SOIL MECHANICS

CHAPTER 8.2

DETERMINATION OF THE HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

CONSTANT-HEAD TEST

The constant-head test is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils. A typical constant-head
apparatus is shown. Water is allowed to flow through a cylindrical sample of soil under a constant head (h). The outfow
(Q) is collected in a graduated cylinder at a convenient duration (t).

With reference to the figure:

∆ H =h

∆H h
i= =
L L

The flow rate through the soil is qz = Q/t, where Q is the total quantity of water collected in the measuring cylinder over
time t.

qz QL
kz = =
Ai tAh

EXAMPLES:

1. A sample of sand, 5cm in diameter and 15cm long, was prepared at a porosity of 60% in a constant head
apparatus. The total head was kept constant at 30cm and the amount of water collected in 5 seconds was 40 cc.
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity and seepage velocity.
SOLUTION:

π D 2 π 52
A= = =19.6 sq . cm
4 4

∆ H 30 m
i= = =2.0
L 15 m

Q 40 cc cc
qz= = =8
t 5s s

cc
8
qz s cm
kz = = =0.2
Ai 19.6 sq . cm x 2 s

cm
0.2 x 2.0
kzi s cm
vs= = =0.67
n 0.6 s

2. For a constant laboratory permeability test on sand, the following data are given:

Length of specimen 16 cm
Diameter of specimen 9.6 cm
Constant head difference 50 cm
Volume of water collected in 4 minutes 420 cc
Void ratio of the specimen 0.55

a) Determine the coefficient of permeability k of the soil in cm/sec.

b) Determine the discharge velocity in cm/sec.
c) Determine the seepage velocity in cm/sec.

SOLUTION:

QL 420 cc x 16 cm cm
K= = =7.74 x 10−3
Aht π 60 sec sec
x 9.62 cm2 x 50 cm x 4 min x
4 1min

Q 420 cc cm
V= = =0.024
t 60 sec π sec
4 min x x x 9.62 cm2
1 min 4

e 0.55
n= = =0.355
1+ e 1+ 0.55
 cm
0.024
V sec cm
Vs= = =0.068
n 0.355 sec

Falling-Head Test

The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water through these soils is too slow to get
reasonable measurements from the constant head test. A compacted soil sample or a sample extracted from the field is
placed in a metal or acrylic cylinder. Porous stones are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent
its disintegration and to allow water to percolate through it. Water flows through the sample from a standpipe attached
to the top of the cylinder. The head of water (h) changes with time as flow occurs through the soil. At different times,
the head of water is recorded. Let dh be the drop in head over a period dt. The velocity or rate of head loss in the tube
is:

−dh
v=
dt

And the inflow of water to the soil is:

dh
( qz ) ∈¿ av=−a
dt

Where a is the cross-sectional area of the tube. We now appeal to Darcy’s Law to get the outflow:

h
( qz ) out =Aki= Ak
L

Where A is the cross-sectional area, L is the length of the soil sample, and h is the head of water at any time t. The
continuity condition requires that (qz)in=(qz)out. Therefore:
 dh h
−a = Ak
dt L

By separating the variables (h and t) and integrating between the appropriate limits, the last equation becomes:

t2 h2
Ak dh
∫ dt=−∫
aL t 1 h1 h

And the solution for k in the vertical direction is:

aL h1
k =kz=
A ( t 2−t 1 ) ( )
ln
h2

EXAMPLES:

3. The data from a falling-head test on a silty clay are:

Cross-sectional area of soil 80 sq.cm

Initial head 90cm
Final Head 84cm
Duration of test 15min
Diameter of tube 6mm
Length of soil 10cm

SOLUTION:

62 2
πx cm
10 2
a= =0.28 cm
4

60 sec
t 2−t 1=15 min x =900 sec
1 min

aL h 1 0.28 cm 2 x 10 cm 90 cm −6 cm
kz =
A (t 2−t 1)
ln( ) =
h 2 80 cm2 x 900 sec
ln (
84 cm )
=2.7 x 10
secc

4. For a variable head permeability test, the following are given:

Length of Soil Specimen 200 mm

Area of Soil Specimen 1000 sq.mm
Area of Stand Pipe 40 sq.mm
Head Difference at time = 0 500 mm
Head Difference at time = 3 min 300 mm

a) Compute the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec.

