SEE2101 Engineering Thermofluids I

Heat Conduction and Exchange

Introduction

Heat transfer is a discipline of thermofluids that concerns the transfer of thermal energy (heat). In
this lab, you will study heat conduction in metal, and heat exchange between two water streams
in a heat exchanger. This lab involves using two sets of experimental equipment. Heat conduction
is heat transfer through solids or stationary fluids across a temperature gradient. In solids, atoms
are not free to move, heat transfer occurs through atom vibrations (for both metals and insulators)
and electron motions (for metals). Here, you will use the heat conduction experimental
equipment to analyze the temperature change in the brass metal and its thermal conductivity.

On the other hand, a heat exchanger allows exchange of heat from one fluid to another without
mixing them. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating,
power generation and chemical processing. There are different designs of heat exchangers. In this
experiment, you will study the tubular heat exchanger. Two of the common settings of fluid flow
in heat exchangers are counter-current flow and co-current flow. In the counter-current flow
setting, the hot and the cold fluids flow in the opposite direction in the heat exchanger. In the
cocurrent flow setting, the fluids flow in same direction.

Exercise 1: Heat conduction in metal across a temperature gradient

Objective: To apply knowledge in heat conduction to analyze the temperature gradient in the
brass metal and its thermal conductivity.

Equipment:

Overview

Figure 1 shows the equipment used in this experiment. You will use the Armfield HT10XC
Computer Compatible Heat Transfer Service Unit and the HT11C Computer Compatible Linear
Heat Conduction accessory.

Figure 1. The Armfield HT10XC Computer Compatible Heat Transfer Service Unit (right) and
the HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction accessory (left).
Figure 2 shows a schematic picture of the HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction
accessory. It comprises heating and cooling sections which can be clamped with an
interchangeable intermediate section forming a metal wall. In this experiment, the metal is brass.
The temperature difference created by the application of heat to one side of the metal wall and
cooling at the other side results in the flow of heat linearly through the metal wall by conduction.

Heated section

The heated section (7 in Figure 2) is manufactured from 25 mm diameter cylindrical brass bar
with an electric heating element (6 in Figure 2) installed at one end. The power supplied to the
heating element can be varied and measured using HT10XC.

Cooled section

The cooled section (8 in Figure 2) is manufactured from 25 mm diameter cylindrical brass bar to
match the heating section and cooled at one end by water passing under the section.

Intermediate section

In this experimental the intermediate is made of a 30 mm long brass section (5 in Figure 2) of the
same diameter as the heating and cooling sections (25 mm diameter) and fitted with two
thermocouples at the same intervals (15 mm).

Thermocouples

Three thermocouples (T1, T2 and T3) are positioned along the heated section at uniform intervals
of 15mm. Three thermocouples (T6, T7 and T8) are positioned along the cooling section at
uniform intervals of 15mm. Two thermocouples (T4 and T5) are positioned along the brass
intermediate section, also at 15mm intervals. The thermocouples are connected to HT10XC to
measure the temperature at different positions.

Figure 2. Schematic picture of the HT11C Computer Compatible Linear Heat Conduction
accessory.
Procedures

1) Open the control software in the computer connected to the equipment.

2) Set the flow rate of the cooling water to 1.5 litres/min using the control box on the
software mimic diagram window.
3) Set the heater voltage to 9 volts using the control software.
 4) Allow the HT11C to stabilize by monitoring the temperatures on the software mimic
diagram screen.
5) When the temperatures are stable, take turns to manually put down the values T1, T2, T3,
T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, V, I, Fw. Multiple samples should be taken.
6) Set the heater voltage to 12 Volts. Allow the HT11C to stabilize then repeat the above
readings.

Theory

Provided that the heated, intermediate and cooled sections are clamped tightly together, so that
the end faces are in good thermal contact, the three sections can be considered to be one
continuous wall of uniform cross section and material.

According to Fourier’s law of heat conduction, rate of steady heat conduction through a wall is
proportional to the temperature difference across the wall and the heat transfer area, but is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the wall.
•
𝛥𝑇
𝑄conduction =−𝑘𝐴 𝛥𝑥 Eq. 1

k is the thermal conductivity of the material considered. The negative sign indicates that heat
goes from high to low temperature. Table 1 discusses the symbols for the experimental data.
Table 2 shows dimensions of the equipment important in your calculations and analysis. Table 3
shows the formula used in different calculations in the lab report.

