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Chemistry, Technology, and Nutraceutical Functions of

Cumin (cuminum cyminum L): An Overview
a
H. B. Sowbhagya
a
Plantation Products Spices and Flavor Technology, Central Food Technological Research
Institute , Mysore , 570 020 , India
Accepted author version posted online: 17 Jun 2011.Published online: 04 Oct 2012.

To cite this article: H. B. Sowbhagya (2013) Chemistry, Technology, and Nutraceutical Functions of Cumin (cuminum cyminum
L): An Overview, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53:1, 1-10, DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.500223

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 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 53:1–10 (2013)
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ISSN: 1040-8398 print / 1549-7852 online
DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.500223

Chemistry, Technology, and

Nutraceutical Functions of Cumin
(cuminum cyminum L): An Overview

H. B. SOWBHAGYA
Plantation Products Spices and Flavor Technology, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570 020, India
Downloaded by [York University Libraries] at 07:05 14 November 2014

Cumin is a seed spice belonging to the family umbelliferae. Cumin and value added products from cumin are used in food
flavoring and perfumery. Cumin contains volatile oil (3–4%), cuminaldehyde, the major active principle, which is present to
an extent of 45–50%. Cumin and value added products from cumin, viz., cumin oil and oleoresin are exported. Cumin powder
forms the main component of many spice mixes and curry powders. Cuminaldehyde is an important phytochemical and
possesses many health benefits. Alcohol and water extract of cumin are reported to possess many nutraceutical properties
like antiallergic, antioxidant, anti-platelet aggregation, and hypoglycemic. Cumin and value added products from cumin can
be a good source of nutraceuticals with many biological activities. Incorporation of cumin into food products will have the
benefits of a flavorant and nutraceutical at the same time. In the present review, the chemistry, processing, and biological
activities of cumin and its components are discussed.

Keywords Cumin, biological activity, antioxidant, oil, oleoresin, processing, flavorant

INTRODUCTION
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.), an important commercial
seed spice belonging to the umbellifereae family, is valued for
its aroma and its medicinal and therapeutic properties. The plant
is native to the Mediterranean region where it is cultivated ex-
tensively. It thrives best on fertile, sandy loam soil. Propagation
of the plant is by seedlings thinned out at a proper stage. The
plants grow to a height of about half a meter, producing many
branches on a single stem and the leaves are finely divided and
dark green in color. Flowers are white in color and turn yellow
when mature. The plants are harvested when they wither and the
seeds turn brown in color. An average yield of about 500 kg per
hectare is obtained under favorable conditions. The dried seeds
resemble those of caraway, but are straighter in form and have
a coarser taste and odor.
The flavor of the seed is warm, heavy, spicy, and curry-
like, dominated by the flavor component cuminaldehyde. Cumin
seeds have a peppery astringent flavor with slight citrus over-
tones due to the presence of the volatile oil. Cumin is commer-
cially sold as both seeds and powder. As any other spice, whole
Address correspondence to H.B. Sowbhagya, Plantation Products Spices
and Flavor Technology, Central Food Technological Research Institute,
Mysore 570 020, India. Tel: (+91)821-2512352; (+91)821-2517233. E-mail:
sowbha@yahoo.com
cumin seeds retain more aroma than powdered cumin. This
spice should not be confused with sweet cumin, which is a com-
mon name for anise (Pimpinella anisum). Black cumin (Bunium
persicum) seeds which are smaller and sweeter than cuminum
cyminum are not commercially important. Nigella sativa, which
is also frequently referred to as black cumin, is not related to
cumin. It is consumed all over the world as a flavoring agent in
whole or grounded form and is an integral part of the recipes
in various cultures. Indian cumin finds worldwide use in foods,
beverages, liquors, medicines, toiletries, and perfumery. Cumin
seed has a significant demand as a spice all around the globe,
especially in the places where spicy food is preferred. It is an
integral part of the recipes in various cultures. After pepper,
cumin is considered to be the most important spice in the world.
India was the primary exporter of cumin seeds and cumin oil
in the world until recently when comparatively new entrants in
the market like Turkey and Iran are providing stiff competition
now. Most of the cumin seeds are exported to the countries that
do not produce cumin themselves and make huge markets for
the spice which are the United States of America, Sri Lanka,
United Kingdom, Netherlands, Japan, Brazil, and Singapore.
Value-added products of cumin seeds like oleoresins of cumin
seeds and cumin oil are also exported from India. Cumin pow-
der is an important ingredient in curry mixes and some bakery
products. Cumin should be stored in air tight containers and it

