CHAPTER 1

BACKGROUND
Ginger, a very useful herb plant, is said to be originated from India, China and Java, yet is also
native to Africa and the West Indies. It is grown throughout the tropical areas of the world and
also commonly found in South East Asia especially in Indo-Malaysia. The main producer of
ginger is Jamaica. Ginger is scientifically named as Zingiber officinale Roscoe. On 1807, an
English botanist, William Roscoe (1753-1831) named the plant as Zingiber officinale in his
publications. Ginger has been used for a few purposes since very early times. It is used as a
medicine since many years ago. It is also widely used as a cooking herb, condiment, spice and
home remedy for a long time ago. In medicinal uses, the ginger root is an effective treatment for
nausea caused by motion sickness or other sickness. This kind of medical usage was found by
earlier researchers, D.B. Mourey and D.E. Clayson. For morning sickness, it is not recommended
to take the ginger root because morning sickness commonly associated with pregnancy. Ginger
extract also has long been used in traditional medical practices to decrease inflammation.
Today, many herbalists use ginger to help treat health problems associated with inflammation,
such as arthritis, bronchitis, and ulcerative colitis. To shorten the story, ginger oil is used in the
treatment of fractures, rheumatism, arthritis, bruising, carbuncles, nausea, hangovers, travel and
sea sickness, colds and flu, catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sores on the skin, sore throat,
diarrhea, colic, cramps, chills and fever. Besides that, ginger oil is used for cooking, as a
flavoring for cookies, biscuits and cake, and it is the main flavor in ginger ale, a sweet,
carbonated, non-alcoholic beverage.
In Zingiber officinale Roscoe, there are many constituents such as acids, shoagaols, gingerol,
essential oils, fiber, amino acids and minerals. There are two ways of extraction, that is using
steam distillation and solvent extraction. In order to get oleoresin, solvent extraction technique is
used but to obtain essential oil, steam distillation technique is used.
Steam distillation method is used for temperature sensitive material like natural aromatic
compounds. For this method, there is no solvent is used to extract the material but pure water is
the main component to do it.

1
 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Today, the essential oil from the ginger is widely used and the most important is that the ginger
oil is used in medical field for a few sicknesses and the ginger flavor is containing aromatic and
pungent component which is important in the flavor industries. The pungent components in
ginger are proven beneficial in treating health problems.
There is insufficient production of essential oil from ginger rhizomes. This leads to serious
health problems and financials. This causes increased sickness and financial crisis of the country.
In other hand, lack of recovery system is leads to improper recovery of pungent and aromatic in
flavour industry. This causes decreases products with pungent and aromatic.
So, to solve these impacts, the project focuses on sufficient product by extraction of essential oil
from ginger rhizomes by using steam distillation method.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
1.2.1 General Objective
Produce essential oils from the ginger rhizome using steam distillation method.
1.2.2 Specific Objectives
 Studying the effect of surface area of the ginger to get higher yield.
 Comparing the fresh and dry ginger rhizomes for extraction of essential oil.
 Analyzing the product using GC. This study is focus on using the gas chromatography (GC) to
analyze the essential oil from raw material.
1.3 Introductions
Essential oils contain highly volatile substances that are isolated by a physical method or process
from plants of a single botanical species. The oils normally bear the name of the plant species
from which they are derived. Essential oils are so termed as they are believed to represent the
very essence of odor and flavor. Essential oil plants and culinary herbs include a broad range of
plant species that are used for their aromatic value as flavorings in foods and beverages and as
fragrances in pharmaceutical and industrial products. Essential oils derive from aromatic plants
of many genera distributed worldwide. [1]
Steam distillation is used in the extraction of Essential Oil from the plant material. It is a special
type of distillation or a separation process for temperature sensitive materials like oils, resins,
hydrocarbons, etc. which are insoluble in water and may decompose at their boiling point. The
fundamental nature of steam distillation is that it enables a compound or mixture of compounds

2
to be distilled at a temperature substantially below that of the boiling point(s) of the individual
constituent(s). Essential Oil contains components with boiling points up to 200°C or higher
temperatures. In the presence of steam or boiling water, however, these substances are volatilized
at a temperature close to 100°C, at atmospheric pressure. [2]
Ginger’s essential oil is extracted by steam distillation from the root of the plant. It is often
blended with other essential oils to produce many different mixtures for many different ailments.
Analysis of Essential Oil is done by using Gas Chromatography with Mass Spectrometer. The
qualitative and quantitative analysis is done to know the constituents in the oil and the
percentage of components present in the oil respectively, by doing so we can know the purity of
that particular oil.[3]

3
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GINGER
Ginger is the underground stem (rhizome) of a perennial herb, which is used as a spice and as a
preserve. The knobby rhizome is dug up when the 1 meter tall leaves and stems of the plant
wither, which occurs between 6 and 12 months after planting. It is then prepared for market by
either scalding, to produce black ginger, or by scraping and washing to produce white ginger. It
is sold in the fresh condition or, more frequently, in a peeled and split dried form. Ginger is
utilized widely as a spice, for pickles, candies and as a medicinal herb. It can be produced in
many countries but it does best in moist, tropical conditions.
2.1.1 Forms of ginger
Ginger is usually available in three different forms:
• Fresh (green) root ginger
• Preserved ginger in brine or syrup
• Dried ginger spice.
Fresh ginger is usually consumed in the area where it is produced, although it is possible to
transport fresh roots internationally. Both mature and immature rhizomes are consumed as a
fresh vegetable.
Preserved ginger is only made from immature rhizomes. Most preserved ginger is exported.
Hong Kong, China and Australia are the major producers of preserved ginger and dominate the
world market. Making preserved ginger is not simple as it requires a great deal of care and
attention to quality. Only the youngest (tender) stems of ginger should be used. It is difficult to
compete with the well established Chinese and Australian producers; therefore processors are
advised against making this product.
Dried ginger spice is produced from the mature rhizome. As the rhizome matures the flavour
and aroma become much stronger. Dried ginger is exported, usually in large pieces which are
ground into a spice in the country of destination. Dried ginger can be ground and used directly as
a spice and also for the extraction of ginger oil and ginger oleoresin. This brief outlines the
important steps that should be taken pre-harvest and post-harvest to produce dried ginger.

4
2.1.2 General composition of the ginger rhizome
The ginger rhizome has the following chemical composition:
 60% starch,
 10% proteins,
 10% fats,
 5% fibers,
 6% inorganic material,
 10% residual moisture,
 1-4% essential oil
2.2.1 Chemistry of ginger
The chemistry of Z. officinale has been the subject of sporadic study since the early 19 century.
In common with some other pungent spices, considerable advances were made in the early part
of the 20th century, but it has only been in recent years that a fairly clear understanding of the
relationship of its chemical composition to its organoleptic properties has emerged. Ginger like
pepper (piper nigrum) and the fruits of the capsicum spices, owes its characteristics organoleptic
properties to two classes of constituents: the odour and much of the flavour of ginger is
determined by the constituents of its steam-volatile oil, while the pungency is produced by non-
steam-volatile components, known as the gingerols, which passes a 1- (4 ’-hyroxy-3’-
methoxyphenyl)-5-hydroxylkan-3-one structure.
2.1.3 Ginger Benefits
Ginger had always been used as medicines, or herbs and various other purposes. Ginger may
stimulate the digestive glands, both to raise the appetite and digestion. Ginger is used as a
seasoning especially efficacious to increase appetite, strengthen the stomach, and improves
digestion. Oil of ginger contains gingerol a distinctive fragrant ginger, efficacious to prevent and
treat nausea and vomiting, for example due to motion sickness in women who are pregnant or
younger. Also the taste is sharp stimulating appetite, strengthens intestinal muscles, helping to
remove intestinal gas and help the heart function. In traditional Asian medicine, ginger is used to
treat colds, coughs, and diarrhea, arthritis and bone diseases such as arthritis. Ginger is also used
to enhance the cleansing of the body through sweat.