Table 1. Definition of the symbols of the experimental data.

Table 2. Dimensions of the equipment important in the calculations and analysis.

Table 3. Formula used in different calculations in the lab report.

Questions:

1. Calculate the average Q, ∆Thot, ∆Tint, ∆Tcold, khot, kint and kcold from your samples for both 9
V and 12 V settings, and show the results in a table. In the table, you should also show
the standard errors.
2. Compare the calculated values of the thermal conductivity of the brass in the three
sections at the same voltage (ie. heat flow) setting.
3. Compare the calculated value for the thermal conductivity of brass in the three sections at
different voltage setting.
4. Discuss if the standard errors from the samples have signficant effects on your
comparison in Question (2) and (3) above. Also discuss other possible sources of
discrepancies.
5. Plot the temperature (T) against position (x) along the brass metal for the two voltage
settings. Please also include the error bar for the temparatures in the plot and fit the data
to two straight lines. Comment on how well the fitting it.
6. Explain the difference of the slopes. Why should the temperature profiles be straight

lines? Conclusions

You have applied your knowledge in heat conduction based on the Fourier law to relate the
temperature difference, heat transfer rate and distance in a the brass metal of constant
crosssectional area and thermal conductivity.
Exercise 2: Fluid to fluid heat transfer in the tubular heat exchanger

Objective: To demonstrate heating or cooling by transfer of heat from one fluid stream to another
in a heat exchanger (fluid to fluid transfer), and to perform an energy balance study in a tubular
heat exchanger.

Equipment:

To perform this experiment, you will use the Armfield HT30XC service unit and the HT31
Tubular Heat Exchanger as shown in Figure 3. The tubular heat exchanger is consisted of two
concentric tubes. One stream of water goes through the inner tube and the other stream of water
goes through the outer tube. Heat is exchanged between the two streams without mixing them.
Figure 3. The Armfield HT30XC service unit and the HT31 Tubular Heat Exchanger.

Procedures

1.) Run the HT31 software for the service unit used and select the counter-current flow
setting.
2.) Set the hot water inlet temperature to approximately 45 ᵒC above the cold water inlet
temperature (e.g. if T4 = 15 ᵒC, set T1 to 60 ᵒC)
3.) Adjust the cold water setting so that the cold water flow rate (Fcold) is 1 litre/min.
4.) Click on the button for the hot water flow rate controller. Set the controller to Automatic.
Set FHot to 1 litre/min.
5.) Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize by monitoring the temperature using the sensor
displays on the software screen.
6.) Take turns to manually put down the values: T1, T3, T4, T6, F hot and Fcold on the data
sheet.
7.) Repeat Steps 2 to 5 with (FHot=1, Fcold=2), (FHot=1, Fcold=2.7), (FHot=2, Fcold=1), (FHot=2,
Fcold=2) , (FHot=2, Fcold=2.7). The unit for the flow rates here is again litre/min.

Theory: Any temperature difference across the metal tube wall results in the transfer of heat
between the two fluid streams. The hot water flowing through the inner tube will be cooled and
the cold water flowing through the outer annulus will be heated. For this exercise, the heat
exchanger is configured with the two streams flowing in opposite directions (counter-current
flow) as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Flow directions for the counter-current flow configuration.

Mass flow rate (qm) = Volume flow rate (qv)  Density of fluid (ρ)(kg/s)

Heat power (Q) = Mass flow rate (qm) x Specific heat (Cp)  change in temperature (∆T)

Therefore:

Heat power emitted from hot fluid Qe[W] = qm(h).(Cp)h. (T1 – T3)

Heat power absorbed by cold fluid Qa[W] = qm(c).(Cp)c.(T6 –T4)

(Note: In the calculation of Qe and Qa, densities and the specific heats are needed. Water at
different temperatures can have different densities and specific heats. For each setting, you
should take the mean temperature of the hot water and of the cold water. Then you use them to
obtain the densities and specific heats using the tables at the end of the manuals through
interpolation.)

Heat power lost (or gained) Q f[W] = Qe – Qa Overall

heat transfer ratio (r) = 𝑄𝑎

𝑄𝑒

Theoretically, Qe and Qa should be equal. In practice, they can differ.

