Z Transform Primer

Basic Concepts
• Consider a sequence of values: {xk : k = 0,1,2,... }
• These may be samples of a function x(t), sampled at
instants t = kT; thus xk = x(kT).
• The Z transform is simply a polynomial in z having the xk
as coefficients:

X ( z )  Z xk    xk z k
k 0
 Fundamental Functions
• Define the impulse function: {dk} = {1, 0, 0, 0,....}

( z )  Z d k   1

• Define the unit step function: {uk} = {1, 1, 1, 1,....}


U  z   Z u k    z k 1 z
 1

k 0 1 z z 1

(Convergent for |z| < 1)

 Delay/Shift Property
• Let y(t) = x(t-T) (delayed by T and truncated at t = T)

yk = y(kT) = x(kT-T) = x((k-1)T) = xk-1 ; y0 = 0

 
Y ( z )  Z y k    y k z k
  xk 1 z k
k 1 k 1

• Let j = k-1 ; k = j + 1
 
Y ( z)   x j z  j 1
z 1
 j
x z j
 z 1
X ( z)
j 0 j 0

• The values in the sequence, the coefficients of the polynomial,

slide one position to the right, shifting in a zero.
 The Laplace Connection
• Consider the Laplace Transforms of x(t) and y(t):

Y s   Lyt   Lxt  T   e Ts

X s 

• Equate the transform domain delay operators:

z 1
e Ts z e Ts

• Examine s-plane to z-plane mapping . . .

 S-Plane to Z-Plane Mapping
z e Ts

Anything in the Alias/Overlay region in the S-Plane will be overlaid on the Z-Plane
along with the contents of the strip between +/- jp/T. In order to avoid aliasing, there
must be nothing in this region, i.e. there must be no signals present with radian
frequencies higher than w  p/T, or cyclic frequencies higher than f = 1/2T. Stated
another way, the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest frequency
present (Nyquist rate).
 Mapping Poles and Zeros
A point in the Z-plane rejq will map to a point in the S-
plane according to:
ln r  q
Res  Ims 
T T

Conjugate roots will generate a real valued

polynomial in s of the form:

s 2  2w n s  w n2

q  ln r  
2  ln r 
wn  1    
w nT
T  q 
 Example 1: Running Average Algorithm
xk  xk 1  xk 2  xk 3
yk  (Non-Recursive)
4
1  z 1  z 2  z 3 z3  z2  z  1
Y z   X z   X z  Z Transform
4 4z 4
Block Diagram Transfer Function

z3  z2  z  1
Y
z  
X 4z 4

Note: Each [Z-1] block can be thought of as a

memory cell, storing the previously applied value.
 Example 2: Trapezoidal Integrator

yk  yk 1  xk  xk 1 
T
(Recursive)
2
1

Y z   z Y z   X z   z X z 
1 T
2
 Z Transform

1  z 1  T  z  1 T
Y z   X z  1 
 X z   2
 1  z  2  z  1

Block Diagram
Transfer Function

Y z  T  z  1
  z  1 
X z  2
 Ex. 2 (cont) Block Diagram Manipulation
Intuitive Structure

Equivalent Structure Explicit representation of

xk-1 and yk-1 has been lost,
but memory element
usage has been reduced
from two to one.
 Ex. 2 (cont) More Block Diagram
Manipulation

Y z  T  z  1

Note that the final form is equivalent to a rectangular

X z  2  z  1  integrator with an additive forward path. In a PI

compensator, this path can be absorbed by the
proportional term, so there is no advantage to be gained
by implementing a trapezoidal integrator.