Brigham Young University

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering

CEEn 361 – Introduction to Transportation Engineering

8.2 Signal Warrants and Stopping Distance at Signalized Intersections

Textbook Revisions

The following information is provided to help clarify errors in the textbook.

XS
XS < XO No Dilemma Zone

XO

XS No Dilemma Zone
XS = XO

XO

XS
XS > XO Dilemma Zone Exists
Length = XS - XO

XO W L
XC

FIGURE 8.10 The dilemma zone situation (revised).

v02
To safely stop: D ≥ X S = v0 t r +
2a

To safely clear: D ≤ X 0 = v0 t c − (W + L )
X C = v0 t c Where: a = Braking deceleration rate (ft/sec2)
tr = Response time (sec)
XC = X0 +W + L tc = Clearance time (sec)
t c = t Y + t All Re d tY = Yellow time (sec)
tAllRed = All-red time (sec)
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Example 8.4
A driver traveling in his 16-foot SUV at the speed limit of 30 mph was arrested for running a red
light at 15th and Main in Shoridan, an intersection that is 60 feet wide. The driver claimed
innocence, on the grounds that the traffic signals were not set properly. The yellow light was on
for the standard 4 seconds. The SUV driver’s reaction time is assumed to be 1.5 seconds.
Comfortable deceleration is at a rate of 10 ft/sec/sec. Did a dilemma zone exist on this
intersection approach? If so, how long was it?

Note: This Example problem assumes that the driver must completely clear the intersection to
avoid “running a red light.”

Solution to Example 8.4 The minimum distance needed to stop, Xs is, from Equation 8.3a,
computed as:
v 0 30mph ⋅ (5280 ft / mi / 3600 sec/ hr ) 44 ft / sec
t s = time to stop = = = = 4.4 sec .
a 10 ft / sec 2 10 ft / sec 2
⎛1 2⎞
X S = v0 t r + v 0 t s − at s2 = (44 ft / sec⋅ 1.5 sec ) + (44 ft / sec⋅ 4.4 sec ) − ⎜ ⋅ 10 ft / sec 2 ⋅ (4.4 sec ) ⎟
1
2 ⎝2 ⎠
X S = 66 ft + 193.6 ft − 96.8 ft = 162.8 ft

The minimum distance needed to stop, Xs, from the Class Notes equations is computed as:
v02
X S = v0 t r + = 44 ft / sec⋅ (1.5 sec ) +
(44 ft / sec)2
2a (
2 ⋅ 10 ft / sec 2 )
X S = 66 ft + 96.8 ft = 162.8 ft

If the driver was any closer to the intersection than the XS distance just calculated, s/he must use
a higher deceleration rate or less perception-reaction time (i.e., uncomfortable deceleration, less
safe). Now we calculate the distance s/he must travel, XC, to completely clear the intersection
within the yellow interval of 4.0 seconds, using Equation 8.3b, with aacc = 0.0:

X C = v 0 t r + v0 (tY − t r ) +
a acc (tY − t r ) = (44 ft / sec⋅ 1.5 sec ) + (44 ft / sec⋅ (4.0 sec− 1.5 sec) ) + 0
1 2

2
X C = 66 ft + 110 ft + 0 ft = 176 ft

The minimum distance needed to clear the intersection, XC, from the Class Notes equations is
computed as:
X C = v 0 t c = 44 ft / sec⋅ 4 sec
X C = 176 ft

CEEn 361 – Introduction to Transportation Engineering 8.2 Revisions

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Hence, the maximum distance from the stop line within which he can safely clear the intersection
(X0) is:
X 0 = X C − (W + L )
X 0 = 176 ft − (60 ft + 16 ft ) = 100 ft
Hence, XS > X0 and a dilemma zone exists.

The length of the dilemma zone is XS – X0 = 162.8 ft – 100 ft = 62.8 ft.

The driver’s claim cannot be dismissed, but now the issue becomes whether the vehicle was in
the dilemma zone when the light changed to yellow.