Questions:

1. For each set of reading, calculate and shown in a table:

a. Average reduction in hot fluid temperature ∆Thot = T1 –T3
b. Average increase in cold fluid temperature ∆Tcold = T6 –T4
c. Average Fcold
d. Standard errors of ∆Thot , ∆Tcold and Fcold
2. Plot with the error bars ∆Thot against Fcold for the two hot water flow rates.
3. Plot with the error bars ∆Tcold against Fcold for the two hot water flow rates.
4. Comment on the changes in ∆T hot and ∆Tcold when the flow rate of the cold water
increases.
5. For the same cold water flow rate, compare and comment on the changes in ∆T hot and
∆Tcold at the two hot water flow rates.
6. Calculate the average Qe, Qa, Qf and r for the six flow rate settings, and estimate their
uncertainties.
7. Compare the heat power emitted from/absorbed by the two fluid streams at the difference
flow rates. Comment on the effects of the increase in the cold water flow rate on Q e and
Qa.
8. Explain any difference between Qe and Qa in your results.
Conclusion

You have demonstrated how using a simple heat exchanger, a stream of cold fluid can be heated
by indirect contact with another fluid stream at a higher temperature. This transfer of heat also
results in cooling of the hot fluid.

Exercise 3: Co-current and Counter-current Flow

Objective: To demonstrate the difference between co-current flow (flows in the same direction)
and counter-current flow (flows in the opposite direction), and the effect of the flow type on the
heat transferred, temperature efficiencies and temperature profiles using a tubular heat exchanger.
Equipment: Same as Ex. 2

Theory:

For counter-current operation (see Ex. 2)

From the previous exercise:

Reduction in the hot water temperature ∆T hot = T1 –T3 Increase

in the cold water temperature ∆Tcold = T6 –T4

Heat power emitted from hot water Qe[W] = qm(h).(Cp)h. (T1 – T3)

A useful measure of the heat exchange performance is the temperature efficiency of each fluid
stream. The temperature change in each fluid stream is compared with the maximum temperature
difference between the two fluid streams, giving a comparison with a heat exchanger of infinite
size.
Temperature efficiency for hot water: ηh[%] = 𝑇 1−𝑇3
. 100
𝑇1−𝑇4

Temperature efficiency for cold water: ηc[%] = 𝑇 6−𝑇4

. 100
𝑇1−𝑇4

ηℎ + η𝑐
Mean Temperature efficiency: ηm[%] =
2

Co-current operation

When the service unit is configured for co-current operation, the hot and cold fluid streams flow
in the same direction across the heat transfer surface (ie. the two fluid streams enter the heat
exchanger at the same end) as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Flow directions for the co-current flow configuration.

Reduction in hot water temperature: ∆Thot = T3 –T1

Increase in cold water temperature: ∆Tcold = T6 –T4

Heat power emitted from hot water: Qe[W] = qm(h).(Cp)h. (T3 – T1) Temperature

efficiency for hot water: ηh[%] = 𝑇 3−𝑇1

. 100

𝑇3−𝑇4

Temperature efficiency for cold water: ηc[%] = 𝑇 6−𝑇4

. 100
𝑇3−𝑇4

ηℎ + η𝑐
Mean Temperature efficiency: ηm[%] =
2

Procedure: Change to the co-current configuration with the appropriate setting in the computer
software and repeat the previous experimental procedure for only (Fhot=1, Fcold=1). The unit of the
flow rate is again litre/min

Questions:

1. Estimate ∆Thot and ∆Tcold for the co-current flow estimate their uncertainty.
2. Calculate and compare the mean temperature efficiency for both counter-current and
cocurrent flows at Fhot=1, Fcold=1. Which flow setting do you expect to be more efficient?
Do your results agree with your expectation? Why?
3. If the cold water is now replaced by cooking oil at the same temperature and flow rate,
explain the effects on ∆Thot in the two settings.

