University of Tripoli - Faculty of Engineering

Electrical and Electronic Eng Department

Fall 2020

EE423 Active Networks

Lecture 14: z-Transform

Dr. Ali Ganoun

26/04/2021
The Z-transforms
 Transform techniques are an important tool in
the analysis of signals and LTI systems
 For discrete-time systems, z-transforms play the
same role of Laplace transforms do in
continuous-time systems
 As with the Laplace transform, we compute
forward and inverse z-transforms by use of
transforms pairs and properties
 The z-transform is a powerful tool, that can be
used to understand, analyze, and design LTI
systems and provide insight into their effect on
2
the input signals.
The Direct z-Transform
 The z-transform of a discrete-time signal xk is defined as
the power series 
X [ z]  
k 
xk z  k
Where z is a complex variable

Time domain signal Complex plan representation

Direct z-transform

xk Inverse z-transform X [ z]

X [ z ]  Z  xk  xk 
 X [ z]
z 3
4
The Region of Convergence ROC

Since the z-transform is an infinite power series, it exists only

for those values of z for which this series converges.

The Region of Convergence ROC of X(z) is the set of all values

of z for which X(Z) attains a finite value

Thus any time we cite a z-transform we should also indicate

its ROC

5
  Region of the complex z-plane for which z-transform
converges
Im{z} Im{z}

Entire Disk
Re{z} Re{z}
plane

Im{z} Im{z}

Intersection
Complement of a disk and
Re{z} complement Re{z}
of a disk
of a disk

6
 Example :

 Determine the z-transform of the

following finite-duration signals

- xk={1,2,5,7,0,1}
 X(Z)=1+2z-1+5z-2+7z-3+z-5
ROC: entire z-plane except z=0

- xk={1,2,5,7,0,1}
 X(Z)=z2+2z+5+7z-1+z-3
ROC: entire z-plane except z=0 and z=

7
- xk=k
 X(Z)=1
ROC: entire z-plane

- xk=k-n, k>0
 X(Z)=z-n , k>0
ROC: entire z-plane except z=0

- xk=k+n, k>0
 X(Z)=zn , k>0
ROC: entire z-plane except z= 

8
Example:

Determine the z-transform of the following infinite-duration

signal
xk = (½)k k≥0
 X(Z)=1+ (½) z-1+(½)2 z-2 +(½)3 z-3 + …..
 k k
 1   k   1 1 
    z   z 
k 0  2  k 0  2 
1
1     2   3  ..  if   1
1
1
X ( z)  1
ROC : z  12
1  12 z

9
Z-transform in polar form
z = r ejθ
where r z and  z


X ( z ) |z re j  
k 
xk r  k e jk

10
Example:

 Determine the z-transform of the signal

 k k 0
xk  
0 k 0

 
X ( z )   z k k
   z 
1 k

k 0 k 0

If |αz-1|<1 or equivalently |z| > |α|, this power series converges to 1/(1- αz-1)

11
 Thus we have
1
xk 
 X ( z) 
z
ROC : z  
1 z 1

Im{z}

1
xk 
z
 X ( z)  ROC : z  
ROC 1   z 1
xk
|α|

Re{z}

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 k

1
if   1  xk 
 X ( z) 
z
ROC : z  1 12

1  z 1
Example:

 Determine the z-transform of the signal

 0 k 0
xk   k
 k  1

1 

    z     z 
k 1 j
X ( z)  k Where j=-k
k  j 1

A  A2  A3  .....  A 1  A  A2  ..... 
A
Using the formula
1 A
When |A|<1 gives:  1 z 1
X ( z)  
1   1 z 1   z 1
13
Provided that |α-1z|<1, or |z|<|α|
1
xk 
 X ( z) 
z
ROC : z  
1 z 1

Im{z}

1
xk 
z
 X ( z)  ROC : z  
xk 1   z 1

|α|

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
k Re{z}
ROC

14
Important notes from the last two examples:
 The uniqueness of the z-transform, the two examples
have identical closed-form expressions for the z-
transform. The ambiguity can be resolved only if in
addition to the closed form expression, the ROC is
specified.
 a discrete-time signal is uniquely determined by its z-
transform and the ROC

 The ROC of a causal signal is the exterior of a circle of

some radius r2 while the ROC of an anticausal signal is
the interior of a circle of some radius r1.

15
16
17
Properties of the z-transform
The z-transform is a very powerful tool for
the study of discrete-time signals and systems.

The power of this transform is a consequence

of some very important properties of the
transform process.