1
 2 H. B. SOWBHAGYA

is best to use whole seeds and grind in a mortar just before use, Table 1 Major lipid classes of cumin seed and their fatty acid composition
as the essential oil starts escaping immediately after grinding. Lipid class weight (%) Fatty acid composition (%)
Undiluted cumin oil has phototoxic effects that are not related
to cuminaldehyde. 18:16 18:1 9 18:2 12
16:0
Total lipids — 11.7 83.4 0.2 4.7
Crop and Production Neutral lipids 84.8 10.3 89.1 0.4 0.2
Glycolipids 10.1 21.3 78.7 — —
Phospholipids 5.1 9.4 1.0 0.3 89.3
India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of cumin.
Sowing of seeds starts in October and harvesting occurs in Source: Hemavathy, 1988.
February. India, Turkey, Syria, China, the US, Iran, Indone-
sia, Sudan, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, and Libya are the leading terpinene, p-mentha-1,3-dien-7-al, p-mentha-1,4-dien-7-al, and
producers of cumin in the world. In India it is grown mainly p-cymene. Composition of the cumin seed oil of Turkish origin
in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Rajasthan is the largest was investigated by Baser et al. (1992) and Borges and Pino
cumin producing state in India and contributed around 0.12 mil- (1993) and found that Turkish cumin seed oil was characterized
lion tons to the country’s total produce in the year 2003–2004 by a high amount of cuminaldehyde, p-mentha-1,3-dien-7-al,
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and has the maximum area under cumin cultivation, that is,
around 0.025 million hectares. Gujarat is the second largest
cumin seed producer in India. Rajasthan and Gujarat contribute
to 90% of the production in the country. India exports cumin
seed to Bangladesh, Japan, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Singa-
pore, South Africa, UAE, UK, and the US. India is the world
leader in cumin production; it produces 0.1 to 0.2 million tons
of cumin seeds annually and dominates the world market. Syria
stands second in the list with a production figure of 25,000 tons.
This clearly shows that India is far more dominant in cumin pro-
duction than any other country as it possesses the maximum area
in the cultivation of the spice. Turkey and Iran have the same
level of production, that is, 15,000 to 20,000 tons of cumin seeds
and that makes them both stand third in the leading producer’s
list. Though Syria, Turkey, and Iran have a much lesser level of
production as compared to India, these countries have an equally
significant influence in the determination of world cumin prices.
Indian production of cumin is 0.11 million tons in 2005–2006
and export is 12000 tons (Spices Board, 2006).
Composition
p-mentha-1,4-dien-7-al, γ -terpinene, p-cymene, β-pinene, and
perillaldehyde. The flavor compound in cumin seed oil obtained
by steam distillation is presented in Table 2 (Borges and Pino,
1993).
Cuminaldehyde, cuminic alcohol, r-terpinene, p-cymene, and
β-pinene were reported as the major components of the cumin
oil from Pakistan (Karim et al.,1976) and in cumin seed oil from
China, cuminal (36.3%), cumin alcohol (16.9%) as principal
component along with γ -terpinene (11.1%), p-cymene (9.8%),
and β-pinene (7.7%) with a relatively high concentration of
safranal (10.8%) was reported (Rong Li and Jiang, 2004).
PROCESSING
Freshly Harvested Cumin
The seeds are harvested about 4 months after planting when
the plant begins to wither and the seeds change from dark green
Table 2 Flavor compounds of cumin volatile oil (steam distillation)

Cumin seed contains moisture (7%), volatile oil (3–4%), pro- Sl. No. Compound Concentration (%)
tein (12%), total ash (10%), fiber (11%), carbohydrate (33%), 1 α-pinene 1.2
starch (11%), and fat (15%) (Lewis,1984). The composition of 2 β-pinene 19.9
cumin changes according to the region and climate where it 3 Myrcene 1.5
4 α –phellandrene 0.2
is grown. Lipids extracted from cumin seeds have been stud-
5 1,8-cineol 0.4
ied for composition by Hemavathy and Prabhakar (1988). The 6 Limonene 0.3
cumin seeds contain 14.5% total lipids on dry weight basis. 7 γ -terpinene 29.1
Fractionation of lipid on silica column shows total lipids to 8 p-cymene 25.2
consist of 84.8% neutral lipid, 10% glycolipids and 5.1% phos- 9 Linalool Traces
10 Bornyl acetate Traces
pholipids (Table 2). Neutral lipids consist mainly of triacyl-
11 β-carryophyllene Traces
glycerols (89.4%), small amounts of diacylglycerols, free fatty 12 Terpinen-4-ol Traces
acids, sterols, sterol-esters, and hydrocarbons. Fatty oil of cumin 13 Methyl chavicol Traces
is reported to be composed of both saturated and unsaturated 14 γ –terpineol Traces
fatty acids, the majority being oleic, petroselenic, and linoleic 15 Cuminaldehyde 18.7
16 Perilladehyde 2.4
acids accounting for 70% of the total fatty acids. Anon (1993)
17 Benzyl cinnamate Traces
and Shaath and Azzo (1993) reported that the main constituents
of Egyptian cumin seed oil were cuminaldehyde, β -pinene, γ - Source: Borges and Pino, 1993.
 NUTRACEUTICAL FUNCTIONS OF CUMIN 3