Appendix:

Sample data spreadsheet for Exercise 1

Heater Heat T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
 Voltage current

Sample data spreadsheet for Exercise 2 and 3

Time Fcold T1 T3 T4 T6

Table A1. Specific heat capacity of water at 1bar pressure

T(C) Cp (kJ/kg K) T(C) Cp (kJ/kg K) T(C) Cp (kJ/kg K) T(C) Cp (kJ/kg K) T(C) Cp (kJ/kg K)
1 4.216018239 21 4.184121627 41 4.178551658 61 4.183204958 81 4.196375011
2 4.212885326 22 4.183496628 42 4.17857137 62 4.183664551 82 4.197252398
3 4.210012152 23 4.182919943 43 4.178614665 63 4.184145242 83 4.198150644
4 4.207375136 24 4.182388633 44 4.17868125 64 4.184646993 84 4.199069767
5 4.204952951 25 4.181900061 45 4.178770864 65 4.185169768 85 4.200009793
6 4.202726316 26 4.181451867 46 4.178883274 66 4.185713534 86 4.200970749
7 4.200677802 27 4.181041935 47 4.179018274 67 4.186278262 87 4.201952669
8 4.198791659 28 4.180668375 48 4.17917568 68 4.186863924 88 4.20295559
9 4.197053661 29 4.180329496 49 4.179355328 69 4.187470496 89 4.203979551
10 4.195450961 30 4.180023789 50 4.179557071 70 4.188097957 90 4.2050246
11 4.193971962 31 4.179749905 51 4.179780779 71 4.188746286 91 4.206090786
12 4.192606198 32 4.179506641 52 4.180026334 72 4.189415468 92 4.207178165
13 4.19134423 33 4.179292924 53 4.18029363 73 4.190105487 93 4.208286796
14 4.190177547 34 4.179107799 54 4.180582572 74 4.190816332 94 4.209416744
15 4.189098477 35 4.178950416 55 4.180893075 75 4.191547994 95 4.21056808
16 4.188100111 36 4.178820016 56 4.181225061 76 4.192300468 96 4.211740879
17 4.187176225 37 4.178715927 57 4.181578458 77 4.193073751 97 4.21293522
18 4.186321222 38 4.17863755 58 4.181953203 78 4.193867841 98 4.214151191
19 4.185530063 39 4.178584352 59 4.182349236 79 4.194682744 99 4.215388882
20 4.184798221 40 4.178555861 60 4.182766504 80 4.195518463

Table A2. Density of water at 1bar pressure

T(C) ρ (kg/m3) T(C) ρ (kg/m3) T(C) ρ (kg/m3) T(C) ρ (kg/m3) T(C) ρ (kg/m3)
1 999.9022887 21 997.9940355 41 991.8380111 61 982.6927259 81 971.1762101
2 999.9433034 22 997.772301 42 991.4449836 62 982.169543 82 970.5450739
3 999.9672713 23 997.5404913 43 991.0446935 63 981.640538 83 969.9089291
4 999.9747517 24 997.2988058 44 990.6372354 64 981.1057634 84 969.2678052
5 999.9662714 25 997.0474354 45 990.222701 65 980.5652701 85 968.6217312
6 999.9423271 26 996.7865633 46 989.8011792 66 980.0191077 86 967.9707347
7 999.9033877 27 996.5163649 47 989.3727561 67 979.4673244 87 967.314843
8 999.8498959 28 996.2370089 48 988.937515 68 978.909967 88 966.6540821
9 999.7822703 29 995.9486571 49 988.495537 69 978.3470812 89 965.9884775
10 999.7009071 30 995.6514651 50 988.0469006 70 977.7787113 90 965.3180537
11 999.6061814 31 995.3455825 51 987.5916818 71 977.2049005 91 964.6428345
12 999.4984486 32 995.0311533 52 987.1299548 72 976.6256906 92 963.9628429
13 999.3780459 33 994.7083162 53 986.6617911 73 976.0411224 93 963.2781011
14 999.2452937 34 994.3772047 54 986.1872607 74 975.4512356 94 962.5886306
15 999.1004961 35 994.0379477 55 985.706431 75 974.8560687 95 961.894452
16 998.9439425 36 993.6906692 56 985.219368 76 974.2556591 96 961.1955853
17 998.7759084 37 993.3354893 57 984.7261354 77 973.6500433 97 960.4920499
18 998.5966562 38 992.9725236 58 984.2267954 78 973.0392566 98 959.7838642
19 998.4064359 39 992.6018839 59 983.7214083 79 972.4233334 99 959.071046
20 998.2054864 40 992.2236782 60 983.2100328 80 971.8023071

Reference: The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam