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ASSIGNMENT 2ND SEMESTER

SUBJECT: BIOSTATS
TOPIC: STATISTICS, SAMPLING, ORGANIZING, DISPLAYING
& SUMMARIZING DATA

SUBMITTED TO: MS. ZAR-NIGAR

M.Sc. NURSING
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
NURSING CAMPUS SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY
LAHORE
SUBMITTED BY: MS. SADIA YAQOOB
BSN POST RN (STUDENT)
NURSING CAMPUS SUPERIOR UNIVERSITY
LAHORE

SUBMITTED ON: 30-06-2021

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SR.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1 Objectives 3

2 Introduction 4

3 Statistics and classification 6

4 Methods of sampling 7

5 Organizing data 9

6 Figures, tables and graphs 11

7 Bar charts, Pie charts & Frequency Polygon 12, 13, 14

8 Summarizing data 14

10 Standard deviations 16

11 Conclusion 19

12 References 20

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 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this assignment the observer will be able to:

 Define statistics.

 Know the categories of statistic, their usage and advantages of statistics.

 Know the importance of Population a sampling.

 Describe method of selecting appropriate sampling and its types.

 Classify organizing data.

 Displaying data by using measuring scale.

 know the method of summarizing data.

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 INTRODUCTION
The word statistics is the science of collecting and analyzing biologic or health data using
statistical methods. It deals with development and application of the most appropriate methods
for:
 The Collection of Data.
 Presentation of the Collected Data.
 Analysis and Interpretation of the results.
 Making decisions on the basis of such analysis.
There are 4 main types of data collection such as Nominal, Ordinal, Discrete and Continuous.
The scope includes principles of scientific methodology, defining various types of data and
studies, levels of measurements, descriptive statistics, inferential statistics and hypothesis testing,
and correlation.
The principle to use for graphical displays and numerical summaries, data collection methods,
probability, sampling distributions, confidence intervals and hypothesis testing involving one or
two means and proportions, contingency tables, correlation and simple linear regression.
For the last decade, the improvement of quality in the industry is called as “industrial miracle “It
is as an active intellectual field of study, the fundamental discoveries.
The reasons which add its significance in data collections as:
First, the statistics and how they are used?
Second, population and sampling
Third, organizing and displaying data.
Fourth, summarizing data
A study is essential for both understanding and conducting research in any of the health
professional. Whenever a new method, drug, device or intervention is developed, a key question
is “Does it Work”. Statistics help to analyze data and to decide if the new idea is worthy of being
incorporated into the profession or lives.
Statistical conclusion validity holds when the conclusions of a research study are founded on an
adequate analysis of the data, generally meaning that adequate statistical methods are used whose
small-sample behavior is accurate, besides being logically capable of providing an answer to
the research question.
Data and conclusions are both key elements of a scientific research process. In carrying out a
study or experiment, data is the result collected from testing. Conclusions are your interpretation
of the data.

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 STATISTICS

Statistics is defined as the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing and

interpreting numerical data that can be stated numerically for the purpose of assisting in making
a more effective decision.
STATICIANS: are the guide and design of an experiment or survey, they analyze, present and
interpret data.

CLASSIFICATION:

Depending on how data can be used, statistics is sometimes divided in to two main areas or
branches.

1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: it deals with the enumeration, organization and

graphical representation of data in the form of the summary calculations, graphs, charts and
tables.

2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: Is a method used to reach conclusion from incomplete

information that is generally from specific from a sample about an entire population.
 It is important because statistical data usually arises from sample.
 Statistical techniques based on probability theory are required

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 .

USES OF STATISTICS:

The main function of statistics is to enlarge our knowledge of complex phenomena. The
following are some uses of statistics:
1. It presents facts in a definite and precise form.
2. Data reduction.
3. Measuring the magnitude of variations in data.
4. Furnishes a technique of comparison
5. Estimating unknown population characteristics.
6. Testing and formulating of hypothesis.
7. Studying the relationship between two or more variable.
8. Forecasting future events.

LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS:

As a science statistic has its own limitations. The following are some of the limitations:
 Deals with only quantitative information.
 Deals with only aggregate of facts and not with individual data items.
 Statistical data are only approximately and not mathematical correct.
 Statistics can be easily misused and therefore should be used be experts.

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 POPULATION AND SAMPLING:

In statistics, researchers and educators commonly use the terms population and sample (Alferez
& Duro, 2006). It is a set of persons having common observable characteristics.

Population is the entire collection of all elements/experimental units under consideration in a

statistical inquiry or to be studied. Sample a part of the population come up with reliable
statement about a population on the basis of sample information.

When the same characteristics pertains to a sample, it is called a statistic.

Whereas the set of observations is summarized by a descriptive stud called as parameters.

Population
Parameter
Sample
Statistic

METHOD OF SAMPLE SELECTION:

The sample is selected there are two major techniques:
 Probability sampling
 Non- probability sampling

PROBABILTY SAMPLING:

Every individual in the population has greater than zero chance of selection
Ensures a more representative sample.

TYPES OF PROBABILTY SAMPLE:

 Simple Random Sampling
 Stratified Sampling

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  Cluster Sampling

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING:

Defines population. Develop sampling frame Assign each unit a number Randomly select the
required amount of random numbers. Systematically select random numbers until it meets the
sample size requirements.
 Every member of population has equal probability of selection.
 Used in case of homogeneous population
 Use any of the techniques for random selection such as draw, use of random number table

STRATIFED SAMPLING:
It is a type of sampling method in which total population is divided into smaller groups or the
sample can be organized into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as an independent
sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. Every unit in a
stratum has same chance of being selected.
 Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate representation in the
sample.
 Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured by stratification
& varying sampling fraction between strata as required. 

CLUSTER SAMPLING:
Cluster Sampling Selecting a sample based on specific, naturally occurring groups (clusters)
within a population.it is the sampling plan in which total population is divided into these groups
and random sample of a group is selected.
If a simple random subsample of element is selected with in each of these groups, this is referred
to as a “two-stage” cluster sample plan.

NON PROBABILTY SAMPLING

 Where in every member doesn’t have equal chance of selection.

POSITIVE SAMPLING:
Purposive Sampling Look for the population of your interest e.g. in selecting a school to perform
experiment in methods of teaching.

QUOTA SAMPLING:
Quota Sampling Just as in case of SRS, except that you purposefully select certain cases/units to
give representation to cover the quota.

SNOW BALL SAMPLING:

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Snowball Sampling Ask the sample to identify another one and go on till the completion of
sample size.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING:
Useful for pilot-testing.
 Pick up the cases easily available.
 Selection of whichever individuals are easiest to reach.
 It is done at the “convenience” of the researcher

CLASSIFYING AND ORGANIZING DATA

For the successful completion and explanation of data the first task should be to classify and
organize dat.

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There are three general ways of organizing and presenting data, such as:
 Tables.
 Graphs.
 Numerical Techniques

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT:

Stanley Stevens (2000) developed the four common scales of measurement:

QUALITATIVE DATA:
1-Nominal scale of data: The nominal scale of measurement defines the identity property of
data. This scale has certain characteristics, but doesn’t have any form of numerical meaning. The
data can be placed into categories but can’t be multiplied, divided, added or subtracted from one
another. It’s also not possible to measure the difference between data points.
Examples of nominal data include eye colour and country of birth. Nominal data can be broken
down again into three categories:

2-Ordinal scale data: The ordinal scale defines data that is placed in a specific order. While
each value is ranked, there’s no information that specifies what differentiates the categories from
each other. These values can’t be added to or subtracted from.
An example of this kind of data would include satisfaction data points in a survey, where ‘one =
happy, two = neutral, and three = unhappy.’ Where someone finished in a race also describes
ordinal data. While first place, second place or third place shows what order the runners finished
in, it doesn’t specify how far the first-place finisher was in front of the second-place finisher.