b) Compute the seepage velocity if the porosity of soil = 0.25
c) What was the head difference at time = 100 sec.
SOLUTION:

aL h1 40 mm2 x 200 mm 500 mm cm

K=
At
ln ( )
h2
=
1000 mm2 x 3 min x
60 sec
ln ( )
300
=0.0227
sec
=2.27 x 10−3
sec
1 min

Q=KiA

∆ H ( 500−300 ) mm
i= = =1.0
L 200 mm

A=1000 mm2=10 cm 2

−3 cm 2 cm3
Q=2.27 x 10 x 1.0 x 10 cm =0.0227
sec sec

cm3
0.0227
Q sec cm
V= = 2
=2.27 x 10−3
A 10 cm sec

cm
2.27 x 10−3
V sec cm
Vs= = =9.08 x 10−3
n 0.25 sec

aL h1 mm
K=
At
ln ( )
h2
; K=2.27 x 10−2
sec

mm 40 mm2 x 200 mm 500 mm

2.27 x 10
−2
= 2
sec 1000 mm x 100 sec
ln
h2 ( )
h 2=376.48 mm

Pumping Test to Determine the Hydraulic Conductivity

One common method of determining the hydraulic conductivity in the field is by pumping water at a constant flow rate
from a well and measuring the decrease in groundwater level at observation wells. The equation, called the simple well
formula, is derived using the following assumptions.

1. The pumping well penetrates through the water-bearing stratum and is perforated only at the section that is
below the groundwater level.
2. The soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite size.
3. Darcy’s Law is valid.
4. Flow is radial toward the well.
5. The hydraulic gradient at any point in the water-bearing stratum is constant and is equal to the slope of
groundwater surface.

Let dz be the drop in total head over a distance dr. Then according to Dupuit’s assumption the hydraulic gradient is:

dz
i=
dr

The area of flow at a radial distance r from the center of the pumping well is:

A=2 πrz

Where z is the thickness of an elemental volume of the pervious soil layer.

From Darcy’s Law, the flow is:

dz
qz=2 πrzk
dr

We need to rearrange the above equation and integrate it between the limits r1 and r2, and h1 and h2.
r2 h2
dr
qz=∫ =2 kπ ∫ zdz
r1 r h1

Completing the integration leads to:

k=
qzln ( rr 12 )
π ( h22−h12 )
With measurements of r1, r2, h1, h2, and qv (flow rate of the pump), k can be calculated from the equation above. This
test is only practical for coarse-grained soils.

Pumping tests lower the groundwater, which then causes stress changes in the soil. Since the groundwater is not
lowered uniformly as shown by the drawdown curve in figure, the stress change in the soil will not be even.
Consequently, pumping tests near existing structures can cause them to settle unevenly. You should consider the
possibility of differential settlement on existing structures when you plan a pumping test.

EXAMPLES:

5. A pumping test was carried out in a soil bed of thickness 15 m and the following measurements were recorded.
Rate of pumping was 10.6x10-3 cu.m/sec; drawdowns in observation wells located at 15 m and 30 m from the
center of the pumping well were 1.6 m and 1.4 m, respectively, from the initial ground-water level. The initial
groundwater level was located at 1.9 m below ground level. Detemrine k.

SOLUTION:

h 2=15−( 1.9+1.4 )=11.7 m

h 1=15−( 1.9+1.6 ) =11.5 m

k=
qzln ( rr 12 ) = 10.6 x 10−3 cu . m
s
xln
30 m
( ) =5.04 x 10
15 m −4 m
2
π ( h2 −h1 2
) 2 2
π ( 11.7 m −11.5 m ) 2 2 sec

6. A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates 27 m below the static water table. After 24 hours of pumping at 69
L/sec. The water level in an observation well at a distance of 95m from the test well is lowered 0.5m and the
other observation well at a distance of 35m from the test well, the drawdown is 1.1m.

a) What is the rate of flow in cu.m/day.

b) Compute the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in m/day.
c) Compute the transmissibility of the aquifer in sq.m/day.
SOLUTION:

L
Q=69 =0.069 x 3600 x 24=5961.6 cu . m/day
sec

h 1=27−0.5=26.5 m

h 2=27−1.1=25.9m

k=
qzln ( rr 12 ) = 5961.6 cuday. m x ln ( 9535 mm ) =60.27 m/day
π ( h22−h12 ) π ( 26.5 2−25.92 )