18
Linearity
If x1 (k ) 
 X1 ( z )
z

and x2 (k ) 
z
 X 2 ( z)

Then

x(k )  a1 x1 (k )  a2 x2 (k ) 
z
 a1 X1 ( z)  a2 X 2 ( z )
For any constants a1 and a2

19
 Example: Determine the z-transform and the ROC of the signal
xk=[3(2k)-4(3k)]uk

or X(z)=3X1(z)-4X2(z)]

1
 k uk 
z
 ROC : z  
1 z 1

1
Thus X 1  z  

z
ROC : z  2
1  2 z 1
1
X 2  z  
z
 ROC : z  3
1  3 z 1
The intersection of ROC of X1(z) and X2(z) is |z|>3. Thus the overall transform is

3 4
X z  1
 ROC : z  3 20

1 2z 1  3 z 1
Convolution of two sequences

If
x1k 
z
 X1 ( z )
xk2 
z
 X 2 ( z)
Then

xk  x1k * xk2 
z
 X ( z )  X1 ( z ) X 2 ( z )

Note: The ROC of xk is, at least, the intersection of that of X1(z) and X2(z)
Example:

Determine the convolution xk of the signals


1 0k 5
x  1, 2,1
1
k x k2  
0 elsewhere


Since X 1  z   1  2 z 1  z 2
X 2  z   1  z 1  z 2  z 3  z 4  z 5
Then X  z   X 1 ( z ) X 2 ( z )  1  z 1  z 6  z 7
xk={1,-1,0,0,0,0,-1,1}
22
The same result can also be obtained b y

X 1(z )  1  z 
1 2

1  z 6
X 2 (z )  1
1z
Then

X  z   (1  z )(1  z )  1  z  z  z
1 6 1 6 7

23
 The convolution property is one of the most
powerful properties because it converts the
convolution of two signals (time domain) to
multiplication of their transforms

X 1(z )  Z {x k1 }
Time domain  z-domain
X 2 (z )  Z {x } 2
k

X  z   X1  z  X 2  z  z-domain

xk  Z 1  X  z  Time domain  z-domain

24
25
26
Rational z-Transforms
 An important family of z-transforms are
those for which X(z) is a rational function,
i.e., a ratio of two polynomials in z-1 or z.
Poles and Zeros
◦ The values for which
X(z) = 0 zeros of a z-transform

◦ The values for which

X(z) =  poles of a z-transform

27
 M

N ( z ) b0  b1 z 1  ....  bM z  M k
b z k

X  z   1 N
 k 0

D( z ) a0  a1 z  ....  aN z N

 k
a
k 0
z k

 If X(z) is a rational function, then

If a0 & b0  0, then

N ( z ) b0 z  M z M  (b1 / b0 ) z M 1  ....  (bM / b0 )

X  z  
D( z ) a0 z  N z N  (a1 / a0 ) z N 1  ....  (aN / a0 )
Where N(z) and D(z) are polynomials in z, they can be expressed
in factored form as
N ( z ) b0  M  N ( z  z1 )( z  z2 )..( z  zM )
X  z   z
D( z ) a0 ( z  p1 )( z  p2 )..( z  pN )

28
 M

 (z  z )
k
X  z   Gz  M  N k 1
N
Where Gb0/a0

 (z  p )
k 1
k

X(z) has:
M finite zeros at z=z1, z2, …,zM
N finite poles at z=p1, p2, …,pM

X(z) can be represented graphically by a pole-zero

plot in the complex plane.

Poles by crosses (X) Zeros by circles (o)

29
Example: Determine the pole-zero plot for the signal

x(k )  a uk k
a0

1 z
X ( z)  1
 z a
1  az za
Im{z}

X(z) has: ROC

one zero at z1=0

X
Re{z}
one pole at p1=a
The pole is not included in the ROC (X(z)
does not converge at a pole)

30
Pole location and Time-Domain Behavior
Causal Signals

pole pair Signal form in

location in the the time
z-plane domain
• We deal with real, causal signals.
• The characteristic behavior depends on whether
the poles of the transform are in the region:

|z|>1 |z|<1 |z|=1

Signals with one pole

If a real signal has a

This pole has to
z-transform with one
be real
pole

The only such signal is

the real exponential
1
a u (k ) 
k
 z
z a
1  az 1
Having one zero at z=0 and one pole
at p=a on the real axis
4/27/2021
Signals with double poles

A causal real signal with a double real pole

has the form

xk  ka u(k )
k
The system function of a linear time-
invariant system

xk
X(z) hk yk
H(z) Y(z)

yk  xk * hk Y ( z)
H ( z) 
 X ( z)
H ( z)  hz
k 
k
k

H(z) hk
Z-domain characterization of a Time domain characterization of
system the system
For the system described by a linear constant coefficient difference equation
N M
yk   an yk n  bn xk n
n 1 n 0

N M
Y ( z )   anY ( z ) z  bn X ( z ) z
n n

n 1 n 0
M

n
b z n

H ( z)  n 0
N
1   an z  n
n 1

A linear time-invariant system described by a constant-coefficient difference

Equation has a rational system function
Example:
Determine the system function and the unit sample response
of the system described by the difference equation

yk  12 yk 1  2 xk
Compute the z-transform
1 Y ( z) 2
Y ( z)  z Y ( z)  2 X ( z)
1
 H ( z) 
1  12 z 1
2
X ( z)
One pole at z=1/2 and one zero at z=0
hk  2  1 k
2  uk
This is the unit sample response of the system
Inversion of the z-transform by
partial-fraction expansion
Express the function X(z) as a linear combination