5
2.2 Ginger oil
Fresh ginger oil is a light green or yellow mobile liquid, possessing a characteristic aromatic
odour of the spice. It is produced by steam distillation from the dried rhizome of zingiber official
Rose.
The main constituents of the oil are sesquiterpenes and it lacks pungency. Ginger oil is used
primarily as a flavor in bakery goods, cakes, ginger snaps, and spice snaps, as well as in soft
drinks of the ginger-oil type and in condiment mixtures.
2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Ginger Oil
Physical properties
The essential oils are practically insoluble in water, generally lighter than water, and possess
characteristic odor.
Table: 1 physical property of ginger oil.
Appearance Pale yellow liquid.
Odor Characteristic spicy somewhat pungent ginger odor.
Solubility Soluble in alcohol and oils. Insoluble in water
Specific gravity 0.870-0.882@20℃
Optical rotation -47 to -28@20℃
Flash point 57℃
Boiling point 97.5 ℃
Chemical properties
Ginger essential oil is chemically instable, for example,
 polymerizing easily happens to zingiberene under steam distillation;
 the sesquiphellandrene turns into aryl-turmeric.so some of the ingredients will change
during storage: geraniol and geraniol acetate will decrease;
 Nerolidol and β-geranial will increase.
 The heated gingerol will be dehydrated and becomes zingiberene. Therefore, the
viscosity of ginger essential oil increases under the oil is exposed to light and air for long
time, which forms non-volatile polymer residues, reducing the optical rotation.
 When the temperature exceeds 90 ℃, the compositions and flavor of ginger essential oil
occurs harmful changes.

6
 Structure of gingerol
2.3 Essential oil of ginger
The aroma and flavour of ginger are determined by the composition of its steam volatile oil,
which is comprised mainly of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, monoterpene hydrocarbons and
oxygenated monoterpenes. The monoterpene constituents are believed to the most important
contributors to the aroma of ginger and they tend to be relatively more abundant in the natural oil
of the fresh (green) rhizome than in the essential oil distilled from dried ginger.
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes are minor constituents of the volatile oil but appear to be significant
contributors to its flavour properties.
Investigations of the aroma and flavour of ginger have been carried out almost exclusively on the
steam-distilled essential oil obtained from dried ginger. However, it should be appreciated that
this oil differs somewhat in its composition and organoleptic properties from the natural volatile
oil present in dried ginger prior to distillation through the formation of artefacts during the
distillation process and subsequent storage.
2.4 Usage and application of Ginger Oil
As an essential oil with physiological activity, ginger essential oil can be used as cosmetics and
fragrances, food, spices and herbs. Therefore, ginger essential oil has broad prospects for
application in food and cosmetic industries.
2.4.1 Foods

7
The aroma of ginger oil is pleasant and not spicy, which is mainly used in foods, drinks, non-
alcoholic refreshing beverages, baked goods, special sweet wine and ginger beer, ginger wine
and other alcoholic flavors, seasonings, natural food flavorings; also the raw material used in
cigarette flavor. Besides that, ginger oil is used for cooking, as a flavoring for cookies, biscuits
and cake, and it is the main flavor in ginger ale.
2.4.2 Cosmetics
The aroma of ginger oil is strong, warm, and spicy with slight lemon flavor, meanwhile with
some characteristic flower aroma, the source of aroma compounds and types is valuable for the
application development of cosmetics. Ginger essential oil is a good choice to use in cosmetics,
especially as flavor raw material of men's perfumes, particularly oriental male cosmetics
(perfume).
2.4.3 Functional Foods
Due to its characteristic aroma and taste, ginger essential oil can be used as a high quality
concentrated flavoring material alternative to traditional spicy raw materials used in food
processing and cooking; ginger essential oil has many bioactivities assisting preventing modern
civilization diseases. Thus, the development of ginger in the field of functional foods is also
promising, especially as functional seasonings, functional foods and even the entire food
industry.
2.4.4 Pharmaceuticals
Ginger essential oil is helpful in dispelling cold desiccant, dispelling wind and relieving pain,
warming the meridians, preventing and treating motion sickness of auto, vessel and aircraft, anti-
aging. Recent studies show that terpene compounds in ginger oil are helpful to protect gastric
mucosa and anti-ulcer; and ginger essential oil has inhibitory effect on the central nervous
system; ginger oil also has anti-inflammatory effect. Also Ginger oil is used in the treatment of
fractures, rheumatism, arthritis, bruising, carbuncles, nausea, hangovers, travel and sea sickness,
colds and flu, catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sores on the skin, sore throat, diarrhea, colic,
cramps, chills and fever. Therefore, ginger essential oil has a high medicinal value; the
pharmaceutical applications are extremely extensive.
2.5 Ginger oil production process
The fresh rhizome is harvested at between 8 to 9 months of age.
The roots and leaves are removed and the rhizomes are washed.

8
Washing the rhizomes are soaked for 2-3 hours in clean water then soaked in a solution of 1.5-
2.0% lime (calcium oxide) for 6 hours. This produces a lighter coloured (bleached) rhizome.
After soaking, the rhizomes are drained.
The rhizomes are dried until a final moisture content of 10%. During drying, the rhizomes lose
between 60 and 70% in weight. Tray drier should be used to accelerate the drying process. Sliced
ginger pieces take only 5-6 hours to dry when a hot air drier is used. It is important to monitor
the air flow and temperature during drying. The drying temperature should not exceed 60°C as
this causes the rhizome flesh to darken.
After drying, the rhizomes are cleaned to remove any dirt and insects. An air separator can be
used for large quantities, but at the small scale it is probably not cost effective.
The dried rhizomes should be packaged into air-tight, moisture proof packaging for storage.
Dried rhizomes, slices and splits should be stored in a cool place (10-15°C). At higher
temperatures (23-26°C) the flavour compounds start to deteriorate and ginger loses some of its
taste and aroma. The storage room should be dry and away from the direct sunlight. During
storage the rhizomes should be protected from attack by insects and other pests. The storage
room should be clean, dry, cool and free from pests. Mosquito netting should be fitted on the
windows to prevent pests and insects from entering the room. Strong smelling foods, detergents
and paints should not be stored in the same room.
Then dried rhizomes ginger send to distillation column to produce essential oil. The best ginger
oil is obtained from whole rhizomes that are unpeeled. Ginger oil is obtained using a process of
steam distillation. The dried rhizomes are ground to a coarse powder and loaded into a still.
Steam is passed through the powder, which extracts the volatile oil components. The steam is
then condensed with cold water. As the steam condenses, the oils separate out of the steam water
and can be collected. It is re-distilled to get the maximum yield of oil. The yield of oil from dried
ginger rhizomes is between 1.5 to 3.0%. The remaining rhizome powder contains about 50%
starch and can be used for animal feed. It is sometimes dried and ground to make an inferior
spice.
2.6 Common techniques of extraction of ginger oils
 Hydro distillation
 Hydro diffusion
 Steam distillation