to a brown-yellow color. The seed is small and boat shaped Table 3 Effect of roller gap on flake thickness, bulk density and yield of oil
with nine ridges along the length. The seeds are harvested by Average flake Bulk density of yield of oil (%
removing the whole plant from the ground. The plants are dried Roller gap (mm) thickness (mm) flakes (kg/m3) v/w dwb)
in the sun or in the partial sun. The cumin seeds are beaten out
0.05 0.29 ± 0.04 200 ± 0.5 2.33 ± 0.2
by threshing the dried plants with sticks. The seeds are then 0.10 0.38 ± 0.03 210 ± 0.5 2.27 ± 0.2
further dried to 10% moisture content, either by placing on mats 0.15 0.42 ± 0.04 240 ± 0.4 2.28 ± 0.2
or trays in the sun or by using a dryer if the conditions are 0.20 0.45 ± 0.05 290 ± 0.4 2.2 ± 0.3
too humid. The dried seeds are winnowed using a traditional 0.25 0.46 ± 0.06 310 ± 0.5 2.2 ± 0.2
winnowing basket to remove the dirt, dust, leaves, and twigs. 0.30 0.48 ± 0.08 350 ± 2.5 2.0 ± 0.2
Cumin is packed in gunny bags and jute bags after cleaning by Adapted from Sowbhagya et al., 2008.
machines to remove stalks, stones, foreign material, and dust,
etc. Cumin is also packed in cloth, paper, or polythene bags and In industry, steam distillation is utilized to extract spice oil. In
it has to be stored one to two feet away from the walls in order steam distillation, the powdered spice is packed loosely without
to avoid moisture pick up. applying pressure in a distillation unit. The lid at the top is
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secured and connected to a water cooled condenser of suitable

Cumin Powder
Dried cumin is powdered in a hammer mill or a pulverizer,
to pass through a mesh size of 30. Since it is rich in fixed
oil (about 15%) it is not easy to powder and causes a rise in
temperature from room temperature (28◦ C) to approximately
80–90◦ C. Care should be taken not to powder in a plate mill
as a rise in temperature and clogging of the mill is observed.
Cryogrinding is preferred to overcome this problem. Cumin can
be mixed with a coolant such as liquid carbon dioxide or liquid
nitrogen and then subject to grinding. Powdered cumin is passed
through a magnetic separator to remove iron fillings which can
come from the mill. The effect of feed rate and temperature on
conventional grinding of cumin in comparison with cryogenic
grinding of cumin has been studied by measuring the flavor
compounds present in each volatile oil extracted by supercriti-
cal fluid extraction of ground cumin (Singh and Goswami, 1998;
David et al., 2001). Optimization of cold grinding to overcome
heat generation during the process and studies on packaging to
store cumin powder with good flavor retention has been accom-
plished (Bera et al., 2001). These authors have reported that
conventional grinding of cumin resulted in a rise in tempera-
ture of the cumin powder up to 95◦ C causing loss of volatiles.
It was overcome by circulating chilled water in the grinding
zone. Cryogenic grinding of cumin and other spices like nut-
meg, white pepper, and cinnamon in comparison with ambient
grinding has been studied (Pesek et al., 1985).
Cumin Essential Oil
The general methods of extraction are hydro-distillation and
steam distillation. In the hydro-distillation method, the spice
is powdered and boiled along with water when volatile aroma
compounds are distilled and condense along with the steam.
Volatile compounds are separated from water and dried over
anhydrous sodium sulphate. Limitations of the method are the
long hours of distillation to complete recovery of the oil and the
resulting mass after hydro-distillation not being amenable for
oleoresin extraction with solvents.
capacity, which in turn is connected to an oil and water separator.
From the bottom, steam is let in slowly which passes through
the bed of the material. By entrainment the steam carries along
with it the volatile principles of the spice and gets condensed
when it passes through the condenser. When sufficient oil is
collected, it is taken out through a trap provided for this purpose.
The condensate water is drained from the other side of the
separator. Distillation is continued for 4–5 hours to recover the
high boiling fractions which also contribute to the flavor of the
oil. Large-scale grinding of cumin by the conventional method is
associated with problems of temperature rise, caking, clogging
of sieves, production of dust, and deterioration of quality due
to loss of volatiles. During continuous large-scale grinding, the
temperature of the ground material rises to about 90◦ C, resulting
in loss of volatile oil. Fine grinding of the seed can result in the
loss of up to 50% of the volatile oil, with the greatest loss
occurring within 1 hour.
It is reported that an increased retention of flavor components
was observed in oil obtained by cryogenic grinding compared
to ambient grinding in cumin accompanied with an increase in
the yield of oil. Flaking as an alternative to conventional grind-
ing and the effect of flaking on the yield and physico-chemical
quality of volatile oil obtained has been studied comparatively
with oil obtained by the conventional grinding method (Sowb-
hagya et al., 2008). The study has been carried out in smaller
batches (200 g) with hydro-distillation in the laboratory and
subsequently in larger batches (10 kg).
Flaking has shown promising results with respect to yield and
the quality of oil. Pre-cooling of cumin seeds prior to flaking
further improved the oil yield and resulted in higher retention
of the flavor components (terpenic compounds). Hence, for the
production of cumin seed oil by steam distillation, flaking is
Table 4 Standards for cumin seeds
Purity% by weight 98
Other seeds Nil
Inert matter% by weight 2.0
Weed seeds Nil
Source: IS: 3376—1965.
 4 H. B. SOWBHAGYA

