and the x-axis through rectangles of

width (∆��) 1. Illustrated by Yichan Kim, 13 October 2020.

To find the area between the top half of the ellipse of this curve and the x-axis, parts of the

curve could be split up by rectangles of the same width ∆�� and the area of each rectangle

could be added together to find the area between the curve and x-axis. Likewise, from fig. 5,

10

rectangles of width 1 (∆�� = 1) are used to calculate the area. However, the final area

calculation will not be accurate as it can be observed that the rectangles do not fully enclose the

area under the curve (empty spaces can be seen).

Fig. 6. An illustration of finding the area between the curve and the x-axis through rectangles of

width that approaches 0 (∆�� → 0). Illustrated by Yichan Kim, 13 October 2020. However, it

can be observed that as the width of the rectangle decreases, the area calculation between the

curve and x-axis will be more accurate. As seen in fig. 6, as the width of the rectangle
approaches zero (∆�� → 0) the sum of the area of the rectangles will become more accurate

in finding the area between the curve and x-axis. As lines in geometry have no width, fig. 6

shows the illustration of the area between the curve and x-axis through an infinite number of

lines. The notation of finding the area between the curve ��(��) and the x-axis from the x

coordinate points �� and �� (�� < ��) with the width of the rectangles approaching

zero (∆�� → 0) (which is basically a line) is the following (Introduction to Integration):

��
∫ ��(��) �� ����

Now instead of illustrating an area between a curve and the x-axis through an infinite

number of lines (Dimensions), this integration formula will be used to find the volume of the

11

rugby ball. To do so, instead of the use of 2-dimensional lines, circles of its center point on the x

axis and radius of the y coordinate of the curve ��(��) will be used. This would mean that

the shape of the rugby ball (prolate spheroid) would be composed of an infinite amount of

circles aligned by its center point on the major axis (x-axis) with radius of the y-coordinate

value of the curve ��(��).

Fig. 7. An
illustration of the circle that is infinitely present in a prolate spheroid. The center point of the
circle is aligned on the x-axis and the radii of the circles are the y-coordinate of the curve
(��(��)). Drawn by Yichan Kim, 16 October 2020.
As the shape of a rugby ball (prolate spheroid) is a 3-dimensional shape and as the shape

of a circle is a 2-dimensional shape, there consists an infinite number of circles in the prolate
spheroid. As seen in fig. 7, the center point of the circles is all aligned on the x-axis. The radius

of the circles is the y-coordinate of the curve, ��(��). The equation of the area of a circle is

the following:

�� = ����2

Where �� is the area of the circle and �� is the radius of the particular circle. Lines that

consist between the curve and the x-axis in the above integration formula will be represented as

the radius of each circle (�� = ��(��)). As there is an infinite number of circles in a

prolate spheroid, the integration formula must be used to represent that there would be an

infinite

12

number of circles between points �� and ��. Using the area equation and the integration

formula (as a prolate spheroid has an infinite number of circles), the below equation can be

formed: ��

∫ ��(��(��))2 �� ����

Where ��(��) represents the curve that outlines the top half shape of a rugby

ball on a Cartesian plane, �� represents the x-coordinate of where the curve first meets the

x-axis and �� represents the x-coordinate of where the curve last meets the x-axis as long

as �� > ��. The equation that has been found above that outlines the shape of a rugby

ball on a 2-dimensional axis is the following:

2
196 +��
��2
81 = 1

Isolating ��2:

��2 = 81 (1 −��2
 196)

Substituting ��(��) with ��:

(��(��))2= 81 (1 −��2

196)

Substituting this equation with the integration formula for calculating volume (��) of a

prolate spheroid:

��

�� = ∫ 81��(1 −��2
�� ����
196)

As the curve meets the x-axis at the coordinates (−14, 0) and (14, 0), �� = −14 and ��

= 14, substituting these values:

14

�� = ∫ 81�� (1 −��2
−14 ����
196)
13

As the curve is symmetrical about the y-axis (�� = 0), the equation can be simplified to

the following:

14

�� = 2 ∫ 81�� (1 −��2
���� Simplifying the equation:
0
196)

14 14 ����)
�� = 162��(∫ 1 0 1 2
���� − 196 ∫ �� 0

The below equation (investigated above) for finding the solution of an integral will be used

(Dave):
 ��

�� ���� = ��(��) −
∫ ��′(��) ��
Where ∫ ��′(��) ��(��)

��is the function that is inside the integral. As we know that the derivative of

��(��) =13��3 + �� is ��′(��) = ��2and that the derivative of ��(��) =

�� + �� is ��′(��) = 1 using the derivative process and the knowledge integral is

opposite of derivative, the equation can be converted to the following:

1 1
�� = 162��((14 + ��) − (0 + ��) − 196 (( 3(143) + ��)
1
− ( 3(0) + ��))) Simplifying:
2
�� = 162�� (14 − 4 3)
Further simplifying the equation:

�� ≈ 4750

As one unit on the Cartesian plane represents one centimeter, and volume is measured in

cubic units, the volume of a size 5 rugby ball can be estimated to be 4750����3.