9
  Solvent extraction

2.6.1 Hydro distillation

The technique involves distillation of water that is in direct contact with fresh or sometimes dried
macerated plant materials. Plant material is grinded and weighed, then transferred into the
Clevenger set up. Plant material is heated in two to three times its weight of water with direct
steam. The distillation vessel is heated over heating mantle and the water vapour and oil are
removed through a water cool condenser.
Advantage
 It is necessary for the efficient distillation of certain woody materials e.g. sandalwood
and cinnamon barks
Disadvantages
 The process is slow and the distillation time is much longer thereby consuming more
firewood or fuel making process uneconomical. Variable rate of distillation due to
difficult control of heat extraction of the herb is not always complete. Also the possibility
exists for local overheating and "burning" of the charge which can lead to poorer quality
oil not suitable for large capacity or commercial scale distillations not suitable for high
boiling hardy roots or woody plant materials oldest and most primitive method.
2.6.2 Hydro diffusion
Hydro diffusion is a method of extracting essential oils in which steam at atmospheric pressure
(low-pressure steam <0-1 bar) is passed through the plant material from the top of the extraction
chamber, thus resulting in the oils that retain the original aroma of the plants.
Advantage
 Hydro-diffusion over distillation is that the process is quicker, especially for fibrous
material such as woods and barks
Disadvantage
 The resultant oils are reported to have a superior aroma and a richer colour obtained by
ordinary distillation. Nevertheless, oils captured by hydro-diffusion process are not
widely available.
2.6.3 Steam distillation

10
This is the most common method of extracting oils and Steam distillation is the preferred method
for all essential oils produced in large quantity. Direct steam distillation is the most efficient
method. In this method instead of making the steam in the kettle it is prepared in a boiler and
then passed through the bed of ginger at a certain pressure. The steam extracts most of the
essential oil and hence, this method is most economical and quick. Steam is added and passed
through the plant that contains the plants aromatic molecules or oils. Once upon, the plant
releases these aromatic molecules and in the state, the fragrant molecules travel within a closed
system towards the cooling device. Cold water is used to cool vapours. As they cool, they
condense and transform into a liquid state.
Advantages
 Steam is widely used because of its high latent heat of evaporation, relatively cheaper and
widely available high oil and reproducible yields, faster, lesser fuel the field distillation /
portable / directly fired type units based on this techniques due to their very simple
construction, low cost and easy operation field distillation units are extremely popular
with essential oil producers in developing countries. Such field units generally have
capacities to hold 100 kg to 2000 kg plant material. Furnace is mostly fueled by locally
available fire wood, straw or spent and dried plant material which is being distilled.
Disadvantages
 The temperature of the extraction chamber cannot be too high, lest some components of
the oil be altered or destroyed. It can be seen from the experimental work done that there
is an art to distillation and that, especially for low yield plants, much skill is needed.
Time consuming as low pressure steam oil separation is incomplete.
2.6.4 Solvent extraction
This method involves the extraction of the oils from the oil bearing materials with the use of
solvent. Solvent used depends on the part of the plant to be used for extraction. For instance,
leaves, roots, fruits are extracted with benzene with or without mixture of acetone or petroleum
ether, in the cold or at boiling point while flowers are extracted with ethers. The solvent enters
the plant to dissolve the oil waxes and colour. After the extraction, the solvent is removed by
distillation under reduced pressure leaving behind the semisolid concentrate, this concentrate are
extracted with absolute ethanol. The second extract is cooled to precipitate the waxes and then

11
filtered. This wax free alcoholic solution is distilled under reduced pressure to remove alcohol
and finally the essential oil.
Advantages
 It can be performed at ambient temperature.
 it is relatively energy efficient
 it can be applied to separations involving thermally unstable molecules
Disadvantages
 Extraction solvent is needed.
 Extra equipment is needed for recovery of solvent.
 Some solvent may remained in the product.
 Complete recovery of the solvent is difficult.
 It take long time
 Environmentally polluted because some solvent released to environment
2.7 The selection criteria of steam distillation
Steam distillation is a relatively cheap process to operate at a basic level, and the properties of
oils produced by this method are not altered.
As steam reduces the boiling point of a particular component of the oil, it never decomposes in
this method.
This method apart from being economical, it is also relatively faster than other methods
It will not use any solvent and can make it safer than other processes.
2.8 Technology of essential oil extraction from ginger rhizomes
Dry ginger shall first be milled by grinder to the required mesh size. Steam distillation is the
preferred method for all essential oils produced in large quantities. The steam, produced in a
boiler is introduced into an evaporation vessel which contains the ginger powder and water. The
ginger powder is located on a grid placed at a certain distance above the level of the water which
fills the bottom of the vessel. The water is vaporized indirectly, by steam flowing in a pipe coil
submerged by the water. The water vapour, plus the distilled oil coming from the evaporator
vessel is recovered in a separate water cooled condenser.
This mixture flowing out of the condenser is separated by decantation in a Florentine flask. The
essential oil is collected at the top and distilled water leaves the flask at the bottom of the flask.

12
As water still contains some soluble parts of the oil, it is sent back to the evaporator vessel to
recover the soluble components by means of second distillation (Noble and Terry, 2004).

13
 Water CaO
Raw ginger

T-1
water

T-2 T-3

Bc.
Moisture

P-10
F
D
Cg. Sl.
Hot air
Electric heater
Cl.
Bc.

Cooling
T-4 water

Co.
Ds
V-5

Os T-5

Br.
ABREVATION EQUIPMENT NAME
T-1 Drum washer tank
T-2 Water soaking tank
T-3 Lime soaking tank
T-4 Storage tank

Sl. Slicer
D Dryer
Cg. Coarse grinder
F Air compressor
Cl. Cleaner
Bc. Belt conveyer Fig.1: Process flow
B Steam boiler diagram of essential oil
Steam distillation extraction from ginger
Ds.
Condenser rhizomes
Co.
Os. Oil separator
Product storage
T-5
tank
Br. Barrel

14
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 METHODOLOGY
3.1.1 Material
Ginger rhizome was used in this project. The ginger rhizome is obtained from locally found
market. The collected samples were washed thoroughly with water to remove earthy matter.
Then they were dried. Finally the dried ginger was cut to 2-5 cm flat chips with heavy knives.
3.1.2 Extraction methods
The extraction can be conducted with or without solvent. Extraction with solvent is less quality
and highly economical. But, to get the essential oil, extraction through steam distillation is the
most used method. Without any solvent, pure water is used at its boiling point as steam to extract
the essential oil from ginger. The steam will help to release the aromatic molecules from the
ginger. The steam must be carefully controlled. It is because to control the ginger from burning
and lost its purity.
3.2 LABORATORY FRAME WORK
3.2.1 Production Process of ginger oil by using steam distillation
Harvest
The time of harvest after planting depends on the end-use. For fresh products and preserves, one
should harvest rhizomes while they are still tender, low in pungency and fiber content, therefore
before they are fully mature. Harvest for dried spices and oil is best at full maturity, when the
leaves turn yellow; leaving the rhizomes in the ground past that stage may reduce pungency and
oil content, and increase the fiber content. Maximum oil contents are between 150 and 170 days
after planting. The maximum essential oil content was reached after 28 weeks on a fresh-weight
basis. Time from planting to maturity may be highly affected by the type of soil in which ginger
is grown.
In summary, the best harvest time for essential oil production: 8-9 months. Harvest for planting
material is further delayed until the leaves are completely dried out. Harvest is by manually
lifting the rhizomes from the soil that may have been loosening at first. Harvest may be fully
mechanized using special equipment; the crop must be planted in such way that interspacing
between rows is adapted to equipment. Care should always be taken to assure integrity of the
rhizomes during harvest and postharvest handling.

15
Washing, “killing”
Fresh rhizomes should be washed, and cleaned from debris, shoots and roots. When available,
pressure washing is preferred as it is more efficient and tends to reduce the microbial load.
Immersion in boiling water, which also inactivates enzymatic processes
Soaking
The rhizomes may be bleached to improve appearance. After washing, rhizomes are first soaked
in water for 2 to 3 hours, then steeped in a solution of 1.5 to 2.0% lime (calcium oxide) for 6
hours, then drained and dried. This procedure is used when a light bright color is desired.
Slicer
To minimize drying time ginger should be sliced by using a rotary knife cutter. If the ginger is
sliced, it takes only 5 to 6 hours by using a cross-flow drier, while it takes 16 to 18 hours to dry
scraped whole ginger using the same equipment and conditions.
Drying
It is then dried in electrically operated tray drier at a temperature of about 60 oC. Even if ginger is
to be used for extraction purposes, this temperature is advisable as oil contents in ginger are not
affected till 80oC. Drying time is 24 hours in cross flow type drier and 14 hours in through-flow
drier. Average yield after drying is around 25%. Peeling or scraping is not advisable because
this process decreases the fiber content by removing the outside corky skin, it also tends to
remove some of the oils constituents, as they are more concentrated in the peel, and therefore
reduces some of the pungency. Drying should be done to 8-10% moisture, and should not exceed
12%. Expected weight loss during drying is 60-70% ginger. Cleaning and drying procedures
should be done as fast as possible after harvest to ensure minimum loss from microbial
contamination, mold growth and fermentation.
Separator and coarse grinder
An air screen separator will help remove dead insects, excreta and extraneous matter, while a
rotary knife cutter with a screen separator will help remove residual insects and other extraneous
matter.
Packaging
Bulk rhizomes may be packed in jute sacks, wooden boxes or lined corrugated cardboard boxes
for storage. Dried ginger coarse are packed in polythene bags and sealed. Dry course or powders
are packaged in multi-wall laminated bags. Some laminates are better than others due to film

16
permeability. The packaging material should be impermeable to moisture and air. Sealing
machines can be used to seal the bags.
Storage
Dried rhizomes, slices and splits should be stored in a cool place (10-15°C). At higher
temperatures (23-26°C) the flavor compounds start to deteriorate and ginger loses some of its
taste and aroma. The storage room should be dry and away from the direct sunlight. During
storage the rhizomes should be protected from attack by insects and other pests. Natural
pesticides such as the leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla or Azadirachta indica can be added to the
Rhizomes to prevent damage from the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricome). The storage
room should be clean, dry, cool and free from pests. Mosquito netting should be fitted on the
windows to prevent pests and insects from entering the room. Strong smelling foods, detergents
and paints should not be stored in the same room.
Distillation
Ginger oil may be produced from fresh or dried rhizomes. Oil from dried rhizomes will have less
of the low boiling point volatile compounds since they tend to evaporate during the drying
process. The difference between oils produced from fresh and dried rhizomes can be seen in the
citral content, usually lower in the oil from dried plant material. Additionally, unpeeled or coated
rhizomes are preferably used for oil extraction to improve yield. For steam distillation, dried
rhizomes are ground to a coarse powder and loaded into a still. The extractor for this process will
have three main parts. First, the steam will be supplied into the vessel. The steam will contact to
the raw material and force the essential oils out of its raw material. Second, a condenser will be
used to change the mixture of vapors to be two separated layer of water and essential oil. This
two separated mixture occurs because of the different in density. Lastly, the mixture of water and
essential oil will be collected in a vessel. Oil yield from dried rhizomes is generally from 1.5% to
3.0%. The rhizome powder stripped from its oil is made of about 50% starch and may be used as
livestock feed. It may also be further dried and powdered to produce an inferior spice (4).
Separation process
Essential oil is separated from the water based on their density difference. This mixture flowing
out of the condenser is separated by decantation in a Florentine flask. The essential oil is
collected at the top and distilled water leaves the flask at the bottom of the flask. As water still

17
contains some soluble parts of the oil, it is sent back to the evaporator vessel to recover the
soluble components by means of second distillation.

Harvesting rhizomes at 8-9 months (dried ginger)

Washing

Soaking in water 6-12 hours

Peeling/scraping

Washing

Drying

Bleaching

Drying

Storage

Steam distillation

Ginger oil
Figure 2: Block diagram of the extraction of essential oil from ginger rhizome
3.3 Materials used in the laboratory
Materials:
 Steam distillation
 Pipe nozzle
 Plastic pipes for water pump
 Heating element

18
  Drying oven
 Cutter knife
Raw Materials:
 Ginger (Zingiber Officinale)
 Lime(CaO)
 Water
Other materials:
 Temperature gauges
 Electrical wires
 Contactor with liquid level controller
 Stop watch
 Weighing balance
 Measuring cylinder
3.4 Experimental procedures
3.4.1 Experimental setup for steam distillation
 First of all, Fresh rhizomes should be washed and cleaned from debris, shoots and roots.
 The fresh ginger soaked with water for 2-3 hr
 Then soak with 2% lime concentration for 5-6 hr
 Ginger is cut into smaller pieces with the help of a cutting knife.
 After cutting of ginger, pieces or slice are dried in oven for 5-6 hr at a temperature of
60oC and up to their moisture content reaches 10%
 Then the dried ginger is coarsely grinded by grinder or cutter. Then fed the perforated
bed to inside of the column which their mass is 150g
 After preparing the bed, the outlet of the column is connected to a water cooler and the
outlet of the condenser is connected to the collecting flask.