Table 5 E.O.A. Specification for cumin oil

Parameter Specification

Optical rotation 20◦ C + 3◦ – + 8 ◦

Refractive index 30◦ C 1.5010- 1.5060
Specific gravity (g) 25◦ C 0.8923–0.92501
Cuminic aldehyde by GC 30%

Source: E.O.A.No.115, Essential Oil Association, USA.

a promising alternative method to conventional size-reduction

methods. Flaking resulted in 17–18% increase in the yield of
oil. The effect of roller gap of flaker on flake thickness and
on yield of oil is presented in Table 5. A roller gap of 0.05
mm yields a maximum of oil. Scanning electron microscopic
studies revealed that there is a marked difference in morphol-
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ogy of flakes compared to powder (Fig.1). In case of flakes, the

cells have got ruptured and a total flattening observed which
facilitated the release of a higher amount of oil in a shorter
duration. A lump like structure is observed in case of powder
and the particles which would retain these spherical shapes and
cell rupture will be minimal which may be the reason for lower
yield of oil in case of powder. Flaking of cumin was found
not to affect the flavor profile of the oil. Selective collection
of volatile oil at different intervals of time of distillation yields
fractions of different flavor profiles as the earlier fractions con-
tain lower boiling flavor compounds and later fractions extract
higher boiling flavor compounds. It is also possible to recover
oil from the condensate to an extent of 25 mL in a 10 kg batch
distillation which amounts to 0.2% of oil on charge basis both in
case of flakes and powder. The oil recovered can be added back
to the oil collected by steam distillation or blended in different
proportions. Sangani et al. (2005) have reported the distillation
of essential oil by hydro-distillation from ground cumin having
different particle sizes and have recommended the particle size
of the sample passing through the mesh of 35 (BIS sieve) mesh
Figure 1 Scanning electron micrographs of cumin flakes and powder Adapted
for the maximum yield of oil by hydro-distillation. However, from Sowbhagya et al., 2008.
this approach cannot be adopted in industry as it requires large
quantities of water for distillation. Grinding methods do play
an important role in the yield and quality of spice oil. The ef- alcohol, or methylene chloride. Solvent selection is based on
fect of microwave heating and conventional roasting of cumin criteria such as extraction efficiency, toxicity, cost, and avail-
seeds (cuminum cyminum L.) on the composition of volatiles in ability. The selected solvent is percolated through the bed of the
volatile oil has been reported (Behera, 2004). Yields of volatile material (coarsely ground spice powder) and sufficient contact
oil were similar in both conventionally roasted and micro-oven time is given for leaching of the solutes into the solvent. After
heated samples of cumin. Microwave heated samples showed the contact time, the extract is drained and collected. The pooled
better retention of characteristic flavor compounds of cumin, that extract is carefully distilled to remove the solvent to traces ap-
is, cuminaldehyde compared to conventionally roasted samples. plying vacuum at the end of distillation to remove the solvent to
The optimized conditions were 125◦ C for 10 min and microwave traces. Volatile oil recovered by steam distillation is added back
heating at 730 W for 10 min. to the resin and blended to obtain oleoresin.
Oleoresin is also prepared by solvent extraction of the spice
powder without prior steam distillation to recover the volatile oil.
Cumin Oleoresin The solvent extract is pooled and subjected to desolventization
to remove solvent to traces. In this method, the finer aroma
The resin is obtained by solvent extraction of the essential of low boiling compounds also may be stripped off during the
oil removed cumin powder. The spice powder is loaded into final stages of miscall distillation under high vacuum. In case of
the extractor and extracted with a suitable solvent like ace- spices like chilli, with no volatile oil, this method is followed
tone, alcohol, methanol, ethylene dichloride, hexane, isopropyl for oleoresin extraction.
 NUTRACEUTICAL FUNCTIONS OF CUMIN
Chemistry of Cumin Oil and Oleoresin
Cumin flavor is due to the volatile oil present in the seeds in
the range of 3–4% depending on the variety and the origin of the
cultivation. The export of cumin oil from India was 0.6 tons and
that of oleoresin was 10 tons in the year 2004 (Spices Board,
2007). The volatile oil is extracted either by hydro-distillation or
steam distillation and oleoresin prepared by either direct solvent
extraction of the cumin powder followed by solvent removal
or by solvent extraction of steam distilled cumin powder and
then the addition of cumin oil to the resin after solvent removal.