14

Now that the volume of a size 5 rugby ball is estimated, how the change of the radius of

the rugby ball would affect its volume will be explored. To do so, the equation that outlines the

shape of a rugby ball where the minor radius (shorter radius) is expressed in the terms of the

major radius (longer radius) must be found. Considering that all rugby balls have the same ratio

between its major and minor radius, using the major and minor radius of a size 5 rugby ball, the

following ratio (major radius to minor radius) can be formed:

14: 9

Simplifying this ratio:

9
1: 14
This ratio would mean that the minor radius of the rugby ball (prolate spheroid) is 914 multiplied
by its major radius. The ellipse equation is as follows (Ellipse Equation from Graph): (�� −

ℎ)2

2
�� +(�� − ��)2
2
�� = 1

Where (ℎ, ��) is the coordinates of the center of the ellipse, �� is the horizontal radius

(which would be the major radius for a prolate spheroid) and �� is the vertical radius(which
will be the minor radius for the prolate spheroid). As the image will be centered at the origin

on the Cartesian plane, variable ℎ and �� will be zero. In addition, given that the minor

radius (��), is 914 multiplied by its major radius (��), the minor radius can be expressed by

9
the following: �� = 14 ��

Substituting these variables into the ellipse equation:

��2
2
�� +��2
9 2
( 14 ��) = 1
15

This would be the ellipse equation that outlines the shape of a rugby ball where

{�� ∈ ℝ|�� ≠ 0}. Isolating this equation for ��2and multiplying:

��2 =81
2
196 �� −81
2
196 ��

Substituting �� with ��(��):

(��(��))2=81
2
196 �� −81
2
196 ��
 Now that (��(��))2is found, it can be substituted into the below equation for
finding the volume of a prolate spheroid (found above):
��
�� = ∫ ��(��(��))2 �� ����

Where (��(��))2represents the curve that outlines the full shape of a rugby ball on a

Cartesian plane, �� represents the x-coordinate of where the curve first meets the x-axis and

�� represents the x-coordinate of where the curve last meets the x-axis as long as �� >

��. As the outlined shape of a rugby ball is centered on the origin (center) of the Cartesian

plane, �� would equal the negative of the major radius (−��) and �� would equal the

negative of the major radius (��). However, as the outline of the shape of the ball is

symmetrical at the y-axis (two halves of the symmetrical shape would equal the whole shape),

the equation can be simplified as such:

��

��(��) = 2 ∫ �� (81
2
196 �� −81
0
2 ����
196 �� )

Further simplifying this equation (splitting the integral):

��(��) = 2��(81 ���� −81

�� ��
2 2 ����)
196 �� ∫ 1 0 196 ∫ (�� ) 0

As the derivative of �� is 1 and the derivative of 13��3is found to be ��2, the

equation can be simplified to:
16

��(��) = 2�� ((81

2
196 �� (��)) −81
1 3
196 ( 3�� ))
Further simplifying:

��(��) =27��
3
49 ��

The above formula would be an equation that would find the volume of the rugby ball

with its major radius, variable �� where {�� ∈ ℝ|�� ≠ 0}. It can therefore be said that

there exists a cubic relationship between the volume of a rugby ball and its major radius.

Furthermore, as the formula starts from �� = 0 at �� = 0, and has a positive coefficient (of

��), it can be said that the volume of the ball infinitely increases as the major radius

increases. However, as the focus of this section is to find the rates of change (gradient) of the

volume of the rugby ball with respect to its major radius, the derivative of the formula

��(��) must be found. Exporting the derivative equation:

��′(��) =��(�� + ∆��) − ��(��)

∆��

Substitution:

27��
3
49 (�� + ∆��) −27��
3 27��
49 ��
2 2 3
∆�� 49 (3�� ∆�� + 3∆�� �� + ∆�� )
∆��
Expansion and simplification:
Further simplification:
��′(��) = ��′(��) =

��′(��) =27��
2 2
49 (3�� + 3∆��(��) + ∆�� )

As ∆�� approaches zero:

17

��′(��) =81��
 2
49 ��

The above derivative equation outlines the rate of change of the rugby ball’s volume in

cubic centimeters in relation to the length of the major radius of the rugby ball, ��. This

equation assumes that the major and minor radius of a rugby ball are proportional. As the

coefficient of �� is positive, this would mean that the rate of change of volume with

consideration with the major radius of a rugby ball would increase as the major radius

increases. Using this equation to find the rate of change of the rugby ball’s volume where its

major radius is at 14 cm (�� = 14) as an example, the equation can be used as the following:

��′(14) = 324��

≈ 1020 ����3

The rate of change of the volume of the rugby ball with a major radius of 14 cm is

1020 ����3.