19
 Figure 3: steam distillation settled for extraction essential oil
 The steam at is passed into the column from the bottom. The steam passed through the
pores of the ginger bed and extracts the volatile oil with it. This extractor is carried out
until hole of the volatile oil is extracted by using 4lit of water to generate steam in the
heater.
 The vapor of water and oil condenses in the condenser and falls into the collection flask.
These flasks are generally made of glass. In the flask, two layers are formed after the
condensed vapors are settled. Water layer remains on lower side while oily layer floats
on the water.
 Oil is separated from flask by density difference or by decantation process.
 The ginger oil is packed in glass bottles. This packing is done manually. An air tight seal
is provided to prevent the loss of oil through volatilization.
3.4.2 Experimental setup for direct heat (hydro distillation):
 First of all, Fresh rhizomes should be washed and cleaned from debris, shoots and roots.

20
 The fresh ginger soaked with water for 2-3 hr
 Then soak with 2% lime concentration for 5-6 hr
 Ginger is cut into smaller pieces with the help of a cutting knife.
 After cutting of ginger, pieces or slice are dried in oven for 5-6 hr at a temperature of
60oC and up to their moisture content reaches 10%
 Then the dried ginger is coarsely grinded by grinder or cutter. Then fed to the hydro
distillation which their mass is 90g.
 The hydro distillation is then equipped with a condenser.
 After preparing the hydro distillation, the outlet of the column is connected to a water
cooler and the outlet of the condenser is connected to the collecting flask.

Figure 4: hydro distillation settled for extraction of essential oil

 The vapor of water and oil condenses in the condenser and falls into the collection flask.
These flasks are generally made of glass. In the flask, two layers are formed after the

21
 condensed vapors are settled. Water layer remains on lower side while oily layer floats on
the water.
 Oil is separated from flask by density difference or by decantation process.

Figure 5: Oil and water separation flask

22
 CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Laboratory #1
What we observed that there was not water vapours and essential oils passed to the separation
flask. Due to the following reasons:-
 Low steam generating capacity of the equipment.
 Leakage of the equipment, steam lost.
 The height to diameter ratio is not proportional to our sample.
Laboratory#2
Due to the failed of experiment#1 we are forced to use direct heat to extract ginger oil from the
ginger rhizomes. In this case we observed that much amount of water vapours and less essential
oil were passed to separation flask. Also we observed that the sliced (fined) ginger was passed
with water vapour before its essential oil was extracted and its pH was 3.5. The vapour ginger oil
was obtained from the coarse fresh ginger rhizome and there was no transfer of ginger grinded
with vapours which its pH was 5.53.Ginger’s essential oil was separated from water, its color
was pale yellow to brown and its odour was aromatic, ginger.
We got very small amount of oil. It is not desired value because of the extraction efficiency of
hydro distillation is very low.
In our case, the ginger essential oil we got from the dry ginger has normally pale yellow colour
while which obtained from fresh ginger almost too brown colour.

23
 CHAPTER 5
MATERIAL BALANCE, ENERGY BALANCE AND EQUIPMENT SIZING
5.1 Material Balance
Basis: Taking 1day of operation
Generally in our material balance calculation we use upstream approach because of the reason
that we don’t know amount of raw material required to produce a unit of product and rather we
know amount of final product to be produced.
Input + generation – output – consumption = accumulation
The following rules may be used to simplify the material balance equation:
If the balanced quantity is total mass, set generation = 0 and consumption = 0. Except in nuclear
reactions mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
If the balanced substance is non reactive species (neither a reactant nor a product), set generation
= 0 and consumption = 0
If the system is at steady state, system nothing can change with time, including the amount of
balanced quantity (5).
Therefore, input = output
Material balance at laboratory:
2kg water

24
 1kg ginger m1
Drum Washing
0.5% Impurity x % impurity
m2
2kg water
Assume the efficiency of drum washer is 99.5% in removing the impurity from fresh ginger.
Over all material balance on washer
1kg = m1+m2 ………………… (1)
Impurity removed (m2) = (1*0.995*0.005) kg
= 4.975*10-3kg
The impurity in the fresh ginger = 0.005*1kg
= 0.005kg
So, the impurity remain after washing = 0.005kg – 0.004975kg
= 0.0025kg
Substitute m2 to equation (1): 1kg = m1 + 0.004975kg
m1 = 0.995kg
0.0025
x = 0.995 *100 = 0.25%

Balance on water soaking

1.5kg water

0.995kg Water soaking m3

1.5kg m4

Water

Assume the soaking processes removes 99.8% of the impurity remained in the ginger.

25
Overall balance on water soaking:
0.995kg = m3 + m4 …………………………………. (2)
Impurity removed (m4) = 0.998 *0.0025*0.995kg = 0.002482kg
Substitute m4 to equation (2), 0.995kg = m3 + 0.002482kg
m3 = 0.9925kg

The impurity remained in the fresh ginger = 0.0025*0.995 – 0.002482kg

= 5.5*10-6kg

Material balance on lime soaking:

0.07kg lime

0.9925kg Lime m5 = 0.9924kg

0.002% impurity soaking

0.07kg lime m6 = 5.5*10-6kg

Here all the remaining impurity removed from fresh ginger.

So, m5 = m3 - impurity remained in the fresh ginger
m5 = 0.9925kg – 5.5*10-6kg
= 0.9924kg
m6 = 5.5*10-6kg
If 2% lime is required for soaking. So, the amount of CaO required by distilled water to make
lime can be calculated as:
2kg = 100kg
X = 0.9924kg
2 kg∗0.9924 kg
X= = 0.02kg
100 kg
Therefore 0.02kg calcium oxide is required to make lime with distilled water.
Material balance on dryer:

26
From the literature review the fresh ginger after drying lose its weight from 60-70%.
Taking the average 65% weight loses.

0.9924 kg Dryer m7

m8

Over all material balance:

0.9924kg = m7 + m8…………………………………………… (3)
Weight lose after drying (m8) = 0.65*0.9924kg
m8 = 0.645kg
Substitute m8 in equation (3):- 0.9924kg-0.645kg = m7
m7 = 0.347kg
Material balance on hydro distillation:
For 1kg dried and sliced ginger 4kg water is required to generate steam. 65% of the water that
enter to steam generator converts to steam and the remaining water left in the steam generator.
The process runs four hours per batch. So, we have two batches per a day. Since the process runs
eight hours in a day.
0.347 kg
Therefore, mass per batch: = 0.174kg/batch
2 batch
The water required to steam generator for one day:
1kg = 4kg
0.347kg = x kg
0.347 kg∗4 kg
x= = 1.4kg
1 kg
Therefore the amount of water converted to steam by steam generator can be calculated as:
1.4kg*0.65 = 0.91kg
0.91 kg
The amount of steam required for one batch is: = 0.455kg/batch
2batc h

m10 (spent ginger)

27
 0.174kg hydro distillation m9
3% oil X oil
(1-x) water

Steam = 0.455kg

Overall material balance:

0.174kg +0.455kg = m9 +m10…………………………. (4)

Oil balance:

0.03 *0.174kg = x*m9………………………... (5)

Balance on spent ginger, on oil part (m10):

0.97*0.174kg = m10

m10 = 0.17kg
Substitute m10 into equation (4):-

0.174kgkg + 0.455kgkg = m9 + 0.17kg

m9 = 0.46kg
0.03∗0.174 kg
From equation (5): x = = 0.0113
0.46 kg

Material balance on oil/water separator:

0.46kg oil separator m11

0.0113

m12

Assume the separator efficiency is 95%.