Steam distillation is the method of choice of industry to produce
essential oil. The United States is amongst the largest produc-
ers of cumin oil. The major flavor components of volatile oil
obtained from ground cumin have been reported as β-pinene,
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p-cymene, γ -terpene, cuminaldehyde, phellandral, cuminyl al-
cohol, p-mentha-1–4-dien-7-al, and perillaldehyde (Eikani et
al., 1991; Varo and Heinz, 1970a; 1970b). The cuminaldehyde
content varies considerably, depending on the source of the
oil. Major component of the oil is monoterpene hydrocarbon
while sesquiterpenes are minor constituents. The chief compo-
nents of the characteristic aroma of unheated whole seeds are
3-p-mentha-7-al and cuminaldehyde in combination with other
related aldehydes. It is reported that naturally occurring alde-
hyde in fresh cumin is 1,4-p-methadien-7-al and cuminaldehyde
while the other related compounds are only artifacts formed ei-
ther during storage of ground seeds or distillation of oil (Borges
and Pino, 1993). Flavour compounds in the essential oil of cumin
seeds of Indian origin obtained by steam distillation is reported
by Kumar and Basalas (1978).
Commercially available cumin oleoresin is a thick viscous
yellowish green resin containing 30–50% of volatile oil. Oleo-
resin reflects the flavor quality more closely to the spice than
the distilled volatile oil. Oleoresin, besides containing the fla-
voring principle of cumin, also contains non-aromatic fat (fixed
oil), resin, waxes, pigments, and natural antioxidant of the spice
which act as a fixative for the volatiles. Since it is highly con-
centrated and viscous, the oleoresins are dispersed on suitable
carriers like salt and starch for easy usage in foods. The volatile
oil present in oleoresin is the quality parameter, since there
is no major active compound reported in the resin portion of
the cumin oleoresin unlike other major spice oleoresins. Cumin
oleoresin finds application in sauces, crackers, meat, sausages.
The spent residue obtained after volatile and resin extraction,
contains starch, fiber, carbohydrate, protein, etc., as they are
not extracted by the organic solvents used for the oleoresin ex-
traction. A small quantity of spent residue finds an application
in veterinary feed compositions. The spent residue also finds
application in broiler feed and as a source of manure.
Standards and Specifications for Cumin: Essential Oil: and
Oleoresin
The seeds should be free of molds and insects and contain
the minimum amount (<4%) of extraneous matter like stem and
5
other seeds as per the standards prescribed by Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS, 1965) (Table 4). Cumin volatile oil is analyzed
for physical parameters like specific gravity, refractive index,
and optical rotation, the values of which should conform to the
standard range of values specified by Essential Association of
America (E.O.A.). The standard values of E.O.A. for cumin
volatile oil is presented in Table 4. Specification for oleoresin
states that the volatile oil content should be between 10–16%.
Value Added Products from Cumin
Microencapsulations of cumin oleoresin by spray drying us-
ing gum arabic, maltodextrin, and modified starch (HiCap
R
100) and their ternary blends as wall materials were stud-
ied for its encapsulation efficiency and stability under stor-
age (Kanakdande, 2007). The microcapsules were evaluated
for the content and stability of volatiles, and total cumi-
naldehyde, γ -terpinene, and p-cymene content for six weeks.
Gum Arabic offered greater protection than maltodextrin and
modified starch, in general, although the order of protection
offered for volatiles was cuminaldehyde >p-cymene > -γ -
terpinene. A blend of 4:1:1:6 spray dried mixture of gum Ara-
bic:maltodestrin:modifiedstarch:cumin oleoresin offered a pro-
tection, better than gum arabic as seen from the t1/2, that is,
time required for a constituent to reduce to 50% of its initial
value. However, the protective effect of the ternary blend was
not similar for all the constituents, and followed an order of
p-cymene> cuminaldehyde > γ -terpinene.
BIO-ACTIVITY
Traditional uses of cumin include anti-inflammatory, di-
uretic, carminative, and antispasmoidic. It has also been used to
treat dyspepsia, jaundice, diarrhea, flatulence, and indigestion.
Cumin powder is used as a poultice and smoked in a pipe and
also taken orally.
Antioxidant Activity
Cumin seeds contain flavonoids, viz., apigenin and luteolin,
which are now generally recognized to have antioxidant activ-
ity. The petroleum ether soluble fraction of cumin has been
reported to have antioxidant activity when mixed with lard (Le-
ung, 1980). In studies in mice, cumin seed elevated levels of
glutathione and stimulated other antioxidant systems (Gagan-
