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Multiply by n property: Differentiation Multiply by n property: Differentiation

of X(z) of X(z): Example
xnun  X ( z ),
If z  Rx

Then nxnun  − z
dX ( z )
z  Rx
dz

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Multiply by n property: Differentiation Time Reversal Property

of X(z): Example
If xn  X ( z ), z  Rx
Then x− n  X ( z −1 ) z 1 / Rx

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Initial Value Theorem Final Value Theorem

❑ For a causal sequence i.e. if x[0] is finite, then lim X ( z ) is

xn  X (z ),
z →
finite.
❑ If x(n) is causal [i.e., x(n) = 0 for n < 0], then If
If xn = 0, for n  0 Then lim xn = x() = lim 1 − z −1 X ( z ) ( )
n→ z →1

Then x0 = lim X ( z ) ❑ i.e. the limit exist if all the poles of (1-z-1) X(z) lie inside the
z →
unit circle, i.e. all the poles of (1-z-1) X(z) have magnitude less
❑ IVT helps to finds a DC gain of a signal of a signal. than one.
❑ FVT helps to find a final steady state value of a signal.

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Convolution of Sequences Convolution of Sequences: Example

If x1 n  X 1 ( z ), z  R1
and if x2 n  X 2 ( z ), z  R2
Then x1 n* x2 n  X 1 ( z ) X 2 ( z ) z  R1  R2
❑ i.e. convolution in the time-domain is the same as multiplication in
the z-domain.
❑ Proof: 
x1 n* x2 n =  x (k ) x (n − k )
1 2
k = −

 

Z [ x1 (n) * x2 (n)] =    x (k ) x (n − k )  z
n = − k = −
1 2
−n

   
=  x (k )  x (n − k )z =  x (k ) z  x (n)z
k = −
1
n = −
2
−n

k = −
1
−k

n = −
2
−n

= X1 ( z) X 2 ( z)

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Autocorrelation of Sequences LTID System Response and System Function

If 𝑥 𝑛 ⇔ 𝑋(𝑧), LTID System, yn = xn* hn
𝑥[n]
ℎ[𝑛]
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝑹𝒙𝒙 𝒍 = 𝒙 𝒏 ∗ 𝒙 −𝒏 ⇔ 𝑿 𝒛 𝑿(𝒛−𝟏 ) =𝑹𝒙𝒙 𝒛 Input signal 𝐻 𝑧 Output signal

❑ Calculate the autocorrelation 𝑹𝒙𝒙 𝒛 of the sequence x[n] 𝑌 𝑧 =𝐻 𝑧 𝑋 𝑧

𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 𝑢(−𝑛 − 1) ❑ If h[n] is the impulse response of a LTID system, then the
system response y[n] to an input x[n] is x[n] * h[n].
❑ Assuming causality, and that h[n] ↔ H(z) and x[n] ↔ X(z) then

Y (z ) = H (z )X (z )
❑ The response y[n] is the zero-state response of the LTID system to
the input x[n]. It follows that the transfer function H(z):

yn = xn* hn

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System Function of a Unit Delay

❑ The z-transform can be considered as a unit delay operator.

xnun Unit Delay yn = xn − 1un − 1

1
Input signal OR z −1 Output signal
z
X (z ) Y ( z ) = z −1 X ( z )

❑ Similarly, the filter:

yn = xn − xn − 1
can be viewed as the operator:

𝑌(𝑧) = 𝑋 𝑧 − 𝑧 −1 𝑋 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑧 −1 𝑋 𝑧
(a) parallel connection, and (b) cascade connection.

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FIR Digital Filters

Important Transfer Functions ❑ FIR filter: impulse response is defined for N1≤n≤N2 and
thus

h n = 0; n  N1 , and n  N 2
There are two LTI systems whose transfer functions we are
particularly interested in: 𝑁2
❑ Output 𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ ℎ 𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘
1) A Finite Impulse Response (FIR) digital filter
𝑘=𝑁1
– The impulse response is of finite length
– The realization (output) is non-recursive
 N2 
– The transfer function is a polynomial in z-1 Y (z ) =   hnz −n  X (z ) = H (z )X (z )

n = N1

 
2) An Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) digital filter
H (z )
– The impulse response is of infinite length N2
The system function of a non
– The realization (output) is recursive
– The transfer function is a rational function in z-1
 H (z ) =  hnz
n = N1
−n
recursive filter can be expressed
as a numerator polynomial.

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LTID System Response and System Function

❑ If H is a set of difference equations, then H(z) is simple to find
❑ Suppose H is defined by the difference equations

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