28
 Overall material balance:
0.46kg = m11 + m12………………………………………. (6)
Oil balance:
0.95*0.0113*0.46kg = m11
m11 = 0.005kg
Substitute m11 into equation (6): 0.46kg – 0.005kg = m12
m12 = 0.455kg
The amount oil produced per batch is 0.005kg/batch.

So, the amount of oil produced per day = 0.005kg*2 = 0.01kg/day

5.2 Material and energy balance at industry scale:

Basis: Taking 1day of operation

Working time per year=330 days

operating hour ∈ year

Attainment= ∗100 = 90.4%
total hour∈ year
Attainment is must be between 90%-95 % so, our working day is acceptable.
6000kg water

3000kg Drum m1

5% impurity Washing x% impurity

m2

6000 kg water
Assume the efficiency of drum washer is 95% in removing the impurity from fresh ginger.

Overall material balance on washer

3000kg= m1+ m2 …………….. (1)

Impurity removed (m2) = 3000*0.95*0.05

= 142.5kg

29
 The impurity in the fresh ginger =0.05*3000kg =150kg

So, the impurity remain after washing =150kg-142.5kg

= 7.5kg

Substitute m2 to equation (1)

3000kg=m1 +142.5kg

m1=3000kg-142.5kg

= 2857.5kg

7.5 kg
X= *100 = 0.26%
2857.5 kg

Balance on water soaking

4308kg water

2857.5kg

Water soaking m3

m4

4308kg water

Assume the soaking processes removes 99% of the impurity remained in the
ginger.

Overall balance on water soaking:

2857.5kg = m3 + m4……………….. (2)

Impurity removed (m4) = 0.99*0.0026*2857.5kg

= 7.35kg

Substitute m4 to equation (2), 2857.5kg = m3 + 7.35kg

m3 = 2850.15kg

The impurity remained in the fresh ginger = 0.0026*2857.5kg–7.35kg = 0.0795kg

30
Material balance on lime soaking:

201kg lime

2850.15kg lime soaking

0.005% m5

201kg m6

Lime
Here all the remaining impurity removed from fresh ginger. So, m5 = 2850.07kg
m6 = 0.0795kg
If 2% lime is required for soaking. So, the amount of CaO required by distilled water to make
lime can be calculated as:
2kg = 100kg
X kg = 2850.07kg
2 kg∗2850.07 kg
x = = 57kg. Therefore, 57kg calcium oxide is required to make lime with
100 kg
distilled water.
Material balance on dryer
From the literature review the fresh ginger after drying lose its weight from 60-70%.
Taking the average 65% weight loses.

2850.07kg

Dryer m7

m8
Over all material balance:
2850.07kg = m7 +m8…………………….. (3)

31
Weight lose after drying (m8) = 0.65*2850.07kg
= 1852.546kg
Substitute m8 equation (3): 2850.07kg-1852.546kg = m7
m7= 997.52kg
Material balance on steam distillation
Here we assume for 1kg dried and sliced ginger 15 kg water is required to generate steam.
65% of the water that enter to steam generator converts to steam and the remaining water left in
the steam generator.
The process runs six hours per batch. So, we have four batches per a day.
997.52 kg
Therefore, mass per batch: = 249.38kg/batch
4
The water required to steam generator for one day:
1kg = 15kg
997.52kg = x
So, the amount of water required to steam generator = 14962.8kg.
Therefore the amount of water converted to steam by steam generator can be calculated as:
14962.8kg *0.65 = 9725.82kg
The amount of steam required for one batch is:-
9725.82 kg
= 2431.455kg/batch
4
m10 spent ginger

249.38kg steam distillation m9

3% oil X oil
(1-x) water

Steam = 2431.455kg

Overall material balance:

249.38kg + 2431.455 = m9 + m10 …………………… (4)

32
Oil balance:
0.03 *249.38kg = x*m9………………………………. (5)
Balance on spent ginger, on oil part (m10):
0.97 *249.38kg = m10
m10 = 242kg
Substitute m10 to equation (4):
249.38kg +2431.455kg = m9 + 242kg
m9 = 2438.84kg
0.03∗249.38 kg
From equation (5), x = = 3.1*10-3
2438.84 kg

Material balance on oil/water separator:

2438.84kg oil separator m11

0.0031
0.9969
m12
Assume the separator efficiency is 99.5%
Overall material balance:
2438.84kg = m11 + m12…………………………….. (6)
Oil balance:
0.995*0.0031*2438.84kg = 7.52kg
Substitute m1 to equation (6), 2438.84kg – 7.52kg = m12
m12 = 2431.32kg
The amount of oil produced per batch is 7.52kg/batch.
So, the amount of oil produced per day = 7.52kg*4
= 30.08kg/day
The amount of oil produced annually = 30.08 kg/day*330day/year

33
 = 9926.4 kg/year oil
5.3 Energy balance calculation:
Balance on steam distillation:
During energy balance calculation we have to account sensible heat of feed (Hf ), sensible heat of
distillate (Hd), sensible heat of spent ginger (H d), heat lost in the condenser (Q c) and heat supply
by the steam (Qs). Let base temperature is at room temperature i.e. 25 oc. if the temperature of
feed, distillate, and bottom product will be 23oc, 100oc and 25oc.

Hd

25℃

27℃

F = 0.174kg Hf Steam Distillation

Qc

Qs

Hb 94℃

For 99.69% water /ginger oil composition specific latent heat is 2256kJ/kg. To find heat lost
balance around the condenser must be done.
Heat of vaporization of the vapor is the sum of latent heat of the vapor and sensible heat to raise
the temperature to the boiling point. Sensible heat of the distillate is zero because it is in liquid
phase and exists in the base temperature i.e. ∆T=0. The specific heat capacity of ginger oil is
2000J/kg oc and specific heat capacity of water is assumed to be 4200J/kg oc. average water oil
specific heat capacity is calculated as;
Cpavg = 0.9969*4200J/kg.℃ +0.0031*2000J/kg℃
= 4193.18J/kg ℃

34
Sensible heat to raise the temperature at the boiling point of 97℃ is calculated as; mdCpavg∆
T=2438.84Kg*4193.18J/kg℃*(97-25)℃
= 736307648J
= 736.3MJ
Since we assumed no reflux, mvapor = mdistillate
Hv = latent heat of vaporization at boiling point + sensible heat to raise liquid to the boiling
points.
Hv = 736307.648kJ +2256kJ/kg*2438.84kg =6238.3MJ/batch
Hv= Hd+ Hl+ Qc where Hl=heat of reflux. Hd = Hl= 0
Therefore, Hv= Qc = 6238.3MJ/batch.
Assume, since it is non-reacting mixture, if all amount of supplied heat to the steam distillation is
librated at the condenser (approximately 100% efficiency) and the steam distillation is well
insulated, therefore amount of heat supplied will be equal to the amount of heat removed per
batch.
Therefore, Qs = 6238.3MJ/batch.
5.4 EQUIPMENT SIZING
Sizing on drum washing unit:
6000kg water

3000kg fresh ginger Drum washer

V =?

Before calculating the capacity of drum washer it’s better to calculate the capacity of the raw
material.
Mass of ginger
Fresh ginger capacity (Vginger) = ρ ginger = 1020kg/m3
density of ginger
Mass of ginger = 3000kg
3000 kg
=
1020 kg/m3

35
 = 2.94m3
Mass of water
Water volume (VWater) = , mass of water = 6000kg
density of water
Density of water = 1000kg/m3

6000 kg
Water volume (Vwater) =
1000 kg/m3
= 6m3
Vdrum washer = Vginger + Vwater
= 2.94m3 +6m3
= 8.94m3
Take volume of drum washer 9m3.

Sizing on water soaking unit: 3/2 (2857.5kg)

Water soaking

2857.5kg

Fresh ginger

V =?
2857.5kg
Volume of fresh ginger =
1020 kg/m3

= 2.80m3
3
(2857.5 kg)
Volume of water = 2 = 4.3m3
1000 kg /m3
Volume of soaking = Vwater + Vginger
= 4.3m3 +2.80m3
= 7.1m3
Take volume of soaking = 8m3
Sizing on lime soaking unit:
36
Before calculating the capacity of lime soaking it’s better to calculate lime preparation unit.

57kg CaO

Lime

2850.07kg Preparation

V=?

Density of CaO = 3350kg/m3

Mass of CaO = 57kg
Mass of CaO
Volume of CaO =
Density of CaO
57 kg
= = 0.02m3
3350 kg/m 3
mass of distilled water 2850.07 kg
Volume of distilled water = = = 2.85m3
density of distilled water 1000 kg/m3
Volume of liming tank = volume of CaO + volume of distilled water
= 0.02m3 +2.85m3
= 2.87m3
Take 3m3
Sizing on lime soaking unit: 3m3

Lime soaking

2850.15kg unit

V=?
mass of ginger
Volume of ginger =
density of ginger
2850.15 kg
= = 2.79m3
1020 kg/m 3
Volume of lime soaking unit = volume of ginger + volume of lime tank

37
 = 2.79m3 + 3m3
= 5.79m3
Take, 6m3

CHAPTER 6
PROFITABILITY AND COST ANALYSIS
6.1 Estimation of purchased equipment cost: - Estimation of purchased equipment cost from
websites of http://matche.com/EquipCost/index.htm (Matches: Prices in 2014)
Table 2: List of purchased equipment cost

Type of Equipment Quantit Capacity Material of Unit

y construction of cost($) Total cost ($)

Drum washer tank 1 9m3 Carbon steel 15800 15800

Soaking tank 1 8m3 Carbon steel 14900 14,900
Liming soaking tank 1 6m3 Carbon steel 12100 12,100
Tray dryer 1 4m2 Carbon steel 13200 13,200
Air compressor 1 125hp Carbon steel 44600 44,600
Coarse grinder 1 D-1.5m Carbon steel 148200 148,200
Slicer 1 D-1.5m Carbon steel 609 609
Cyclone cleaner 1 56m3/min Carbon steel 28400 28,400
Belt conveyer 2 D- Carbon steel 41500 83,000

38
 1.5m,L-
6m
Steam Distillation 1 2m2, L- Stainless steel 15424 15424
4m
Storage tank 1 11.25m3 Carbon steel 3700 3700
Total 379,933
6.2 Total Capital Investment
TCI = FCI + WC (6)
Estimation of fixed capital investment:
Purchased equipment, E=$379,933
Purchased equipment installation 30%E = $113,980
Installation include insulation & paint 25% E = $94,983
Instrumentation (installed), 15%E = $56,990
Electrical installed, 20% E = $75,987
Piping (installed), 20%E = $75,987
Buildings including services, 35 % E = $132,977
Yard improvement and Service facilities installed, 45%E = $170,970
Land, 4% E = $15,197
Total direct plant cost (D) = $1,117,004
Indirect costs
Engineering and Supervision, 10 % of D = $111,700
Construction expenses & Contractors fee’s 12% of D =$134,040
Contingency, 6% of FCI = $0.06FCI
Total indirect plant cost (I) =$111,700+ $134,040+ $ 0.06FCI
Total direct and indirect cost, D+I =$1,117,004+ $111,700+ $134,040+ $ 0.06FCI
Fixed capital investment = D+I
FCI = $1,362,744 + $ 0.06FCI
=> FCI – 0.06FCI = $1,362,744
$ 1,362,744
FCI =
0.94
= $1,449,728
Therefore total indirect cost = $111,700+ $134,040+ $ 0.06FCI

39
 = $111,700+$134,040+0.06 *$1,449,728
= $332,724
TCI=FCI+WC, since working capital cost= (10-20) % of total capital investment
TCI =FCI+0.12TCI
$ 1,449,728
TCI=FCI/0.88 = = $1,647,418
0.88
WC = TCI – FCI
= $1,647,418 - $1,449,728
= $197,690
6.3 Total Product Cost
Manufacturing cost
Manufacturing cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.
A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)
i. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of calculation-about
10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for building value for buildings)
Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery
= 0.1* $1,449,728 = $144,973
ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment) Consider the local taxes of 2% of fixed
capital investment i.e. Local Taxes = 0.02×$1,449,728 = $28,995
iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment) Consider the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed
capital investment i.e. Insurance = 0.006×$1,449,728 = $8,698
Thus, Fixed Charges =depreciation +local taxes +insurance
Fixed Charges = $144,973+$28,995+$8,698
= $182,666
B. Direct Production Cost:
Let, the total product cost be TPC
Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost). Consider the cost of raw materials = 12% of
total product cost
Raw material cost = $0.12TPC
Operating Labor (OL): (10-20% of total product cost).
Consider the cost of operating labor = 12% of total product cost

40
 = $0.12TPC
Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labor (DS & CL): (10-25% of OL).
Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labor = 10% of OL
Direct supervisory and clerical labor cost = $0.10* TPC
Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost).
Consider the cost of Utilities = 10% of total product cost.
Utilities cost =$0.10 * TPC
Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment).
Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 3% of fixed capital investment.
Maintenance and repair cost (M &R) = 0.03*FCI
= 0.03*$1,449,728
= $43,492
Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)
Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 12% of M & R
Operating supplies cost = 0.12*$43,492 = $5,219
Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of OL) Consider the Laboratory charges = 10% of OL
(OL = 0.12TPC)
Laboratory charges = $0.012TPC
Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost).
Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 1% of total product cost
Patent and Royalties cost = $0.01 * TPC
Thus, Direct Production Cost (DPC) = Operating Labor (OL) ($0.12TPC) + Direct supervisory
and clerical labor cost ($0.10* TPC) +Utilities cost ($0.10 * TPC) +Laboratory charges
($0.012TPC) +Patent and Royalties cost ($0.01 * TPC) + raw materials cost (0.12TPC) +
operating supply cost + M&R
DPC = 0.12TPC + 0.1TPC +0.1TPC + 0.012TPC + 0.01TPC + 0.12TPC +$5,219 + $43,492
= 0.462TPC +$5,219 + $43,492
= 0.462TPC + $48,711
Plant overhead Costs:
(50-70% of Operating labor, supervision, and maintenance or 5-15% of total product cost);
includes for the following: general plant upkeep and overhead, payroll overhead, packaging,