deep, 2003). Cuminaldehyde has been demonstrated to scav-
enge the superoxide anion (Krishnakantha and Lokesh, 1993).
The antioxidant activity of the aqueous extracts of cumin has
been reported. The antioxidant activity of the aqueous extracts
of five umbelliferous fruits including cumin has been reported,
viz., caraway (Carum carvi), coriander (Coriandrum sativum),
cumin (Cuminum cyminum), dill (Anethum graveolens), and fen-
nel (Foeniculum vulgare) were investigated in comparison with
 6 H. B. SOWBHAGYA
the known antioxidant ascorbic acid in in vitro studies. The
amount of aqueous extract of these five umbelliferous fruits and
ascorbic acid needed for 50% scavenging of superoxide radicals
was found to be 105 µg (caraway), 370 µg (coriander), 220 µg
(cumin), 190 µg (dill), 205 µg (fennel), and 260 µg (ascorbic
acid). The amount needed for 50% inhibition of lipid peroxide
was 2.1 mg (caraway), 4.5 mg (coriander), 4.3 mg (cumin), 3.1
mg (dill), 4.6 mg (fennel), and 5 mg (ascorbic acid). The quan-
tity needed for 50% inhibition of hydroxyl radicals was 1.1 mg
(caraway), 1.2 mg (coriander), 0.4 mg (cumin), 0.5 mg (dill),
0.7 mg (fennel), and 4.5 mg (ascorbic acid). The daily use of the
above spices is very common in India and the present study has
revealed that aqueous extract of cumin exhibits strong antiox-
idant activity superior to known antioxidant ascorbic acid and
indicate that the intake is beneficial as a food additive (Satya-
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narayana et al., 2004).
Anticancer Effects
In mice, the spice appears to have an anticancer effect as
demonstrated by the ability of cumin seeds to inhibit the in-
duction of gastric squamous cell carcinomas (Gagandeep et
al., 2003). In rats fed with cumin, a protective effect against
induced colonic cancer was demonstrated. Decreased beta-
glucuronidase and mucinase activity was evident, and the rats
had fewer papillae, no infiltration into the submucosa, and
fewer morphological changes (Nalini et al., 1998). Cumin seeds
were not carcinogenic when tested by the reverse mutation
Salmonella typhimurium (TA100) test but demonstrated very
weak oxidative mutagenicity with strain TA102. (Al-Batania et
al.,1995).
Antidiabetic
Cumin seed has been examined for a possible anti-diabetic
influence in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. An eight week
dietary regime containing cumin powder (1.25%) was found
to be remarkably beneficial, as indicated by reduction in hy-
perglycemia and glucosuria. Improvement in body weights of
experimental animals on the cumin diet was also observed. Di-
etary cumin countered other metabolic alterations as revealed by
lowered blood urea level and reduced excretions of urea and cre-
atinine by diabetic animals (Willatgamuwa et al., 1998) (Table
6). The elevated plasma urea level of diabetic animals was signif-
icantly lowered by about 50% by dietary cumin as seen in Table
6. In studies conducted on rats with induced diabetes, cumin at
(0.5% g) per kg body weight orally administered in the form
of decoction is reported reduce blood glucose levels (Roman-
Ramos et al., 1995; Talpur et al., 2005). One mechanism for this
reduction suggests the inhibition of aldose reductase and alpha-
glucosidase (Lee, 2005). In addition, reductions in plasma and
tissue cholesterol, phospholipids, free fatty acids, and triglyc-
erides (secondary to diabetes) were demonstrated in another
animal study (Dhandapani et al., 2002). Cumin has been used as
Table 6 Effect of dietary cumin (8 weeks feeding) on plasma albumin, urea
and creatinine
Group Albumin (g/dl) Urea (mg/dl) Creatinine (mg/dl)
Normal-control 4.10 ± 0.20 23.4 ± 0.85 0.85 ± 0.06
Normal-cumin 4.06 ± 0.12 32.4 ± 3.68 0.83 ± 0.06
Diabetic-control 3.56 ± 0.30 60.9 ± 5.06 1.06 ± 0.12
Diabetic -cumin 3.55 ± 0.23 32.5 ± 3.43∗ 0.85 ± 0.07
∗Significantly different from diabetic.
Adapted from Willatgamuwa et al., 1998.
one of the ingredients of a herbal antidiabetic drug, which was
found to be effective in human subjects (Karnick, 1991).
Antimicrobial Activity
Essential oil and alcoholic extract of cumin has shown antimi-
crobial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC 13883 and
clinical Klebsiella pneumoniae (ceftazidime-resistant strain)
which were evaluated on the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) by the broth-dilution method (Derakshan, 2007). Syner-
gistic or antagonistic effect with antibiotic disks was tested in
agar media involving sub-MIC concentration of oil and alcoholic
extract. The MIC was 1/800 fold of essential oil for K. pneumo-
niae ATCC 13883 and 1/200 for clinical K. pneumoniae. Cumin
oil and cuminaldehyde have been reported to exhibit strong lar-
vicidal and antibacterial activity. At in vitro concentrations of
300 or 600 ppm, cumin oil inhibited the growth of Lactobacillus