XS = 168.2 ft

Dilemma
Zone
(62.8 ft)

X0 = 100 ft W = 60 ft L = 16 ft

XC = 176 ft

CEEn 361 – Introduction to Transportation Engineering 8.2 Revisions

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Example 8.5
Using the vehicle and driver described in Example 8.4:
A. Determine the length of an all-red clearance interval needed for the vehicle to clear the
intersection.
B. If the all-red clearance interval is 2 seconds long, determine the range of approach speeds
at which a vehicle can clear the intersection.

Note: In this Example we assume All Red clearance so it is okay to be in the intersection during
all-red, but the vehicle must cross the stop bar before the all-red clearance begins.

Solution to Example 8.5

A. In Example 8.4, the stopping distance (XS) with v0 = 30 mph (44 ft/sec) was calculated to
be 162.8 ft.
t all Re d = time to clear ( t C ) − time of yellow (t Y )

From a revised version of Equation 8.3b, the distance to clear the intersection X0 = v0 tC –
(W + L). Because the dilemma zone is avoided when X0 = XS, we substitute XS for X0 in
this equation:

X 0 = v 0 t C − (W + L ) 162.8 ft. = 44 ft / s ⋅ t C − (60 ft. + 16 ft.)

238.8 ft.
tC = t C = 5.43 sec .
44 ft / s
Hence : t all Re d = t C − t Y t all Re d = 5.43 sec− 4.0 sec = 1.43 sec .

B. Using the definitions of XS and X0 with v0 as the unknown variable, we get:

v02 v 02
X S = v0 t r + = 1.5v0 +
2⋅a 2 ⋅ 10
X 0 = v0 t c − (W + L ) = (4 sec+ 2 sec)v 0 − (60 ft + 16 ft )

Again, because the dilemma zone is avoided when XS = X0, we equate XS and X0 as:

v02
X S = X 0 1.5 sec⋅ v0 + = (4 sec+ 2 sec)v0 − (60 ft + 16 ft )
2 ⋅ 10 ft / sec 2
1.5 sec⋅ v0 + 0.05 sec 2 / ft ⋅ v02 = 6 sec⋅ v 0 − 76 ft
0.05v02 − 4.5v0 + 76 = 0
ft ft
v0 = 67.5 (46mph) OR 22.5 (15.3mph)
sec sec

The dilemma zone, therefore, is eliminated when v0 is between 46 mph and 15.3 mph
(this is the top and middle case in Figure 8.10).

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To check these results, we can calculate XS and X0 for values above, below, and between
these limits:

Let v0 = 70 ft/s (47.7 mph)

X S = v0 t r +
v02
= 1.5 ⋅ 70 +
(70)2 = 105 + 245 = 350 ft.
2⋅a 2 ⋅ 10
X 0 = v0 t c − (W + L ) = (4 + 2)(70) − (60 + 16) = 420 − 76 = 344 ft.

Hence, XS > X0; therefore, a dilemma zone exists when v0 > 67.5 ft/s (this is the bottom
case in Figure 8.10).

Let v0 = 20 ft/s (13.6 mph)

X S = v0 t r +
v02
= 1.5 ⋅ 20 +
(20)
2
= 30 + 20 = 50 ft.
2⋅a 2 ⋅ 10
X 0 = v 0 t c − (W + L ) = (4 + 2)(20) − (60 + 16 ) = 120 − 76 = 44 ft.

Hence, XS > X0; therefore, a dilemma zone exists when v0 < 22.5 ft/s (this is the bottom
case in Figure 8.10).

Let v0 = 45 ft/s (30.7 mph)

X S = v0 t r +
v02
= 1.5 ⋅ 45 +
(45)
2
= 67.5 + 101.25 = 168.75 ft.
2⋅a 2 ⋅ 10
X 0 = v 0 t c − (W + L ) = (4 + 2)(45) − (60 + 16 ) = 270 − 76 = 194 ft.

Hence, XS < X0; therefore, a dilemma zone does not exist when 67.5 ft/s > v0 > 22.5 ft/s
(this is the top case in Figure 8.10).

CEEn 361 – Introduction to Transportation Engineering 8.2 Revisions