41
medical services, safety and protection, restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories, and storage
facilities.
Consider the plant overhead cost = 5-15% of total product cost
Plant overhead cost = $0.06 * TPC
Thus, Manufacturing cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead costs.
Manufacturing cost = 0.462TPC + $48,711 + $182,666 + $0.06 * TPC
= 0.522TPC +$231,377
General expenses:
General expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and
development costs
Administrative costs :( 2 – 6% of total product cost)
Consider the Administrative costs = 3% of total product cost
Administrative costs = 0.03 * TPC
Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); this includes costs for sales
offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising. Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 4% of
total product cost.
Distribution and selling costs = 0.04 * TPC
Research and Development costs :( about 5% of total product cost).
Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost.
Research and development costs = 0.05 * TPC
General expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs + research and
development costs.
General Expenses = 0.12TPC
Total Product cost = Manufacturing cost + General Expenses
TPC = 0.522TPC +$231,377 + 0.12TPC
$ 231,377
TPC = = $646,304
0.358
Gross earning/ income
Total Income =unit selling price × Quantity of product manufactured
Quantity of product manufactured = 9926.4kg/year
sp. gravity of essential oil = 0.882

42
 Density of E.oil = 882kg/m3
9926.4 kg / yr
Quantity of product manufactured =
882 kg /m3
= 11.25442m3/yr (11254.42Lit/yr)

Total Income = $100/Lit × (11254.42Lit /yr)

= $1,125,442
Gross income = Total Income – Total Product Cost
= $1125, 442- $646,304
= $479,138
Gross income including depreciation = Gross income – depreciation
(FCI – Salvage value ,V S)
Depreciation = assume VS = 0 and life period = 10 yrs
Life period
$ 1449728−0
Depreciation = = $144,973
10
Gross income including depreciation =$479,138 - $144,973
= $334165
Let the Tax rate be 35%
Net Profit = Gross income including depreciation (1- Tax rate)
Net Profit =$334,165(1 – 0.35)
= $217,207
11
Average net profit = (1/ N ) ∑ Npi
1

= (1/10)10*$217,207
= $217,207
6.4 Profitability standard
a. Minimum acceptable rate of return (MAR)
Minimum acceptable rate of return (MAR) for new capacity with established corporate with low
levels of risk =12%
b. Rate of Return on investment:
Net profit
Rate of return = ( ×100
Total product investment

43
 $ 217,207
Rate of Return = ×100
1,647,418
Rate of Return = 13.2%
Since ROI≥MAR ↔13.2% ¿ 12%, the project is feasible
c. Pay back and Pay back reference
Pay back
depreciable FCI
Pb =
avg net profit / yr +avg depreciation/ yr
( FCI−V S )
Pb =
avg net profit / yr +avg depreciation/ yr
($ 1449728 – 0)
Pb= = 4yrs.
$ 217,207+ $ 144,973
Pay back reference:
0.85
Pbref =
MAR+0.85/n
0.85
=
0.12+0.85/10
= 4.15year
Therefore, Pbref¿Pb, 4.15¿ 4, so the project is acceptable
d. Net present worth (NPW)

10
n
NPW = ∑ (1+i) (NPj + dj +recj) – TCI
1

NPjavg = $217,207 & djavg = $144,973

Annual cash flow(R) = NPjavg + djavg

R = $362,180

R (1+i)n−1
P= n + recovery ((1+i)−n
i(1+i)

recj =salvage value + working capital

= 0 + $197,690

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 = $197,690

$ 362,180(1+ 0.12)10−1
P= 10 + $197,690 (1+0.12)−10 , where i = MAR = 12%
0.12(1+0.12)

P = $3,018,164+ $63,651
= $3081815
Therefore NPW = P– TCI
= $3,081,815 -$1,647,418
= $1,434,397

Since the value is positive the investment is acceptable and feasible.

6.5 PLANT LOCATION

We want to erect the plant on the southern nation’s nationalities regional state (SNNRS) capital
city of Hawassa.
The reasons what we selected this place is due to the following:-
 Cheap and high availability of raw material.
 High availability of water supply.
 High availability of labor force.
 Accessibility of transportation.
 Availability of land.
 Good climate

6.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS

During the extraction of essential oil there are some gaseous and liquid wastes those may harm
the environment. These emissions are to be arising from unit operations of raw material
preparation and steam distillation.
The major emissions found in extraction of ginger essential oil plant are:
 The volatile of spent ginger arise from distiller and
 Waste water from many unit operations
It is better to use pollution control system to reduce the volatile of spent ginger from the
extraction process. And also waste water has to be controlled by waste water treatment method.

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A more sophisticated form of process control involves using a continuous monitoring system and
feedback control. In such a system, process parameters are monitored, and the information is sent
to a computer. The computer is then used to calculate ginger consumption rates through material
balance techniques.
This type of system is feasible, but it is difficult to design and implement.
Such enhanced process control measures can suppress spent ginger formation from 75 to 95
percent. This is the best option to take measure to prevent environmental pollutants not to be
occurring than using end of pipe measurements after they formed.
Generally the environmental impact assessment of this plant has many advantages including
addition of value from recovered the ginger left during extraction which has high starch, some
amount of protein and fibers content which are mainly use as animals feed, and implementation
of environmentally friendly plant which don’t violates the environmental laws and regulations.

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 CONCLUSION
The significance of ginger essential oil is for physiological activity, medicinal, cosmetics and
fragrances. Therefore, the ginger essential oil has broad prospects for application in food and
cosmetics industries. In other hand, the ginger flavor is containing aromatic and pungent
component which is important in the flavor industries.
Steam distillation is the most common method of extracting oils and it is the preferred method
for all essential oils produced in large quantity. Direct steam distillation is the most efficient

46
method. The steam extracts most of the essential oil and hence, this method is most economical
and quick.
The recovery of both aromatic and pungent component is at the same time has not been possible
by conventional separation process. To recover both components steam distillation is used.

7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
From the limitations of the equipment stated, we here by recommend the following:
 To get enough ginger oil, steam distillation should be functioned.
 To analyses the essential oil from raw material by GC should be available and with other
quality parameters like specific density, acidic value etc.
The next generations who are volunteers to keep their project on the similar topic to use this
paper as corner stone for their work should improve our limitations to erect this type of plant for
the fulfillment of the current needs of societies.

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REFERENCES

1. Microsoft Encarta, 2008

2. Wikipedia 2010
3. Nooramiza Binti Amiril ,”(Kurt,2006)”,Optimization of essential oil extraction, October
2006
4. McCabe, Smith & Harriott, 2001
5. Richard M. Felder, Elementary principles of chemical process, 3rd edition, 81-89.

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6. Max S.Peters, Klauss D. Timmerhaus, Plant design and economics for Chemical
Engineers, 4th edition, 150 – 295.
7. http://matche.com/EquipCost/index.htm (Matches: Prices in 2014)

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