T=
Qln ( rr 12 ) =
5961.6 ln ( 9535 mm ) =1579 m 2

2 π ( z 1−z 2 ) 2 π (1.1 m−0.5 m ) day

FLOW NETS

A flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel from the upstream to the downstream side in the permeable
soil medium. An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is equal. Thus, if piezometers are
placed at different points along an equipotential line, the water level will rise to the same elevation in all of them. Figure
5.16a demonstrates the definition of flow and equipotential lines for flow in the permeable soil layer around the row of
sheet piles shown in Figure 5.15 (for kx kz k). A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines is called a
flow net. Flow nets are constructed to calculate groundwater flow in the media. To complete the graphic construction of
a flow net, one must draw the flow and equipotential lines in such a way that the equipotential lines intersect the flow
lines at right angles and the flow elements formed are approximate squares. Figure 5.16b shows an example of a
completed flow net. Another example of a flow net in an isotropic permeable layer is shown in Figure 5.17. In these
figures, Nf is the number of flow channels in the flow net, and Nd is the number of potential drops (defined later in this
chapter). Drawing a flow net takes several trials. While constructing the flow net, keep the boundary conditions in mind.
For the flow net shown in Figure 5.16b, the following four boundary conditions apply:

1. The upstream and downstream surfaces of the permeable layer (lines ab and de) are equipotential lines.
2. Because ab and de are equipotential lines, all the flow lines intersect them at right angles.
3. The boundary of the impervious layer—that is, line fg—is a flow line, and so is the surface of the impervious
sheet pile, line acd.
4. The equipotential lines intersect acd and fg at right angles.
Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

In any flow net, the strip between any two adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel. Figure 5.18 shows a flow channel
with the equipotential lines forming square elements. Let h1, h2, h3, h4, . . . , hn be the piezometric levels corresponding
to the equipotential lines. The rate of seepage through the flow channel per unit length (perpendicular to the vertical
section through the permeable layer) can be calculated as follows: Because there is no flow across the flow lines:

∆ q 1=∆ q 2=∆ q 3=∆ q

From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is equal to kiA. Thus, can be written as:

h 1−h 2 h 2−h3 h 3−h 4 h −hn

∆ q=k ( l1 )l1=k ( l2
l 2=k) l3 ( )
l 3=k (n−1 )
l(n−1) (
l(n−1)
)

The previous equation shows that if the flow elements are drawn as approximate squares, then the drop in the
piezometric level between any two adjacent equipotential lines is the same. This is called the potential drop. Thus,

H
h 1−h2=h 2−h 3=h 3−h 4=...=
Nd

and

H
∆ q=k
Nd

Where:

H = head difference between the upstream and downstream sides

Nd = number of potential drops

In Figure 5.16b, for any flow channel, H = H1 - H2 and Nd = 6.

If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to Nf, the total rate of flow through all the channels per unit length
can be given by:

HNf
q=k
Nd

EXAMPLES:

7. The section of a sheet pile is shown in figure. The coefficient of the permeability of the soil is k = 4.2x10 -3 m/s.
Determine the seepage into the downstream side per meter length of the sheet pile.

SOLUTION:
 Nf
q=kH
Nd

K 4.2X10-3 m/s
Nf 4
Nd 8
H 7 – 2 = 5m

4 cu . m
q=4.2 x 10−3 x 5 x =0.0105 per meter
8 s

8. For the masonry dam shown in figure. K = 5 m/day. Determine the seepage flow per meter width of dam in L/min.
SOLUTION:

Nd 9
Nf 4

Nf 4 m 1 day 1hr
q=kH =5 x 18 m x =40 cu . x x x 1000=27.78 L/min
Nd 9 day 24 hrs 60 min

10. The section of a cofferdam is as shown in figure. If the coefficient of permeability of the soil is k = 5x10 -3 m/s,
determine the seepage into the ditches per meter length of the cofferdam.
SOLUTION:

H 38 – 18 = 20m
Nf 3
Nd 7

Nf 3 m
q=kH =5 x 10−3 x 20 x =0.043 cu . per meter
Nd 7 s

Sincethere are two identical sides :

m
q=0.043 x 2=0.086 cu . per meter
s