QUANTITATIVE DATA:
Interval scale measurement: The interval scale contains properties of nominal and ordered
data, but the difference between data points can be quantified. This type of data shows both the
order of the variables and the exact differences between the variables. They can be added to or
subtracted from each other, but not multiplied or divided. For example, 40 degrees is not 20
degrees multiplied by two.

This scale is also characterized by the fact that the number zero is an existing variable. In the
ordinal scale, zero means that the data does not exist. In the interval scale, zero has meaning –
for example, if you measure degrees, zero has a temperature.

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Ratio scale measurement: Ratio scales of measurement include properties from all four scales
of measurement. The data is nominal and defined by an identity, can be classified in order,
contains intervals and can be broken down into exact value. Weight, height and distance are all
examples of ratio variables. Data in the ratio scale can be added, subtracted, divided and
multiplied.
Ratio scales also differ from interval scales in that the scale has a ‘true zero’. The number zero
means that the data has no value point. An example of this is height or weight, as someone
cannot be zero centimeters tall or weigh zero kilos – or be negative centimeters or negative kilos.
Examples of the use of this scale are calculating shares or sales. Of all types of data on the scales
of measurement, data scientists can do the most with ratio data points.

FIGURES, TABLE AND GRAPHS

FIGURES: Are simply any types of illustration other than a table. That may include charts,
graphs, photographs and drawings.

TABLES: They display quantitative data as well qualitative data such as smoking status have
been assigned numerical values
(0 = nonsmokers, 1= smokers)

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GRAPHS: The primary purpose of graphs and tables is to visually display information in a
manner that makes it easy for readers to comprehended.

FREQUENCY TABLE
The most convenient way to summarizing or displaying data is by means of a frequency table.

The frequency of a particular data value is the number of times the data value occurs.

For example, if four students have a score of 80 in mathematics, and then the score of 80 is said
to have a frequency of 4.  The frequency of a data value is often represented by f.

A frequency table is constructed by arranging collected data values in ascending order of

magnitude with their corresponding frequencies.

BAR CHARTS

A bar chart is a graph with rectangular bars. The graph usually compares different categories.
Although the graphs can be plotted vertically (bars standing up) or horizontally (bars laying flat
from left to right), the most usual type of bar graph is vertical.
The horizontal (x) axis represents the categories; The vertical (y) axis represents a value for
those categories. In the graph below, the values are percentages.

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In bar charts according to frequency is shown by the height. It is an essential scale on the vertical
axis begins at zero.

PIE CHARTS
A Common devive for displaying data arranged is the pie chart-a circle divided into wedge that
corresponds to the percentage frequencies of the distribution. Pie chart are useful in conveying
data of small numbers or figures.

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 FREQUENCY POLYGON
A frequency polygon is a line graph of class frequency plotted against class mid-point. It can be
obtained by connecting the mid-points of the tops of the rectangles in the histogram or drawn as
a line graph.

SUMMARIZING DATA
There are three most common values:
Mean
Median
Mode

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They are known as measures of central tendency. The tendency of a set of data to centre-around
certain numerical values.

Each scale of measurement has properties that determine how to properly analyze the data. The
properties evaluated are identity, magnitude, equal intervals and a minimum value of zero

Descriptive statistics uses data that provides a description of the population either through
numerical calculation or graph or table. It provides a graphical summary of data. It is simply
used for summarizing objects, etc. There are two categories in this as following below.
(a)Measure of central tendency –
Measure of central tendency is also known as summary statistics that is used to represents the
center point or a particular value of a data set or sample set.
In statistics, there are three common measures of central tendency as shown below:
Mean :
It is measure of average of all value in a sample set. For Example:

Median
It is measure of central value of a sample set. In these, data set is ordered from lowest to
highest value and then finds exact middle.
For example,