X ( z )  1 X 1 ( z )   2 X 2 ( z )  ..   N X N ( z )
Using the linearity
xk   x   x  ..   x
1
1 k
2
2 k
N
N k
In general
N ( z ) b0  b1 z 1  .....  bM z  M
X ( z)  
D( z ) 1  a1 z 1  .....  aN z  N
Proper rational function if aN 0 and M<N
Number of finite zeros is less than the number of finite poles
Improper rational function MN can always be written as the
sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function
Let X(z) be a proper function
N ( z ) b0  b1 z 1  .....  bM z  M aN 0
X ( z)  
D( z ) 1  a1 z 1  .....  aN z  N M<N

b0 z N  b1 z N 1  .....  bM z N M
X ( z) 
z N  a1 z N 1  .....  aN

Which contains only positive powers of z, since N>M, the function

X ( z ) b0 z N 1  b1 z N 2  .....  bM z N M 1

z z N  a1 z N 1  .....  aN
Is also proper function
DISTINCT POLES

Perform a partial fraction expansion

Suppose that the poles p1, p2,..,pN are all different (distinct). Then
we seek an expansion of the form

X ( z) A1 A2 AN
   .. 
z z  p1 z  p2 z  pN

The problem is to determine the coefficients A1, A2, ..,AN

There are two ways to solve this problem, as will be explained
Example:
Determine the partial-fraction expansion of the proper function

1
X ( z) 
1  1.5 z 1  0.5 z 2

First we eliminate the negative powers, thus

2
z
X ( z)  2
z  1.5 z  0.5
The poles of X(z) are p1=1 and p2=0.5, the expansion is given as
X ( z) z A1 A2
  
z ( z  1)( z  0.5) z  1 z  0.5
Avery simple method to determine A1 and A2 is to multiply the
equation by the denominator

z  ( z  0.5) A1  ( z  1) A2
Set z=p1=1 1  (1  0.5) A1  A1  2
Set z=p2=0.5 0.5  (0.5  1) A2  A2  1

The partial-fraction expansion is

X ( z) 2 1
 
z z  1 z  0.5
In general
( z  pk ) X ( z ) ( z  pk ) A1 ( z  pk ) A2 ( z  pk ) AN
   ..  Ak  .. 
z z  p1 z  p2 z  pN

The kth coefficient is calculated as

( z  pk ) X ( z )
Ak  k  1, 2,..., N
z z  p1
Example: Determine the partial-fraction expansion of
1  z 1
X ( z) 
1  z 1  0.5 z 2

First we eliminate the negative powers, thus

X ( z) z 1
 2
z z  z  0.5

The poles of X(z) are complex conjugates

p1  12  j 12
p2  12  j 12
X ( z) 1 z A1 A2
  
z ( z  p1 )( z  p2 ) z  p1 z  p2
 ( z  p1 ) X ( z ) z 1
A1    12  j 32
z z  p1 z  p2 z  p1

( z  p2 ) X ( z ) z 1
A2    12  j 32
z z  p2 z  p1 z  p2

Complex-conjugate poles result in complex-conjugate coefficients

in partial-fraction expansion
46
47
48
49
Example: Determine the inverse z-transform of
1
X ( z) 
1  1.5 z 1  0.5 z 2

if a ROC :| z | 1
b ROC :| z | 0.5
c ROC : 0.5 | z | 1

2 1
X ( z)  1

1 z 1  0.5 z 1
a ROC :| z | 1 The signal x(k) is causal

x  k   2 1 u  k    0.5 u  k   (2  0.5k )u(k )

k k

b ROC :| z | 0.5 The signal x(k) is anticausal

x  k   (2  0.5 )u(k  1)

k

c ROC : 0.5 | z | 1 The signal x(k) has a causal part (p=0.5)
And anticausal part (p=1)

x  k   2 1 u(k  1)  0.5k u(k )

k
52
53
54
55
Solution of difference equations

Example:
Determine a closed-form expression for the
nth term of the Fibonacci sequence
yk={1,1,2,3,5,8,….}

yk  yk 1  yk  2
With initial conditions
y0  y1  y2  1 y1  y0  y1  1
y1  0 y2  1
 yk  yk 1  yk  2
Y   z    z 1Y   z   y1    z 2Y   z   y2  y1z 1 
2
1 z
Y 
 z  1 2
 2
1 z  z z  z 1
Use the partial-fraction method

1 5 1 5 p1  p2
p1  p2  A1  A2 
2 2 5 5
1  5  1  5 k 1  5  1  5 k 
yk         uk
 2 5  2  2 5  2  
 
58