plantarum (Kivanc et al., 1991). The study has indicated that the
essential oil and alcoholic extract of cumin seed could be used
in medicinal industries (disinfectant or antiseptic), but in-vivo
tests are required to ascertain fully their medicinal properties and
potential toxicity (Derakhshan et al., 2007). Cumin oil demon-
strated antibacterial activity (reported to be comparable with
standard antibiotics) against common human pathogens in in
vitro experiments and against gram-negative and gram-positive
plant pathogens (Iacobellis et al., 2005). The supernatant from
cumin powder extracted in Phosphate-buffered saline-Tween-20
(PBS-T) at 100 mg/mL was used to dilute the patient’s serum.
The samples were incubated for 15 minutes at 37◦ C before they
were added to the wells coated with cumin. Complete inhibition
of IgE antibody was achieved with the cumin extract by using
the patient’s serum diluted at 1:2, 1:5, and 1:10 (Boxer et al,
1997).
Blood Platelet Aggregation
Stimulation of bile acid secretion and pancreatic enzymes
has been demonstrated in rats given a continuous intake of di-
etary cumin. Variable results were obtained with a single dose of
cumin. Cumin extract in ether inhibited arachidonate-induced
platelet aggregation in human platelets in a dose-dependent
manner (Srivastava, 1989). An aqueous extract of cumin in-
hibited rat jejunal ATPase in an in vitro experiment. Hyper
 NUTRACEUTICAL FUNCTIONS OF CUMIN
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Figure 2 GC profiles of oils obtained from cumin powder and flakes Adapted from Sowbhagya et al., 2008.
cholesterolemic effect of cumin in rats has been established by
the studies of Samabaiah and Srinivasan (1991).
Cumin Spent as a Source of Dietary Fiber
Soluble and insoluble dietary fibers, considered as impor-
tant elements in human diet, are the storage of cell wall
polysaccharides of plants that cannot be hydrolyzed by human
digestive enzymes. Consumption of dietary fiber consisting of
non-digestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and
intact in plants, has received much attention due to its role in
preventing certain diseases like cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
colon cancer and obesity (Chou and Huang, 2004). A diet that
provides adequate fiber is usually less energy dense and larger
in volume and thus may bring a feeling of satiety sooner (Saris,
2003). Dietary fiber helps in eliminating waste products and
improves colon health, helps feel full, so aids in weight control,
helps to regulate sugar levels in the blood stream. The National
7
Advisory Committee in Great Britain has recommended a fiber
intake of 25–30 g/day /person (Dashti et al., 2003).
Spices like pepper, coriander, cumin, fenugreek, and fennel
are reported to contain 15–45% crude fiber and except for a
few, very little information is available on dietary fiber content
in spices. Bran from cereals is used as a source of dietary fiber
but an alternative source of dietary fiber and data on nutritional
input is also required. Production and export of cumin oleoresin
was around 7.62 tons produced by using 42 tons of raw material
during the year 2002–2003 (Mathew, 2004). About 40 tons of
cumin spent is obtained out of which a major portion goes
as boiler feed and only a small quantity is consumed in the
veterinary feed formulations. The cumin spent which does not
have any commercial value has been evaluated as a new source
of dietary fiber for its quality, physicochemical characteristics,
and application potential.
The spent residue from cumin was found to contain 6% of
moisture, 5% of total ash, 5% of crude fat, 20% of protein,
and 8% of starch (Sowbhagya et al., 2007). Spent residue of
 8 H. B. SOWBHAGYA
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Figure 3 Scanning electron micrographs of (3a) cumin powder, (3b) spent, (3c) cumin spent defatted and (3d) starch Adapted from Sowbhagya et al., 2007.
cumin was analyzed for total dietary fibers, based on diges-
tion of food samples (1 g) with enzymes as described by Asp
et al. (1983). Cumin spent was found to contain total dietary
fiber (TDF) of 64.2%, of which insoluble dietary fiber (IDF)
was the major constituent (53.8%). The soluble dietary fiber
(SDF) value (10.4%) of spent cumin was comparable to that
of the whole cumin (10.5%). The quantity of soluble fiber
is quite significant in terms of the health benefits it imparts.
Soluble fiber is associated with a decrease in the cholesterol lev-
els and the absorption of intestinal glucose (Scheneeman, 1987).
Scanning electron microscopic studies have revealed that native
cumin showed very few starch granules embedded well inside
the fiber matrix (Fig. 3a) which showed distinct spherical starch
granules, the residue left after volatile oil and oleoresin extrac-
tion showed partly gelatinized starch matrix with a few starch