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Mode :
It is value most frequently arrived in sample set. The value repeated most of time in central set
is actually mode.
For example,

(b). Measure of Variability:

Measure of Variability is also known as measure of dispersion and used to describe variability
in a sample or population. In statistics, there are three common measures of variability as
shown below:
Range :
It is given measure of how to spread apart values in sample set or data set.
Range = Maximum value - Minimum value
Variance :
It simply describes how much a random variable defers from expected value and it is also
computed as square of deviation.
S2= ∑ni=1 [(xi - ͞x)2 ÷ n]

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In these formula, n represent total data points, ͞x represent mean of data points and xi represent
individual data points.

Dispersion :
It is measure of dispersion of set of data from its mean.
σ= √ (1÷n) ∑ni=1 (xi - μ)2 

STANDARD DEVIATIONS
Standard deviation describes about how to spread out the data is. It is a measure of how far each
observed value is from the mean. In any distribution, about 95% of values will be within
standard deviations of the mean.
A useful property of the standards deviation is that, unlike the variance, it is expressed in the
same units as the data.

Method of calculating standard deviation

Calculating Standard Deviation

Standard deviation measures how far results spread from the average value. You can find the
standard deviation by finding the square root of the variance, and then squaring the differences
from the mean. If you’re wondering, “What is the formula for standard deviation?” it looks like
this:

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 In order to determine standard deviation:

1. Determine the mean (the average of all the numbers) by adding up all the data pieces (xi)
and dividing by the number of pieces of data (n).
2. Subtract the mean (x̄) from each value.
3. Square each of those differences.
4. Determine the average of the squared numbers calculated in #3 to find the variance. (In
sample sizes, subtract 1 from the total number of values when finding the average.)
5. Find the square root of the variance. That’s the standard deviation!

For example: Take the values 2, 1, 3, 2 and 4.

1. Determine the mean (average):

2 + 1 +3 + 2 + 4 = 12
12 ÷ 5 = 2.4 (mean)

2. Subtract the mean from each value:

2 - 2.4 = -0.4
1 - 2.4 = -1.4
3 - 2.4 = 0.6
2 - 2.4 = -0.4
4 - 2.4 = 1.6

3. Square each of those differences:

-0.4 x -0.4 = 0.16

-1.4 x -1.4 = 1.96
0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36
-0.4 x -0.4 = 0.16
1.6 x 1.6 = 2.56

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4. Determine the average of those squared numbers to get the variance.

0.16 + 1.96 + 0.36 + 0.16 + 2.56 = 5.2

5.2 ÷ 5 = 1.04 (variance)

5. Find the square root of the variance.

Square root of 1.04 = 1.01

The standard deviation of the values 2, 1, 3, 2 and 4 is 1.01.

CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY:

The statistical report is a way of presenting large amounts of data in a convenient form. It makes
them appropriate for both the non-experienced audience and for professionals.

Teachers often give their students a task to do a statistical analysis report during the course on
this subject. It is not an easy task. You need statistical analysis skills, learn methods and tools.
You need to researching skills to gather information from reliable sources. And you need to
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Many students have issues while performing this task, that’s why we want to help. In this article
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The concluded facts need the facts and results of the researches. If the researcher explores the
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However, if you have samples of the ready reports – examine them in detail. Here, at
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REFRENCES:
 Stanley Stevens (2000) "Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling, Data
Collection, and Analysis Techniques in Mixed-Method Studies".3d ed. Research in
Nursing & Health. Ch. 23 Pp 246–255.
 Utts, Jessica M. (2005). Seeing through statistics (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson,
Brooks/Cole. I
 James. K et.al (2021). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association:
Fifth Edition. Berhingum.
 Simsons. P (2017). Statistics and mathematics. “Difference between descriptive and
Inferential statistics” 2nd ed. UC Berkeley’s Lawsuit.
 Laura. B & Maria. F (1999). Discrete mathematics.” Types of recurrent relationships.”3 rd
ed. Baltimore.

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