Concluding the exploration, I was successfully able to complete my aim by estimating the

volume of a size five rugby ball. Furthermore, I was successfully able to use that knowledge to

create an equation that finds the value and its rate of change of the volume of a rugby ball with a

given radius. Even so, it must be noted that the curve that outlines the shape of a rugby ball does

not completely align with the perimeter of the rugby ball, hence hinting the presence of

inaccuracy in the estimation and model. Moreover, the model that estimates the volume of a

rugby ball with a given major radius assumes that the minor and major radius of a rugby ball is

proportional. This makes me wonder whether the relationship between major and minor radius of

a rugby ball is truly proportional. Therefore, a possible extension to this report could be to find

the relationship between the major and minor radius of different rugby ball sizes and hence

disprove/approve of the model’s assumption. In addition, addressing the limitation that the curve

18
outlining the rough shape of a rugby ball does not fully align to its shape, another possible

extension to this report could be to find a variety of curves that roughly outlines the shape of the

rugby ball and finding the ball’s volume using the different curves and comparing the results

with each other. In summary, a strength of this report was how I was able to successfully

estimate and create a model that finds the volume of a rugby ball with a given dimension.

However, a weakness to this report is that the model assumes something that hasn’t been proven

and that the model of the shape of the rugby ball does not fit exactly into the shape of such.

Extensions addressing these limitations have been outlined and would have definitely been

something I would have changed if I was to do this report again.

Discussing the results of this report, it was obviously expected that as the radius increases,

the volume of the rugby ball would also increase. However, a finding that wasn’t as much

expected was that there exists a cubic relationship between the volume of the rugby ball

and its major radius. Implications to the model that finds the volume of the rugby ball may vary,

but one significant effect that this may bring would be that it would increase the efficiency of

packaging and shipment of these rugby balls. The volume of the rugby ball can be used to

determine the ratio between the volume of the product (rugby ball) and its packaging – which

would be a crucial determinant when choosing from a range of packaging solutions. Although

this model may have a small implication when looked upon on a small scale, each slight increase

in the efficiency of rugby ball packaging would substantially decrease shipping and

environmental costs of these packages when done on a large scale (which is greatly possible with

a sport as popular as rugby).

19

Works Cited

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2018. www.youtube.com/watch?v=b0RJkIBhfEM. Accessed 18 October 2020. “Dimensions.”

Maths Is Fun. 2017 www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/-dimensions.html. Accessed 26 October

2020.

“Ellipse Standard Equation from Graph.” Khan Academy. 23 February 2016.

www.khanacademy.org/math/precalculus/x9e81a4f98389efdf:conics/x9e81a4f98389efdf:

ellipse-center-radii/v/ellipse-standard-equation-from-graph. Accessed 13 October 2020.

“Introduction to Derivatives.” Maths Is Fun.2017. www.mathsisfun.com/calculus /derivatives

introduction.html. Accessed 17 October 2020.

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Martin, David, et al. “Integration.” Mathematics HL (Core), Haese Mathematics, pp. 628–670.

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“Promotional Rugby Balls.” Dynamic Gift Australia, www.dynamicgift.com.au/promotional

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“R500 Rugby Ball - Yellow.” Decathlon Vietnam 2019. www.decathlon.vn/en/p/ 8496669_qua

bong-bau-duc-touch-500-vang.html. Accessed 2 October 2020.

“Slope from Equation.” Khan Academy. 27 March 2017.

www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/x2f8bb11595b61c86:forms-of-linear

equations/x2f8bb11595b61c86:summary-forms-of-two-variable-linear-equations/v/slope

from-equation. Accessed 17 October 2020.

20

“Spheroids and Spheres.” Spheroids and Spheres-ArcMap | Documentation, Esri. 2020.

desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/spheroids-and-spheres.htm.

Accessed 7 October 2020.

Svirin, Alex. “Volume of a Solid of Revolution: Disks and Washers.” Math24. 30 April 2020.

www.math24.net/volume-solid-of-revolution-disks-washers/. Accessed 10 October 2020. “The

Surface Area and the Volume of Pyramids, Prisms, Cylinders and Cones.” Mathplanet.

www.mathplanet.com/education/geometry/area/the-surface-area-and-the-volume-of pyramids-

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