granules, which upon further defatting with petroleum ether by
soxhlet, exhibited a honeycomb structure with fiber matrix (Fig.
3b). During the oleoresin extraction, fat is also extracted, but not
completely. On analysis (by soxhlet extraction with petroleum
ether) it was found that the spent residue still had 5% fat. The
defatted spent residue was subjected to SEM which showed a
honeycomb structure. After purification by repeated differential
sedimentation of the spent residue (Fig. 3c), spherically shaped
starch granules were visible (Fig. 3d).
USES OF CUMIN
The seeds are used in cooking and the volatile oil is used
for food flavoring and in cosmetics and perfumery industries.
When the cumin seeds are used whole, they are often fried in
oil or dry-roasted before being added to a food to bring out their
aroma. Cumin and cumin oil are used to flavor soups, meats,
cheese, pickles, and bread. Seasoning with cumin enhances the
flavor of brown rice and sautéed vegetables. Cumin seeds are
used extensively in Mexican foods. The popularity of Mexican
dishes such as chili con carne, especially in the southwestern
United States, has made cumin an important spice in the United
States. Cumin is used for flavoring cheese in the Netherlands and
in France. Ground cumin is a major component of curry pow-
ders. Ground cumin also forms part of various spicy mixtures,
the most important being “Garam masala” (extensively used
throughout south Asia), which are again used to add pungent
flavors to the dishes and cuisines.
The oil is used as a fragrant component of creams, lotions,
and perfumes as well as to standardize the volatile oil con-
tent of oleoresin in the food processing industries. Cumin also
has a number of medicinal uses and helps in curing many dis-
eases. Cumin seeds are a very good source of iron. In Ayurvedic
medicine, cumin is considered a warming spice, invaluable for
 NUTRACEUTICAL FUNCTIONS OF CUMIN
digestion. It is also a cleansing spice that helps burn toxins and
enhances the appetite.
CONCLUSIONS
Cumin is one of the commercially important seed spices and
forms one of the ingredients of many spice mixes which are
consumed in our daily diet. Value added products from cumin,
viz., cumin powder, oil, and oleoresin also form commercially
viable products and find application in food processing indus-
tries. Research towards the development of improved methods
to process and extract cumin extracts with higher retention of
bioactive compounds would be welcome. As evidenced by lit-
erature, the different forms of cumin possess many remarkable
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health benefits, viz., inhibition of blood platelet aggregation,
anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, and antioxidant, etc. The
flavanoids apigenin, luteolin, and their glycosides present in
cumin are reported to be responsible for many of the biological
activities of cumin. Cuminaldehyde, the major constituent of
volatile oil, is responsible for the antimicrobial and antimuta-
genic properties. Spent residue from cumin has the potential as
a new source of dietary fiber which can be utilized for incor-
poration into many food formulations. As a seed spice, cumin
contains higher amounts of fatty oil (around 15%) which causes
problems for large-scale grinding and requires newer methods
of extraction of volatile oil without flavor loss. Storage of ole-
oresin for a longer time is problematic due to the unsaturated
fatty acids (oleic acid is the major fatty acid present around
60%) which lead to rancidity formation in the product. Meth-
ods to stabilize the oleoresin and product containing oleoresin
need to be worked out. The fatty acid composition of the cumin
and cumin oleoresin reveals that it is rich in unsaturated fatty
acids, especially linoleic acid which is known to possess health
benefits. Cumin can be considered as a health promoting food
additive as it contains significant proportions of monounsatu-
rated fatty acids (MUFA) compared to spices like ginger, chilli,
and pepper. But as a spice, cumin is consumed in low quantities
which may not be sufficient to provide the health effects. With
the increasing awareness and demand for functional foods, the
consumption of cumin in different forms (e.g., as an ingredient
of a ready to drink beverage, as a mouth freshener, or as a table
top shake-on for salad dressings) can be popularized. Unlike
onion and garlic, which have the problem of strong odor, in-
creased usage of cumin is likely. However, the effective dosage
to get maximum health benefits for an individual should be
worked out.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is thankful to Dr. V. Prakash, Director, Central
Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore and to Dr. N.
Krishnamurthy for their constant encouragement.
9
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